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Commercial Flowers
— Volume 5 —
THE EDITORS
Professor T.K. Bose obtained his M.Sc. (Ag.) and Ph.D. degree from Calcutta University,
West Bengal, India. Trained at the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, UK. Former Secretary
of the Agri-Horticultural Society of India; Project Coordinator, All India Coordinated
Floriculture Improvement Project (ICAR); Professor and Head, Department of
Horticulture; Dean, Faculty of Agriculture; Director of Research, Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswavidyalaya, West Bengal; Member, State Agriculture Commission, West
Bengal; Member of Scientific Advisory Committees of ICAR, CSIR (Govt. of India)
and Government of West Bengal. Awarded (D.Sc.) Honoris Causa from OUAT,
Bhubaneshwar and UBKV, Coochbehar, India. Guided 45 Ph.D. students, published
more than 250 research papers and authored 30 books on horticultural crops.
Dr. Chenna Reddy Aswath obtained his B.Sc. (Hort), M.Sc. (Hort.) in Floriculture from
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru and Ph.D. degree in Biotechnology from
Guwhati University, Assam. Serving as Principal Scientist in ICAR-IIHR, Bengaluru
and has made significant contributions in the field of Floriculture and Biotechnology.
Recipient of “Dr BP Pal Best Scientist Award for Agriculture” from NABS, Chennai,
became FELLOW of the NABS, Chennai, ISOH, New Delhi and SAB, Dharwad, CHAI,
New Delhi. Received the 2012 SAB Award of Excellence in Horticultural Biotechnology.
Recipient of Brain pool Post-Doctoral Fellowship from South Korea Science Federation
for the outstanding research contributions in Horticultural Biotechnology. His short
term fellowship in Japan under INSA has recognized him among the Orchid tissue
culture group. Published more than 110 research papers besides several books. Guided more than 10 post-
graduate students.

Dr. Tarak Nath Saha graduated in Agriculture from Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), obtained his Masters and Doctoral degree in Horticulture
with specialization in Floriculture from India Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),
New Delhi. Presently working as Senior Scientist at ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural
Research, Pune. He has an experience of more than 12 year in research, teaching
and extension, besides coordinating work of All India Coordinated Research Project
(AICRP) on Floriculture. He has contributed 25 research papers, 41 technical articles,
5 book chapters, 20 technical bulletins, 6 folders, besides in the editorial team of 30
Annual Reports and 10 AICRP workshop proceedings. Developed one variety and
registered one genetic stocks of tuberose with ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi. He is actively
involved in PG teaching; recognized as faculty of MPKV, Rahuri (also at IARI, New
Delhi 2009-11) and guided more than 5 students in Floriculture as advisory.
Dr. Reeta Bhatia is working as senior scientist at the Division of Floriculture and
Landscaping, ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. She has more
than 13 years of research and teaching experience in the field of floriculture. She has
obtained her Master’s degree from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana and
doctoral degree from Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. She has been
awarded with the prestigious Endeavor Research Fellowship by the Government of
Australia and pursued her postdoctoral research at the University of Western Australia.
She has an excellent academic and research career and awarded with several medals.
She has published more than 65 research papers in the reputed high impact scientific
journals and written more than 30 review/popular/scientific articles. She is also serving
as editor for the Journal of Ornamental Horticulture.
Dr. K. Dutta obtained his M.Sc. (Hort.) from CCS Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar, Haryana and Ph.D. from Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, West Bengal.
Acting as Assistant Secretary of The Agri-Horticultural Society of India, Kolkata, West
Bengal. Recipient of Inspire Fellowship from Department of Science and Technology,
New Delhi. Published several scientific papers in national journals on different aspect
of horticulture particularly in tissue culture and written book chapters on nursery
management and jasmine. Associated with micropropagation of different of horticultural
crops during last 7 years.

Debmala Mukherjee is persuing Ph.d. in Department of Vegetable Science from Bidhan

Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV), West Bengal, India. She has completed her
B.Sc. (Horticulture) and M.Sc. (Vegetable Science) from BCKV and now continuing
her research under All India Coordinated Vegetable Improvement Project (AICVIP) at
Kalyani, West Bengal centre. She was recipient of the Bayer Merit Scholarship during her
M.Sc. programme and awarded with ICAR- National Talent Scholarship in the discipline
of Horticulture and also qualified NET-2019 (National Eligibility Test) conducted by
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in the discipline of Vegetable Science.
She has published more than 5 research publications in several national and international
journals of repute and has written three book chapters mainly focused on seed production
of vegetables and also has published a number of articles in several journals.
 Commercial Flowers
— Volume 5 —
— Senior Editor —

C. Aswath
Division of Flower and Medicinal Crops
ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Bengaluru 560089, Karnataka, India

— Editors —

T.K. Bose
Faculty of Horticulture
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya
West Bengal 741 252, India

Tarak Nath Saha Reeta Bhatia

ICAR-Directorate of Division of Floriculture and
Floricultural Research, Landscaping,
Pune 411005 ICAR- Indian Agricultural
Maharashtra, India Research Institute
New Delhi 110012

Koushik Dutta Debmala Mukherjee

The Agri-Horticultural Society of India Faculty of Horticulture,
1, Alipore Road, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya
Kolkata 700027 West Bengal 741252, India
West Bengal, India

2021
Daya Publishing House®
A Division of

Astral International Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi – 110002
© 2021 T.K. Bose
Third Revised & Illustrated edition 2021

Publisher’s Note:
Every possible effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this book is accurate at
the time of going to press, and the publisher and author cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions,
however caused. No responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person acting, or refraining from action,
as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by the editor, the publisher or the author. The
Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in the book. The contents of this work are
intended to further general scientific research, understanding and discussion only. Readers should consult with
a specialist where appropriate.
Every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material used in this book, if any. The author
and the publisher will be grateful for any omission brought to their notice for acknowledgement in the future
editions of the book.
All Rights reserved under International Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written consent of the publisher and the copyright owner.

Cataloging in Publication Data--DK

Courtesy: D.K. Agencies (P) Ltd. <[email protected]>
Commercial flowers / senior editor, C. Aswath ; editors, T.K.
Bose [and four others]. -- Third revised edition.
Volumes cm
Contributed articles.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-93-54610-21-9 (HB)
1. Floriculture. 2. Flowers--Pictorial works. I. Aswath,
C. (Principal scientist at the Indian Institute of Horticulture
Research), editor. II. Bose, T. K., editor.
LCC SB405.C66 2021 | DDC 635.9 23

Published by
: Daya Publishing House®
A Division of
Astral International Pvt. Ltd.
– ISO 9001:2015 Certified Company –
4736/23, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj
New Delhi-110 002
Ph. 011-43549197, 23278134
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.astralint.com
 From the Desk of
Prof. T.K. Bose

The undersigned had initiated the publications entitled ‘Fruits: Tropical and
Sub-tropical’, ‘Vegetable Crops’ and ‘Commercial Flowers’, one volume each in the
1980’s in collaboration with co-editors, humbly expresses from the core of his heart
that the updated revised editions of the above mentioned publications with colour
illustrations in thirteen volumes which was planned in June, 2020, are being printed
from January this year, a rare event in Horticultural Science has been possible by
the blessing of Almighty God, with the cooperation of dedicated horticulturists as
editors and contributors.

