Nucleic acids are fundamental biomolecules found in all living organisms, playing

critical roles in the storage and expression of genetic information. There are two
main types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Here's an overview of nucleic acids:

​ Sugar Molecule:
● In DNA, the sugar molecule is deoxyribose, while in RNA, it is ribose.
● Deoxyribose and ribose are pentose sugars, meaning they have five
carbon atoms in their ring structure.
​ Phosphate Group:
● Attached to the 5' carbon of the sugar molecule is a phosphate group.
● The phosphate group contains phosphorus bonded to four oxygen
atoms.
​ Nitrogenous Base:
● Attached to the 1' carbon of the sugar molecule is one of four
nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T) (in DNA only), cytosine (C),
guanine (G) in DNA; adenine (A), uracil (U) (replacing thymine), cytosine
(C), guanine (G) in RNA.
● Nitrogenous bases are organic molecules containing nitrogen atoms
that participate in hydrogen bonding with complementary bases.

Functions of Nucleic Acids:

​ Storage of Genetic Information: DNA serves as the primary storage molecule

for genetic information. It contains the instructions necessary for the
synthesis of proteins and the regulation of cellular activities.
​ Transmission of Genetic Information: During cell division, DNA is replicated
and transmitted to daughter cells to ensure the continuity of genetic
information.
​ Protein Synthesis: RNA molecules, particularly mRNA, serve as intermediaries
between DNA and protein synthesis. mRNA carries genetic information from
DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
​ Regulation of Gene Expression: RNA molecules, such as microRNAs
(miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), play important roles in
regulating gene expression by interfering with mRNA translation or stability.

Purines and pyrimidines are two categories of nitrogenous bases found in nucleic

acids, such as DNA and RNA. They are essential components of nucleotides, which

are the building blocks of nucleic acids.

Purines:

● Purines are heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds.

● They consist of a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring.
● Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are the two purine bases found in DNA and RNA.
● Both adenine and guanine have a double-ring structure.

Pyrimidines:

● Pyrimidines are also heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds.

● They consist of a six-membered ring.
● Thymine (T), cytosine (C), and uracil (U) are the pyrimidine bases found in
nucleic acids.
● Thymine is found exclusively in DNA, while uracil is found exclusively in RNA.
Cytosine is present in both DNA and RNA.
● Thymine and uracil have a single-ring structure, while cytosine has a
pyrimidine ring structure.

In summary, purines and pyrimidines are two classes of nitrogenous bases that play

crucial roles in the structure and function of nucleic acids. They participate in base

pairing, forming the genetic code, and are fundamental to processes like DNA

replication, transcription, and translation.

STRUCTURE OF DNA

The structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double helix, which was first
proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 based on the X-ray diffraction
data collected by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. The DNA molecule consists
of two long polynucleotide chains twisted around each other in a helical fashion.
Here are the key features of the DNA structure:

​ Double Helix: DNA is a double-stranded molecule, with two polynucleotide

chains running antiparallel to each other. The two strands twist around each
other to form a helical structure.
​ Nucleotides: Each polynucleotide chain is composed of nucleotides. A
nucleotide consists of three components:
● A phosphate group
● A deoxyribose sugar molecule
 ● One of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),
or guanine (G).
​ Base Pairing: The two DNA strands are held together by hydrogen bonds
between complementary nitrogenous bases. Adenine (A) pairs with thymine
(T) via two hydrogen bonds, while cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G) via three
hydrogen bonds. This complementary base pairing ensures that the
information on one strand is replicated accurately onto the other strand during
DNA replication.
​ Antiparallel Orientation: The two DNA strands run antiparallel to each other,
meaning they run in opposite directions. One strand runs in the 5' to 3'
direction, while the other runs in the 3' to 5' direction.
​ Major and Minor Grooves: The helical structure of DNA creates grooves along
its length. The major groove is wider and allows for easier access to the
nitrogenous bases, while the minor groove is narrower.
​ Twisting and Supercoiling: DNA molecules are subject to twisting and
supercoiling to fit into the confined space of the cell nucleus. Enzymes called
topoisomerases help relieve the strain caused by twisting and supercoiling.

RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a versatile molecule found in all living cells, playing crucial
roles in various biological processes. Here's an in-depth exploration of the structure
of RNA:

1. Single-Stranded Molecule:
● Unlike DNA, which is typically double-stranded, RNA is usually single-stranded.
● However, RNA molecules can fold back on themselves, forming secondary
structures through intramolecular base pairing.