T.K. Bose
Editor
 Preface to the Third Edition

The first edition of the book entitled ‘Commercial Flowers’ published in 1989,
reprinted in 1993 and 1998 was greatly appreciated and proved valuable scientific
review of commercially important flowers, to the students, teachers, researchers
and extension specialists in horticulture in general and floriculture in particular,
in different parts of the world. The book was revised in 2002 with the same title
in two volumes due to its increasing demand, which contained updated scientific
information of commercially grown flower crops and considered as valuable
contribution on the subject. After about 18 years from the last revised publication
in 2002, voluminous information pertaining to crop improvement, production,
protection, postharvest management, biotechnology has been generated necessitating
further revision of the existing chapters and inclusion of more ornamentals plants
of commercial importance in four volumes, with relevant colour illustrations.
Fifth volume in this edition includes chapters on Digitalis, Delphinium,
Calceolaria, Pansy, Statice, Impatiens, Catharanthus, Gazania, Pelargonium, Iris,
Hemerocallis, Spathiphyllum, Haemanthus, Eucharis, Pancratium, Habranthus,
Shrubs- beautiful and perennial ornamental plants, Hydrangea, Hibiscus,
Bougainvillea, Camellia, Azalea (Rhododrendron), Poinsettia, Gardenia, Fuchsia,
Ixora, Mussaenda, Adenium, Calliandra, Crossandra and Solidago with relevant
colour illustrations, covering more than 850 pages.
Apart from own collection of photographs, editors have also taken some
photographs which are in public domain from different websites, as far as possible.
Therefore, we acknowledge with enormous thanks to all State Agricultural
Universities and Research Institutes under Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi, India; Public and Private International Agricultural Institutes across
the world for using photographs from their websites to make this book a valuable
source of knowledge for the readers. We think images can be powerful teaching
 viii

tools, as illustrations to in-class lectures, or for studying concepts outside of the

classroom. We also think that identification of flower crops, their importance and
uses, species and cultivars, methods of propagation, cultivation practices including
greenhouse cultivation, diseases and pests, harvesting and post harvest technology
and achievement of biotechnology, with the help of suitable illustrations in a
consolidated manner will make a dent for the students, researchers and teachers
of floriculture and ornamental horticulture.
We sincerely thank the contributors for preparing updated revised manuscripts.
Our thanks are due to Shri Prateek Mittal, Director, Astral International (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, for his keen interest in bringing out this publication.

Kolkata T.N. Saha

Reeta Bhatia
K. Dutta
Debmala Mukherjee
 Contents

From the Desk of Prof. T.K. Bose v

Preface to the Third Edition vii
List of Contributors xv
1. Digitalis 1
Digitalis 1 – 1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and
History – 4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Morphology – 6.0 Species and Cultivars –
7.0 Genetics and Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation –
10.0 Soil and Climate – 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases and Pests –
13.0 Harvesting and Postharvest Management – 14.0 Biotechnology –
15.0 References.

2. Delphinium 31
1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.

3. Calceolaria 59
1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and Distribution –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Morphology – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics
and Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 9.2.0 Vegetative
Propagation – 10.0 Soil and Climate – 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases and
Pests – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.
 x

4. Pansy 87
1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.

5. Statice 121
1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and Morphology –
4.0 Species and Cultivars – 5.0 Genetics and Breeding – 6.0 Growth and Flowering
– 7.0 Propagation – 8.0 Soil and Climate – 9.0 Cultivation – 10.0 Diseases and
Pests – 11.0 Harvesting and Postharvest Management – 12.0 Biotechnology –
13.0 References.

6. Impatiens walleriana 163

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and Distribution –
4.0 Species and Cultivars – 5.0 Genetics and Breeding – 6.0 Growth and Flowering
– 7.0 Propagation – 8.0 Soil and Climate – 8.2.0 Climate – 9.0 Cultivation
– 10.0 Diseases and Pests – 11.0 Harvesting and Postharvest Management –
12.0 Biotechnology – 13.0 References.

7. Impatiens balsamina 193

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and Distribution –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases, Pests and Disorders – 12.0 Harvesting and
Postharvest Management – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.

8. Catharanthus roseus 215

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy and Botany – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding
– 7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Cultivation – 10.0 Diseases
and Pests – 11.0 Biotechnology – 12.0 References.

9. Gazania 237
1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Morphology – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics and
Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Soil and Climate
– 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases and Pests – 13.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 14.0 Biotechnology – 15.0 References.

10. Pelargonium 257

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
 xi

10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.

11. Iris 293

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy and Morphology – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and
Breeding – 7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0. Soil and Climate
– 10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.

12. Hemerocallis 325

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Morphology – 5.0 Taxonomy – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics and
Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Soil and Climate
– 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases and Pests – 13.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 14.0 Biotechnology – 15.0 References.

13. Spathiphyllum 365

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases, Pests and Disorders – 11.1.0 Diseases –
12.0 Harvesting and Postharvest Management – 13.0 Biotechnology –
14.0 References.

14. Eucharis 391

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 13.0 References.

15. Pancratium 405

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Morphology – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics
and Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Soil and
Climate – 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Pests – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.

16. Haemanthus 419

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Morphology – 4.0 Origin,
Species and Cultivars – 5.0 Genetics and Breeding – 6.0 Growth and Flowering
– 7.0 Propagation – 8.0 Soil and Climate – 9.0 Cultivation – 10.0 Diseases and
Pests – 11.0 Harvesting – 12.0 Biotechnology – 13.0 References.
 xii

17. Habranthus 429

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Storage of Bulbs –
13.0 References.

18. Billbergia 443

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Propagation – 8.0 Soil and Climate – 9.0 Cultivation – 10.0 Diseases and
Pests – 11.0 Biotechnology – 12.0 References.

19. Shrubs: Beautiful and Perennial Ornamental Plants 459

1.0 Importance and Uses – 2.0 Introduction of Ornamental Shrubs in India –
3.0 Growth and Flowering – 4.0 Propagation of Shrubs – 5.0 Selection of Shrubs
– 6.0 Cultivation of Shrubs – 7.0 Pruning and Training – 8.0 Diseases, Pests
and Disorders of Shrubs – 9.0 References.

20. Hydrangea 477

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 History – 4.0 Origin and
Distribution – 5.0 Morphology – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics
and Breeding – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate – 10.0 Cultivation –
11.0 Diseases, Pests and Disorders – 12.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.

21. Hibiscus 529

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Taxonomy – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding
– 7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Harvesting – 13.0 Biotechnology
– 14.0 References.

22. Bougainvillea 567

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Distribution – 5.0 Morphology – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics
and Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Soil and
Climate – 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases and Pests – 13.0 Harvesting and
Postharvest Management – 14.0 Biotechnology – 15.0 References.

23. Camellia 607

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Morphology – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Soil and Climate – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Cultivation – 10.0 Diseases and Pests –
11.0 Harvesting and Postharvest Management – 12.0 Biotechnology –
13.0 References.
 xiii

24. Azalea (Rhododendron) 641

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Morphology – 5.0 Taxonomy – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics and
Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Soil and Climate
– 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases and Pests – 13.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 14.0 Biotechnology – 15.0 References.

25. Poinsettia 665

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Morphology – 4.0 Taxonomy –
5.0 Origin and History – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics and Breeding
– 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Soil and Climate – 10.0 Propagation –
11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases and Pests – 13.0 Harvesting and Postharvest
Management – 14.0 Biotechnology – 15.0 References.

26. Gardenia 687

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Distribution – 5.0 Morphology – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics and
Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Soil and Climate
– 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases, Pests and Disorders – 13.0 Harvesting and
Postharvest Management – 14.0 Biotechnology – 15.0 References.

27. Fuchsia 723

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Species, Types and Cultivars – 5.0 Genetics and Breeding – 6.0 Propagation
– 7.0 Soil and Climate – 8.0 Cultivation – 9.0 Diseases, Pests and Disorder –
10.0 Biotechnology – 11.0 References.

28. Ixora 749

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Morphology – 5.0 Taxonomy – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics
and Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Soil and
Climate – 11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Harvesting and Postharvest Management –
13.0 Diseases and Pests – 14.0 Biotechnology – 15.0 References.

29. Mussaenda 791

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and Distribution –
4.0 Morphology – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics and Breeding –
7.0 Growth and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate –
10.0 Cultivation – 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Biotechnology – 13.0 References.

30. Adenium 813

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Morphology – 5.0 Taxonomy – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics and
Breeding – 8.0 Growth and Flowering – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Soil and Climate –
11.0 Cultivation – 12.0 Diseases and Pests – 13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.
 xiv

31. Calliandra 839

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin and History –
4.0 Distribution – 5.0 Morphology – 6.0 Species and Cultivars – 7.0 Genetics
and Breeding – 8.0 Soil and Climate – 9.0 Propagation – 10.0 Cultivation –
11.0 Diseases and Pests – 12.0 Harvesting – 13.0 References.

32. Crossandra 855

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Origin, Species and Cultivars
– 4.0 Genetics and Breeding – 5.0 Growth and Flowering – 6.0 Propagation –
7.0 Soil and Climate – 8.0 Cultivation – 9.0 Diseases and Pests – 10.0 Harvesting
and Postharvest Management – 11.0 References.

33. Solidago 881

1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Importance and Uses – 3.0 Morphology – 4.0 Origin
and Distribution – 5.0 Species and Cultivars – 6.0 Genetics – 7.0 Growth
and Flowering – 8.0 Propagation – 9.0 Soil and Climate – 10.0 Cultivation
– 11.0 Diseases and Pests – 11.2.0 Pests – 12.0 Harvesting and Yield –
13.0 Biotechnology – 14.0 References.

34. Genesis of Education, Research and Development of

Floriculture and Ornamental Horticulture in India:
A Retrospective 895
1.0 Introduction – 2.0 Education – 3.0 Research – 4.0 Development in Floriculture
and Ornamental Horticulture – 5.0 Advances in Floriculture and Ornamental
Horticulture in India – 6.0 Lapses in Floriculture Development in India –
7.0 Important Suggestions for the Improvement of Teaching Floriculture and
Ornamental Horticulture in India – 8.0 Conclusion – 9.0 References.

Index 931
 List of Contributors

Anand, P.
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110012, India

Aswath, C.
Division of Flower and Medicinal Crops, ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Bengaluru 560089, Karnataka, India

Arora, J.S.
Department of Vegetable Crops and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India

Bal, S.
Department of Vegetable Science, Faculty of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur 741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Barman, K.
Department of Horticulture, Institute of Agriculture Science, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India

Bhatia, R.
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi 110012, India
 xvi

Bhunia, A.
Department of Vegetable Science, Faculty of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur 741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Biswas, B.
Department of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (State
Agricultural University), Mohanpur 741 252, West Bengal, India

Bose, T.K.
Department of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (State
Agricultural University), Mohanpur 741 252, West Bengal, India

Das, P.
Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar 751015, Odisha, India

Dhatt, K.K.
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India

Dhiman, M.R.
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station, Katrain, Kullu-Valley
175129, Himachal Pradesh, India

Dutta, K.
The Agri-Horticultural Society of India, 1, Alipore Road, Kolkata 700027, West
Bengal, India

Ganga, M.
Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, Horticultural College and
Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,
641003, India

Gurung, A.
Division of Floriculture and Medicinal Crops, ICAR-IIHR Bengaluru 560089,
Karnataka, India

Islam, S.M.
Faculty of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (State Agricultural
University), Mohanpur 741 252, West Bengal, India

Jadhav, P.R.
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, College of Agriculture Campus,
Shivajinagar, Pune 411005, Maharashtra, India
 xvii

Jain, R.
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi 110012, India

Kad, S.
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, College of Agriculture Campus,
Shivajinagar, Pune 411005, Maharashtra, India

Kadam, G.B.
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, College of Agriculture Campus,
Shivajinagar, Pune 411005, Maharashtra, India

Kakote, A.S
Department of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri 413722,
Maharashtra

Kumar, K.R.
Dr.YSRHU, Horticultural Research Station, Kovvur, Andhra Pradesh, India

Kumar, P.N.
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, College of Agriculture Campus,
Shivajinagar, Pune 411005, Maharashtra, India

Kumar, R.
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station, Katrain, Kullu-Valley
175129 , Himachal Pradesh, India

Kumar, R.
Division of Flower and Medicinal Crops, ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Bengaluru 560089, Karnataka

Kundu, S.
Department of Vegetable Science, Faculty of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur 741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Lalramhlimi, B.
Department of Vegetable Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (State
Agricultural University), Mohanpur 741 252, West Bengal, India

Madhubala
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India
 xviii

Mitra, M.
Department of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (State
Agricultural University), Mohanpur 741 252, West Bengal, India

Mukherjee, D.
Department of Vegetable Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (State
Agricultural University), Mohanpur 741 252, West Bengal, India

Parthasarathy, V.A.
ICAR – Indian Institute of Spices Research, 32/482 C Narmada Nilayam, Bharathan
Bazar, Chelavoor, Calicut 673571, Kerala, India

Pal, P.
Department of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (State
Agricultural University), Mohanpur 741 252, West Bengal, India

Patel, D.A.
Department of Floriculture and Landscape and Architecture, S.D.Agricultural
University, Jagudan, Mehsana, 384460, Gujarat, India