2. Nucleotides:
● RNA is composed of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of the RNA
molecule.
● Each nucleotide consists of three components:
● A phosphate group
● A ribose sugar molecule
● One of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), or
guanine (G).

3. Sugar Molecule:
● The sugar molecule in RNA is ribose, which differs from the deoxyribose
sugar found in DNA by containing an additional oxygen atom.
 ● This ribose sugar gives RNA its name: ribonucleic acid.

4. Nitrogenous Bases:
● RNA contains the same nitrogenous bases as DNA, with the exception of
thymine (T).
● Instead of thymine, RNA contains uracil (U). Thus, the base pairs in RNA are
adenine (A) with uracil (U), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G).

5. Types of RNA:
● Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries genetic information from the DNA in the
nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs.
● Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers amino acids to the ribosome during protein
synthesis based on the mRNA sequence.
● Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): A structural and catalytic component of the ribosome,
where protein synthesis occurs.
● Other types of RNA include microRNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA),
and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), which play regulatory roles in gene
expression.

6. Folding and Secondary Structures:

● RNA molecules can adopt complex three-dimensional structures due to
intramolecular base pairing and other interactions.
● Secondary structures such as hairpin loops, stem-loop structures, and
pseudoknots are common in RNA molecules and are important for their
function.

7. Role in Protein Synthesis and Gene Regulation:

● RNA is essential for protein synthesis, serving as a messenger between DNA
and the ribosomes.
● mRNA carries the genetic information from the DNA to the ribosomes, where
it is translated into protein.
● Other types of RNA, such as miRNA and siRNA, play regulatory roles in gene
expression by interfering with mRNA translation or stability.

Understanding the structure of RNA is crucial for deciphering its functions in gene
expression, protein synthesis, and cellular regulation. RNA's ability to adopt diverse
structures and perform various functions makes it a central player in the intricate
machinery of the cell.
PROCESS OF DNA REPLICATION

The process of DNA replication is a fundamental mechanism by which cells ensure

the accurate transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.

Here's an overview of the steps involved in DNA replication:

​ Unwinding:
● The DNA double helix unwinds with the help of enzymes called
helicases.
● Helicases break the hydrogen bonds between the complementary base
pairs, separating the two strands of the DNA molecule.
​ Initiation:
● Replication begins at specific sites on the DNA molecule called origins
of replication.
● Enzymes called DNA polymerases bind to the DNA at these sites,
initiating the replication process.
​ Primer Synthesis:
● Before DNA polymerase can begin adding nucleotides to the new DNA
strand, a short RNA primer is synthesized.
● The RNA primer provides a starting point for DNA synthesis.
​ Elongation:
● DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the RNA primer,
synthesizing a new DNA strand.
● Nucleotides are added in a 5' to 3' direction, complementary to the
template strand.
​ Leading and Lagging Strand Synthesis:
● DNA synthesis occurs in opposite directions on the two template
strands.
● The leading strand is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction.
● The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously in short fragments
called Okazaki fragments.
​ Okazaki Fragment Processing:
● RNA primers in the Okazaki fragments are replaced with DNA
nucleotides by DNA polymerase.
● Gaps between the fragments are sealed by an enzyme called DNA
ligase, resulting in a continuous DNA strand.
​ Termination:
● Replication continues bidirectionally from the origin until the entire
DNA molecule is replicated.
 ● The process ends when replication forks from adjacent origins meet
each other.
​ Proofreading and Repair:
● DNA polymerases have proofreading capabilities to detect and correct
errors in nucleotide base pairing.
● DNA repair mechanisms further ensure the accuracy of the replicated
DNA.

The result of DNA replication is two identical DNA molecules, each containing one

original strand and one newly synthesized strand. This semi-conservative replication

ensures genetic fidelity and continuity across generations of cells.

PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION
The transcription process is a fundamental step in gene expression where genetic

information encoded in DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA). Here's a

simplified overview of the transcription process:

​ Initiation: Transcription begins with the binding of RNA polymerase, along with

transcription factors, to the promoter region of a gene on the DNA molecule.

The promoter region is a specific sequence of DNA that signals the start of

transcription.

​ Unwinding of DNA: RNA polymerase unwinds and separates the DNA double

helix in the region of the gene being transcribed. This creates a transcription

bubble where the RNA polymerase can access the DNA template strand.