Prasad, K.V.
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, College of Agriculture Campus,
Shivajinagar, Pune 411005, Maharashtra, India

Raju, D.V.S.
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, Regional Station, Vemagiri, Andhra
Pradesh, India

Saha, S.
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station, Pune 411008,
Maharashtra, India

Saha, T.N.
ICAR-Directorate of Floricultural Research, College of Agriculture Campus,
Shivajinagar, Pune 411005, Maharashtra, India

Sambandamurthi, S.
Division of Flower and Medicinal Crops, ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Bengaluru 560 089, Karnataka, India

Sangeetha Priya, S.
Division of Flower and Medicinal Crops, ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research, Bengaluru 560 089, Karnataka, India
 xix

Sanyal, D.
Department of Crop Improvement, Horticulture and Agricultural Botany, Institute
of Agriculture, Viswa-Bharathi, Sriniketan 731 236, West Bengal, India

Shreya
Department of Basic Science, College of Horticulture, S.D. Agricultural University,
Jagudan, Mehsana, 384460 Gujarat, India

Singh, B.
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi 110012, India

Singh, S.
Deparment of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana 141004, Punjab, India

Tiwari, A.K.
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi 110012, India

Vanlalruati
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110012, India

Varun, M.H.
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi 110012, India

Visalakshi, M.
Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, Horticultural College and
Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003 Tamil
Nadu, India
 30
Adenium

B. Lalramhlimi
1.0 Introduction
The genus Adenium was derived from Aden, formerly Yemen and presently the
capital town of the country, while the term ‘obesum’ refers to the swelling stem at its
basal region. It is a deciduous plant widely used as an ornamental plant. It adapts
easily in pot culture making it well suited for bonsai. During the warm moist months,
the branches are adorned with glossy leaves and bright red, five cm bell shaped
flowers with a white center while the branches become without blossoms and nearly
leafless during the dry winter months (Dodson, 1959). It is a slow- growing shrub
with no fragrance, valued for its attractive flowers and aesthetic sculptural caudex.
Caudex is defined as the axis of a plant, consisting of stem and roots (Rowley, 1987)
and can be above or below ground (Dimmitt et al., 2009).

2.0 Importance and Uses

2.1.0 Aesthetic Uses
Desert rose is an exotic flowering succulent shrub or small tree, botanically
Adenium obesum, known as Japanese frangipani, impala lily, mock azalea, and pink
begonia that generally bear flowers on terminal corymb from June to September.
The desert rose gains importance for growing as a pot plant as there was increasing
demand for indoor decora­tion, rock garden and suitable for xeriscaping. The plants
are very attractive in appearance, hardy, easy to grow, bear spectacular flowers in
different colour combinations and very popular pot plants in warm climate in most
parts of the world.

2.2.0 Therapeutic and Other Uses

The different parts of the plant like the sap, leaves, bark, roots, stem and latex
are used in several local medicines in different parts of the world for the treatment
of a wide range of diseases. The bark and root extracts are used to prepare a lotion
for the treatment of different skin diseases and to kill lice (Neuwinger, 2011; Watt
and Breyer- brandwijk, 2013) and bark as an abortifacient (Naji et al., 2013; Wang et
al., 2013). Moreover, root extracts have been shown to exert cytotoxic effect against
several carcinoma cell lines (Singh, 2004; Graham et al., 2000). The latex is used as a
medicine for the recovery of nasal drops, decaying teeth, and septic wounds (Tijjani
et al., 2011). Smearing the stem juice on affected area for injury, bleeding, and wounds
are effective (Al-Fatima, 2019). Powder is applied externally for headache (Tounekti
et al., 2019). The whole plant is used for its anti-plasmodial, anti-trypanosomal and
anti-leishmanial activities in Nigeria (Malebo et al., 2009).The leaves of Adenium
oleifolium are pounded to make an ointment for snakebites relief and scorpion stings
by the San. The sap of Adenium boehmianum, A. multiflorum, and A. obesum contains
toxic cardiac glycosides and is used as arrow poison throughout Africa for hunting
large game (Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim, 2008). A. obesum has antioxidant (Al-
Ghudani and Hossain, 2015), antidiabetic (Elgebaly et al., 2020), antiviral (Kiyohara
et al., 2012), anticancer (Ali et al., 2019), antibacterial (Hossain et al., 2014), organic
pesticide (Abalaka et al., 2013), anti-lucusticidal and antimolluscicidal (Versiani et
816 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

Uses of Adenium

In Pot In Garden Pot Hinging Pot

In Home Garden Indoor Decoration In Gift

Bonsai Near Window In Hedge

Focal Point In Exhibition In Landscape

Source: www.blog.nurserylive.com, www.inpinterest.com, www.patioplants.com, www.
thespruce.com
Adenium | 817

al., 2014) properties. Adenium obesum extract is used as green inhibitor for protecting
C- steel from corrosion in polluted NaCl (Fouda and Eissa, 2020). Farmers in Senegal
applied Chacals Baobab (Adenium obesum) on cotton crops as natural insecticide for
controlling cotton bollworm, spiny bollworm and Sudan bollworm.

3.0 Origin and History

Adenium obesum is originated from Africa, south of the Sahara from Senegal
to Sudan and Kenya, and through Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Yemen (Plaizier,
1980, Dimmitt and Hanson, 1991). It was described as Nerium obesum in the Flora
Aegyptiaco-Arabica by Forskâl in 1775, which was later changed to a new genus
Adenium by Roemer and Schultes in 1819. It is distributed across countries as
ornamentals in West, Central, East Africa and in Southeast Asia, while A. multiflorum
is cultivated in southern Africa. A. obesum, A. multiflorum and A. swazicum are
cultivated in the botanical garden greenhouses of Amsterdam; A. obesum in Brussels
and in Wageningen. A. swazicum is endemic in Swaziland and in the adjacent areas
of Mozambique and of South Africa (Plaizier, 1980). It is also naturalized in Sri
Lanka and India. Adenium obesum is the most widespread species in the wild and
in cultivation.

4.0 Morphology
Desert rose is a succulent shrub or small tree that can grow up to 0.2-5 m tall;
trunk mostly up to 1 m (rarely 2 m) diameter; bark is pale green to greyish green or
brown, smooth and rhizomatous. Leaves are arranged spirally, linear to obovate,
entire, pubescent, or glabrous. The inflorescence is more or less dense terminal cyme;
flowers are pentamerous, bisexual, showy usually appearing before the leaves.
Corolla is a tube (funnel-shaped); about 2-4.5 cm × 0.9-1.7 cm; hairy to glabrous
outside; lobes 1–3 cm × 0.5- 2.5 cm, spreading and pedicel 5-9 mm long. The fruit
consists of two linear-oblong follicles, coherent at the base, tapering at both ends,
grey to pale grey-brown, 11-22 cm long, recurved, opening by a longitudinal slit
and many- seeded. Seeds are linear-oblong, slightly rough, 10- 14 mm long, pale
brown, with tufts of long dirty white hairs at both ends (Plaizier, 1980; Oyen, 2006).

5.0 Taxonomy
Adenium belongs to the tribe Nerieae of the subfamily Apocynoidae (Echitoidae)
and family Apocynaceae. It is closely related to Pachypodium and particularly to
Nerium. The different morphological characters of Nerium and Adenium resemble
each other. However, both genera differ in many ways; the flowers are actinomorphic
in Nerium with laciniate scales between corolla lobes, corolla lobes longer than
corolla tube, leaves 3- whorled, erect follicles, the seed has an apical tuft of hair on
one side and sericeous, while flowers are slightly zygomorphic in Adenium with
obcordate scales between corolla lobes, corolla lobes shorter than corolla tube, leaves
are alternate, reflexed follicles, the seed has an apical tuft of hair at both side and
glabrous. Pachypodium also differs from Adenium by its spines, which are its stipules;
the stipules of Adenium are early caducous (Plaizier, 1980). Plaizier had classified
Adenium into five species, namely, Adenium obesum, Adenium boehmianum, Adenium
oleifolium, Adenium swazicum, and Adenium multiflorum. However, according to
818 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

Dimmitt et al. (2009), there are one species and 11 taxa, namely, Adenium obesum,
Adenium swazicum, Adenium multiflorum, Adenium boehmianum, Adenium oleifolium,
Adenium somalense ‘Nova’ (Tanzania), Adenium somalense, Adenium crispum, Adenium
socotranum, Adenium arabicum, and Adenium sp. Oman. These are also considered by
other authors to be subspecies or varieties. Rzepecky (2015) had reported a long-
overlooked species from the Central-Southern Part of the Arabian Peninsula, the
Adenium dhofarense Rzepecky sp. Nov.

6.0 Species and Cultivars

6.1.0 Species
The genus Adenium consists of five species in southern Africa, namely Adenium
obesum, Adenium swazicum, Adenium oleifolium, Adenium boehmianum and Adenium
multiflorum. Adenium swazicum was initially described as Adenium boehmianum Schinz
var. swazicum (Codd, 1963) but since Adenium boehmianum and Adenium swazicum
occur in completely separate areas with no intermediate specimens, Rowley
reinstated Adenium swazicum as a species in 1974 (Plaizier, 1980). The differences
among the species are highlighted below (Plaizier, 1980; Dimmitt and Hanson, 1991;
Schmelzer and Gurib- Fakim, 2008; Dimmitt and Williams, 1998).
Adenium boehmianum
It is also called the Bushman poison, a rhizomatous and sturdy shrub (0.8- 2.5 m
high), poisonous succulent, endemic to the mostly dry regions of southern Angola
and northern Namibia. The caudex is small to large conical up to 40 cm in diameter,
very long dormancy period, and deciduous. The leaves are arranged spirally and
clustered near branch tips which are borne only for three months in a year. The
flowers are showy, long-tubed shape, pink to mauve in colour with darker throat
and hairy on outside. Flowering occurs in winter, only for few weeks. They appear
from November to May (but mostly in the autumn, southern hemisphere), usually
together with the leaves.
Adenium multiflorum
It is a small to large shrub, spreading to erect stems, 0.5- 3.5 m high, a succulent
tree native to central and eastern Southern Africa with large roots, carrot-like (up
to 1 m in diameter), shiny grey bark and poisonous white latex. The leaves follow
flowers’ appearance, subsessile; obovate to oblong blade. Flowers are large and
showy, star-shaped, white or pale pink with a pink to dark red border, 15 prominent
red nectar guides in the white throat (three per petal). The flowering time is May
to August.
Adenium obesum
It is a succulent shrubby tree, branched (2 - many), tall (0.4- 4 m, rarely 5 m
high), and at the extreme base up to 1 m (rarely up to 2 m in diameter); sometimes
with a fleshy taproot. It is distributed in regions of Arabia, Socotra, Northeastern,
Central, and rarely in Western Africa. The bark colour varies from pale greyish-
green to smooth grey or smooth brown; latex fresh clear or white, dried white and
Adenium | 819

Species of Adenium

Adenium obesum Adenium multiflorum Adenium swazicum

Adenium crispum Adenium boehmianum Adenium somalense

Adenium oleifolium Adenium socotranum Adenium dhoforence

Adenium oman Adenium somalense Adenium arabicum

‘Nova’ (Tanzania)
820 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

sticky. The flower is cup-shaped from a short cylindrical base, full pink or somewhat
darker shade towards the margins of the lobes, with darker pink stripes in the paler
throat. Flowering occurs in winter. The Latin word ‘obesum’ means ‘fat or fleshy’,
refers to the habit of the stems.
Adenium oleifolium
This species is native to desert scrubland in Southern Africa, Angola, and
Namibia. A dwarf succulent shrub, 40 cm tall, forming a dense mass of rather
fleshy leaves and stems, with a medium- size caudex (50-80 × 15-30 cm), which
is extremely bitter. The flowers are small, pale pink in colour, yellow throat with
prominent red nectar guides that appear with the leaves. It has very slow growth
and flowers in spring.
Adenium swazicum
This species is found in open woodland, usually on sandy brackish flats in South
Africa, Swaziland, and Mozambique at altitudes of 300- 400 m. It is a succulent, small
to medium shrub (0.2- 0.7 m), which has a carrot- like tuber (up to 1m diameter),
which is small but with big roots and poisonous clear latex. The simple leaves are
long, often folded, tapering and smooth, and borne in terminal clusters. The flowers
are pink to deep purple, darker in the throat, and flowering occurs from January
to April together with the leaves.
Adenium somalense
It occurs in Somalia, Kenya, Ethiopia, and extends a bit into adjacent nations.
The shrub has a succulent trunk, tall with distinctly conical caudex. The flowers
are small (less than 5 cm in diameter), narrower, pointed petals, vary from pink
to deep red fading towards the throat with prominent nectar guides that extend
onto the petal bases. This species is extremely intolerant to cold both in dry or wet
soils and temperature below 10o C for a few weeks will cause the roots to die and
the plant will topple. Probably for this reason and because of its large size, it is not
common in cultivation.
Adenium sp. (Tanzania)
The Adenium somalense var. nova was discovered in the mid 1990s in Tanzania.
It has a globular caudex which is buried underground, conical, with erect, barely
succulent stems to about 1.5 m. In few years, rapid growth of plant develops a large
caudex. Flowers are star- shaped, pink to red at the edges, fading to a white throat
with prominent nectar guides. The small flowers start appearing sparsely at the
end of the growing season in fall, followed by a more profuse bloom through the
winter, while the plants are leafless.
Adenium socotranum
It is by far the largest species, a gigantic shrub to a tree, endemic to the island
of Socotra. It has a cylindrical trunk, to 5 m in height and 2 m in diameter at the
basal region. Plants rarely leaf out before mid-summer and produce stem growth
for only a few weeks. The pink flowers appear for a few weeks in spring while the
Adenium | 821