​ Elongation: The RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand,

synthesizing a complementary mRNA strand. As it moves along, it adds

complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing mRNA strand based on the

sequence of the template DNA strand. Adenine (A) in DNA pairs with uracil (U)

in RNA, cytosine (C) in DNA pairs with guanine (G) in RNA, and so on.

​ Termination: Transcription continues until the RNA polymerase reaches a

termination signal in the DNA sequence. In prokaryotes, termination signals

 often involve the formation of a hairpin loop in the mRNA strand, which

causes the RNA polymerase to dissociate from the DNA template and release

the newly synthesized mRNA molecule. In eukaryotes, termination signals are

more complex and involve specific protein factors.

​ Processing (in eukaryotes): In eukaryotic cells, the newly synthesized

pre-mRNA undergoes several processing steps before it becomes mature

mRNA. These steps include capping of the 5' end with a modified guanine

nucleotide (the 5' cap), addition of a poly-A tail to the 3' end, and removal of

non-coding sequences (introns) through RNA splicing to produce a mature

mRNA molecule.

​ Export: The mature mRNA molecule is then transported out of the cell nucleus

and into the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis

during translation.

Overall, transcription is a tightly regulated process that plays a crucial role in gene

expression and the synthesis of proteins, which are essential for the structure,

function, and regulation of cells and organisms.

PROCESS OF TRANSLATION
The process of translation is a fundamental step in protein synthesis, where

the information encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to build a

polypeptide chain. Here's an overview of the translation process:

​ Initiation: Translation begins with the binding of the small ribosomal

subunit to the mRNA molecule. In prokaryotes, this binding occurs at

the Shine-Dalgarno sequence, while in eukaryotes, it occurs at the 5'

cap. Then, the initiator tRNA carrying the amino acid methionine (or

N-formylmethionine in prokaryotes) binds to the start codon AUG (or

 sometimes GUG) on the mRNA. The large ribosomal subunit then joins

the complex, forming the initiation complex.

​ Elongation: During elongation, the ribosome moves along the mRNA in

the 5' to 3' direction. Each codon of the mRNA is read by

complementary base pairing with a specific transfer RNA (tRNA)

molecule carrying the corresponding amino acid. The ribosome

catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino

acids, transferring the growing polypeptide chain from the tRNA in the P

site to the amino acid attached to the tRNA in the A site. The ribosome

then translocates along the mRNA, moving the tRNA from the P site to

the E site, and the tRNA from the A site to the P site, creating an empty

A site for the next incoming tRNA.

​ Termination: Translation continues until a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or

UGA) is encountered on the mRNA. When a stop codon enters the A site

of the ribosome, release factors bind to the ribosome, causing the

polypeptide chain to be released from the tRNA in the P site. The

ribosome dissociates into its subunits, and the newly synthesized

polypeptide is released into the cytoplasm.

​ Post-translation modifications: After translation, the newly synthesized

polypeptide chain may undergo various post-translational modifications

to become a functional protein. These modifications include cleavage of

signal peptides, addition of chemical groups like phosphate or sugar

molecules, folding into its native three-dimensional structure, and

assembly into larger protein complexes.

Overall, translation is a highly coordinated and regulated process that plays a

crucial role in synthesizing the diverse array of proteins needed for cellular structure,

function, and [Link] can have various effects on protein synthesis:

​ EFFECT OF MUTATION ON PROTEIN SYNTHESIS-

​ Silent Mutations: Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence of

the protein. These are called silent mutations and usually have no effect on

protein synthesis.

​ Missense Mutations: These mutations change one amino acid in the protein

sequence. Depending on the specific amino acid change, missense mutations

can have minor to significant effects on protein structure and function.

​ Nonsense Mutations: Nonsense mutations introduce a premature stop codon

in the mRNA sequence, leading to the premature termination of protein

synthesis. This often results in the production of a truncated and usually

non-functional protein.

​ Frameshift Mutations: Frameshift mutations occur when nucleotides are

inserted or deleted in the DNA sequence, causing a shift in the reading frame

during translation. This alters the entire sequence of amino acids following

the mutation and often leads to the production of a non-functional protein.

​ Splice Site Mutations: Mutations in the regions that regulate RNA splicing can

disrupt the removal of introns or the joining of exons, leading to abnormal

mRNA transcripts and potentially non-functional or abnormal proteins.

In summary, mutations can disrupt protein synthesis by altering the sequence of

amino acids in the protein, prematurely terminating translation, or causing significant

changes in protein structure and function. These disruptions can lead to various

genetic disorders, diseases, or abnormalities, depending on the role of the protein in

cellular processes.