plant is leafless. It has become a targeted species among the adeniums due to its
remote location, huge size, and recent availability in a trade. However, it has very
slow growth and intolerant to the desert heat.
Adenium crispum
It occurs in a band of sandy soil near the coast of southern Somalia. The shrub
is a dwarf, thin stem with fusiform caudex. The thin roots arise from near the top of
this caudex below ground. In cultivation, the caudex is raised above soil level and
is capable of re- rooting from the bottom. The stems are thin and hardly a foot tall.
The distinctive flowers are small in size, quilled petals, larger throats and, narrower
white to pinkish petals. The pink to red nectar guides in the throat may extend
halfway to the tips of the petals, giving the flowers a distinctly striped aspect. It
cannot tolerate cold and also intolerant to hot, humid conditions. For these reasons,
it is not widely cultivated despite the beautiful flowers and compact size. Flowering
in cultivation is sporadic; it seems to be most profuse during winter dormancy but
may extend well into summer.
Adenium arabicum
It is native to a narrow strip near the coast on the western half of the southern
Arabian Peninsula (in Yemen and Saudi Arabia). It is a dwarf to huge shrub or
tree; sturdy branches, huge caudex and stem and deciduous in nature. The flowers
are typically small, almost always pink, colour fades toward throat; nectar guides
are strong or absent. The flowering season is mostly spring; some are summer or
everblooming. It is a fast-growing species.
Adenium sp. Oman
The Adenium arabicum in Oman is characterized by a broad, squat caudex (up
to 1 m in diameter), thin stems which may root when they contact the ground. The
leaves are very large, second in size only to those of A. boehmianum. The flowers
are very small and appear in late spring while still leafless. Finally, the plants have
a very slow growth and short growing season.
A. dhofarense
It is a floppy (or erect) shrub with a large caudex. It has a long dormancy period
and is deciduous in nature. Flowers are small, round to star- shaped and pink colour.
It has very slow growth. Leaves are large obovate, revolute margins 70- 140 × 50- 100
mm, globose to irregular caudex (but never napiform) above ground, and branches
set roots when in contact with the ground. Flowering occurs from mid-March to
the end of May (Rzepecky, 2015).

6.2.0 Cultivars
There have been numerous cultivars developed through hybridization among
species and cultivars. These cultivars yield wide range of colours from white to
dazzling reds, single to multi-whorled, nearly ever-blooming to ever-blooming,
fast growing and resistant to abiotic stresses.
822 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

Notable varieties are as follows:

‘Amiability’, Taiwanese variety, flowers usually have a narrow black edge,
and are borne profusely several months a year;
‘Arrogant’, red flowers;
‘Asha’, an Arizona back-crossed to A. obesum, huge, bright pink flowers, nearly
everblooming, fast growing;
‘Black Pine’, resembles ‘Daeng Nabanant’ in its 100+ mm size, but it has a
longer blooming season;
‘Black Queen’, Taiwanese variety, flowers are dark during moderately hot
weather;
‘Black Raspberry’, red flowers, striped throat, blooms over long season;
‘Black Ruby’, profuse flowering, tall conical caudex, col tolerant;
‘Boyce Thompson’, A. swazicum, deep purple;
‘Crimson Picotee’, A. obesum × A. multiflorum, large leaves, evergreen, thick
and sturdy stems, broad red border on the white petals.
‘Crimson Star’, sturdy stem, erect to ascending, large flower, solid, deep blood-
red and are borne nearly year-round;
‘Crown’, red cultivar, sturdy plant, flowers almost year-round;
‘Daeng Nabanant’, huge flowers are borne sporadically, red flowers, 100 mm
size;
‘Deang Udam Sap’, dark red, superior flower diameter, good flower longevity;
‘Double Sweet Heart’, pink, good flower longevity, double type flower form,
10 petals per flower;
‘Emperor Star’, waterfall types, strong plant, good shaped flowers and colour
much of the year, variation of flower streaking at different seasons;
‘Endless Sunset’, solid deep pink, everblooming;
‘Grumbley White’, extremely floriferous, pure white;
‘Gujarat Adenium- 1 (Gad-1)’, multi- petalous, red colour, good flower
longevity;
‘Gujarat Adenium- 2 (Gad-2)’, multi- petalous, novel purple colour, profuse
flowering habit;
‘Hansoti Dwarf’, water use is minimal, flowering during dormancy and
deciduous;
‘Harry Potter’, pink, bigger flower size diameter;
‘Heart of gold’, white with pink border petals, yellow throats;
‘Incandescent’, offspring of ‘Black Ruby’ × ‘MAD 218’
‘King of Purple’, double flowers that open purple with red stripes on every
petal, blooms from spring until fall;
Adenium | 823

Cultivars of Adenium

'Hansoti Dwarf' 'Crown' 'Amiability'

'Black Queen' 'Vigil' 'Singapore'

'Daeng Nabanant' 'Heart of Gold' 'Emperor Star'

'Noble Queen' 'Soft' 'Black Pine'

824 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

Cultivars of Adenium

'Taiwan Home Run' 'MAD #286' 'Grumbley White'

'Incandescent' 'Gujarat Adenium-1' 'Gujarat Adenium-2'

'Black Raspberry' 'Black Ruby' 'King of Purple'

'Red Everbloomer' 'Red Cloud' 'Crimson Star'

Adenium | 825

‘MAD #286’, a pink picotee with yellow throat;

‘Mor Lok Dok’, white flowers;
‘Mung Siam’, purple flowers, single whorl;
‘Noble queen’, Taiwan hybrid, A. obesum and not A. multiflorum because it
flowers year-round and is evergreen;
‘Perpetual Pink’, Adenium swazicum, sturdy stems, large flower size, long
blooming, pale pink to deep raspberry red flower colour;
‘Picotee’, pink flowers;
‘Red Cloud’, large, shiny green leaves, red flowers;
‘Red Ever-bloomer’, Adenium obesum, upright stems, red flower colour, long
blooming season;
‘Red Ribbons’, thin weak stem, very large flower, deep red with only slight
fading toward center, petals hang down like ribbons;
‘Singapore’, A. arabicum, very large flowers, deep pink flowers (10 cm or over
4 inches in diameter), flowers up to 10 months per year, massive bloom;
‘Soft’, a giant (100 mm), Taiwan introduction;
‘Sudarshan’, dark pink flowers;
‘Taiwan dwarf’, pink flowers;
‘Taiwan Home Run’, red petals, flower colour is stable in hot weather, blooms
nearly year-round;
‘Vigil’, brilliant orange- red colour, white of the throat extends onto the petal
bases;
‘Vithoons White’, white flowers;
‘Volcanic Sunset’, sturdy and erect stem, crowded leaves, short internodes,
large flowers, deep red, fading slightly toward the throat.

7.0 Genetics and Breeding

7.1.0 Hybridization
Singh et al. (2020) performed crosses involving ten parents (7 females and 3
males) where he studied different morphological characters. The germplasm viz.,
MSDSH1 (Mung Siam × Double Sweet Heart) showed superior performances in
number of flowers per cluster (10.23) and flower longevity on plant (11.91 days)
as compared to parent (Mung Siam and Double Sweet Heart) and Local Pink with
novel flower colour having attractive purplish coloured ten petals. It was renamed
as G. Ad.2 (Gujarat Adenium- 2) and released in SVRC, Gujarat.
The traits of some hybrids given by Dimmitt, a famous Adenium breeder are
presented in table form:
826 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

Taxon Plant Caudex Dormancy Cold Flowers Season Notes

Form, Size Require- Tolerance
Size Relative ment
to Plant
A.obesum Medium Small to None Poor Round, Best Fast
modern shrubs; medium large; cultivars growth
cultivars often wide flower
weak range of year-
stems colours; round
doubles
A.obesum × Medium Small to None Good Large, Often Fast
A.swazicum shrubs; medium; round; year- growth
floppy often intense round
(or erect) huge solid
stems roots colours
A.obesum × Medium Small to Short to Poor Medium; Often Slow
A.crispum shrubs; large none often year- growth
erect to strongly round
floppy striped &
stems spotted
A.arabicum × Large Large to Short to Very good Large, Spring Fast
A.obesum to huge; huge none round; to year- growth
usually deep pink round
erect to red
A.arabicum × Medium; Very large Short to Good Small, Spring -
A.crispum erect none narrow to year-
petals; round
tend to be
striped
A.arabicum × Medium Large Short to Good Medium Spring to Fast
A.obesum × to large; none to large; year- growth
A.crispum erect pink to round
red; often
striped

7.2.0 Cross-compatibility
There was cross incompatibility between African Adenium obesum and close
relative Adenium socotranum. However, Adenium socotranum is cross compatible with
the Arabian ones. There was no success in experiment between A. dhofarense and the
African A. obesum crosses as reported by Mark Dimmitt (1998). By cross pollination
of A. obesum with A. swazicum and A. arabicum some amazing varieties have been
produced by breeders across the globe. Similarly, A. crispum cross pollinated with
A. somalense, A. swazicum and A. obesum have produced exotic hybrids which are
collectors delights and breeders’ pride (Kumar, 2015).

7.3.0 Mutation Breeding

An experiment was carried out where the seeds of Adenium somalense var.
somalense were acutely irradiated (200- 300 Gy dosage) as well as growing plants
of Adenium obesum with different total doses at the dose rate of 0.96 Gy/hr. Several
Adenium | 827

mutants were obtained; among the outstanding mutants from gamma rays treated
adenium, three of them were registered as new varieties (Jompuk et al., 2008).

8.0 Growth and Flowering

8.1.0 Light
Investigation was carried out by McBride et al. (2014b) for studying the effect
of light intensity with three treatments, i.e, full sun [with a measured maximum
photo-synthetically active radiation (PAR) of 1850 µmol/m2/s], 30 per cent shade
(1255 µmol/m2/s), or 50 per cent shade (943 µmol/m2/s) and nutrition level on
growth and flowering of A. obesum ‘Red’ and ‘Ice Pink’. Different nutritional level
included 1.25- L pots top dressed with controlled-release fertilizer Nutricote Plus
(18N-2.6P-6.6K) at different rates 0.4, 0.9, or 1.4 g of nitrogen (N) per pot. Highest
flower numbers and quality ratings were recorded in 30 per cent shade. Greatest
canopy heights and widths but poor flower numbers and quality ratings were
recorded in 50 per cent shade level. The highest root dry weights were measured at
1.4 g of N under both full sun and 30 per cent shade. Caudex burn can occur under
extreme heat or full sun exposure if leaf canopy does not shade it.

8.2.0 Temperature
Adenium plants can thrive beautifully under hot and warm regions. However,
they will not tolerate cold freezing temperatures. Stem tips can be damaged at
temperature below 4oC, and may even cause plant death if low temperature persists
(McLaughlin and Garofalo, 2002). Plants can be grown in pots or containers to
ease shifting to protected structures to protect them from cold spells. In contrast,
when temperatures exceed 37oC, most Adenium plants slow their growth and stop
flowering (Dimmitt and Hanson, in press). Dormancy is induced in all taxa when
nights regularly fall below about 10oC. When completely dry and dormant, plants
can tolerate near-freezing temperatures, though there is high incidence of root- rot
(Dimmitt, 1998).

8.3.0 Plant Growth Regulators

The vegetal growth retardant paclobutrazol (PBZ) was applied in six treatments
5; 10; 20; 40 and 80 ml of the active ingredient, and water as control in studies focused
on reducing the size of Adenium obesum plant. The dose of 80 ml of PBZ reduced the
length of aerial part in 37.29 per cent in relation to the control. Despite the decrease
observed in the plant final size, the phytotoxic effects caused by PBZ prevented its
utilization in the Adenium obesum commercial production. The vegetative growth
inhibition associated with PBZ has been linked to the application method (Mauk
et al., 1990), which is the application via soil up to reaching field capacity, it proved
to be more efficient than the application via aerial part spraying, when it comes to
plant size reduction (Pardos et al., 2005; Al-khassawneh et al., 2006).

9.0 Propagation
Desert rose can be propagated by seed, stem cuttings, grafting, air layering,
and micropropagation. Seeds are most commonly used for propagation and are
the least expensive method.
828 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

9.1.0 Seed Propagation

The seeds germinate within one to two weeks under soil temperature of 29oC in
soil mixture and ready for transplanting after a month. Seed-grown plants can flower
in 12 months under proper care and optimum conditions. The plants originating
from seeds exhibit more swollen caudex and primary roots than those propagated
from cuttings (Colombo et al., 2015).

9.2.0 Vegetative Propagation

Adenium multiflorum, A. oleifolium and A. swazicum can be easily propagated
through stem cuttings. Cuttings can be taken from the tip of the stem, 15 cm or
longer, treated with auxins and fungicide before planting in pots. McBride (2012)
had performed rooting of cuttings in two varieties of A. obesum, ‘Ice Pink’ and ‘Red’,
and reported the use of 8000 mg/l of indole- butyric acid (IBA) was most suitable for
rooting of apical cuttings. Grafting was practiced in Wageningen and Amsterdam
where Adenium spp. has been successfully grafted on a Nerium oleander stock which
resulted in much richer flowering material (Plaizier, 1980). Grafting is mainly done
for commercial purposes. The root- stocks are raised from seeds for grafting. Air-
layering of Adenium is more likely to be successful during hot, humid weather and
used to produce few plants of relatively large size for special purposes (Dimmitt et
al., 2009, McLaughlin and Garofalo, 2002; Hartmann et al., 2002).

9.3.0 Micropropagation
Kanchanapoom et al. (2010) cultivated Adenium obesum shoot tips using a
combination of the growth regulators BA and NAA to induce indirect organogenesis
and a high frequency of 5.20 ± 1.10 shoots per explant using 22.2 µM BA. High
rooting and survival were achieved using MS medium supplemented with 0.3
per cent activated charcoal and without any growth regulators. Experiments in
micropropagation of Adenium obesum showed that the addition of 0.5 µmol/L IBA
improved the frequency of rooting significantly under in vitro conditions (Xiaomei et
al., 2003). Another study by (Liu et al., 2004) found that using NAA (0.2 to 0.4 mg/l)
+ BA (1 to 2mg/l) induced callus in Adenium obesum cultures. The medium with 2,
4-D @1~3 mg/l or 2, 4-D @1~ mg/l + BA @ 0.5~1.0 mg/l was the optimal mixture
on which the callus was yellow and loose, and suitable for suspension culture.

10.0 Soil and Climate

10.1.0 Soil
Different types of potting media are used for growing adeniums in containers.
The recommended pH for potting media containing predominantly organic
matter is between 5.0 and 5.8 (Kampf, 2000). The plants exhibited higher growth
rates, caudex growth and greater nutrients build-up in dry matter by using sand
+ Amafibra® 47 coconut fiber and vermiculite + Amafibra® 47 coconut fiber as
potting media and are recommended for cultivating this species (Colombo et al.,
2016). In seedling production, the substrates should have high aeration and low
density to avoid rotting of seeds. Among the recommended materials, substrates
based on semi-composted pine bark, pure or in combination with coconut fiber,
Adenium | 829

Propagation and Growing of Adenium

Pod Seeds In Plug Tray

Seedlings Propagation by Cutting

Potted Plant Production of Adenium

Copper Deficiency Zinc Deficiency Boron Deficiency

830 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

Propagation and Growing of Adenium

Micropropagation

(a) Multiple shoot formation from shoot tip culture; (b) Callus formation; (c) Rooted
plantlet, (d) Three-month-old plantlets [Kanchanapoom et al. (2010)].
Adenium | 831

provide a high emergence percentage of seedlings, i.e. 97 per cent and 98 per cent,
respectively (Colombo et al., 2017).

10.2.0 Climate
Desert roses are mainly native to tropical regions and require warm and hot
climates. Most adeniums will tolerate near freezing nights in winter if medium is
dry. They perform very well under sub-tropical and greenhouse conditions. The
most vigorous vegetative growth occurs with moderate to high humidity.

11.0 Cultivation
11.1.0 Planting Time
Desert rose can be planted in containers any time throughout the year under
green house. Adeniums grow best under warm, moist and sunny conditions.
However, direct extreme heat may burn new growth on the plant.

11.2.0 Manuring and Fertilization

Adenium if fertilized with heavy nitrogen gives slender, rapid growth, big
leaves, and increased internode spaces. On the other hand, excessively fast growth
is soft and susceptible to rot as well as aesthetically unappealing. To produce high-
quality plants in 1.25- L pots, Adenium ‘Red’ should be fertilized with 1.08 g N per
liter of the potting mix. For plants grown in 3.0-L pots, N rates of 0.36 g or 0.72 g per
liter of potting mix would be recommended with a preference for 0.36 g (McBride
et al., 2014a). Phosphorus is also an essential element and its deficiency will give
stunted plants with small, deep green leaves and poor flowering. However, plants
require a little amount of phosphorus and in excess will give long and stretched
growth and also renders other micronutrients insoluble. A dosage of 1-2 grams per
one liter water of Calcium nitrate + Potassium nitrate in the liquid feed is used to
provide the macronutrients calcium, potassium, and nitrogen; compare this to 1- 2
grams per 100 liters water of Copper sulphate to provide the micronutrient copper
(Hosco India, 2015).

11.3.0 Pruning
Adenium responds well to pruning which make them suitable for pot culture
besides their slow growth, salt tolerance, and drought tolerance. They are valued
for their beautiful structure, multiple flowers and thickened caudex. So, pruning
has become an important operation to get desired well balanced aesthetic structure.
Pinching is done on seedling plants to create branching during period of vigorous
growth in late winter or early spring. Old leafless stems, long and dry can be pruned
back in spring to improve and rejuvenate the plant and promote new growth which
will bear flowers. Repotting is ideal with fresh media after pruning. Only a little
pruning is required in general.

11.4.0 Repotting
Adeniums respond well to annual or biannual repotting. The old media may
be thrown or washed off if they are soggy or degraded or it may be retained and
832 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

fresh media may be used to fill the rest of the pot. Root pruning can be done while
repotting massive adenium roots with thickened secondary roots, by cutting off
these roots at the junction with the caudex to give some space for more media to
enter the pots. Turmeric powder (100 g) mixed with cinnamon powder (20 g) in
clean drinking water (5L) as an organic treatment of cuttings have been found to
yield good results on adeniums for repotting (Kumar, 2015). After repotting, the
plants can be watered just enough and kept in partial shade for one week.

11.5.0 Irrigation
Timely watering with optimum amount is very crucial in adenium cultivation. A
combination of wet and cold or over- watering in a sticky, poorly draining medium
can kill a well- established plant. A night temperature of below 10oC can cause root
rot so the plant needs to be kept dry. The amount of water to be given to plant is
based on the kind of media used. Substrates such as vermiculite, carbonized rice
husk and semi-composted pine bark, among others, can be used to facilitate proper
irrigation. However, attention should be given to irrigation management, since
adenium cuttings are susceptible to rot, due to their high-water content (Colombo et
al., 2018). During hot and dry weather, daily watering may be required while under
cool winter conditions, watering may be every 7- 10 days. Plants do not require
frequent watering when they attain few years and slow growth.

12.0 Diseases and Pests

There are some diseases and pests that are affecting adenium cultivation. Most
of the diseases can be traced back to excessive water in media or leaves. Among the
diseases leaf spots, tomato spotted wilt, cucumber mosaic and little leaf are common
are major diseases. Other minor diseases of adenium include damping off, root rot,
anthracnose and dieback etc.

12.1.0 Diseases
12.1.1 Aristastoma Leaf Spots
This disease is caused by Aristastoma spp. (McMillan Jr. et al., 1997). Symptoms
include an irregular, oval to circular, rusty brown, necrotic lesions 5 to 15 mm in
diameter on plant foliage. Large leaf spots developed tan centers. Fungicides can
be used to treat infected plants.
12.1.2 Leaf Spots
This disease is caused by Nigrospora sphaerica (de Jesus et al., 2020). The
symptoms appear as chlorotic spots initially on the edge of the leaf blade to brown
lesions that subsequently increased in size. Spraying of fungicides will help to treat
the infected plants. Fungicides should not be sprayed on flowers during hot sunny
day to prevent from sunburn.
12.1.3 Spotted Wilt
This disease is caused by tomato spotted wilt virus and is transmitted by thrips
(Adkins and Baker, 2005). Virus-like foliar symptoms, including chlorotic ring and
Adenium | 833

Diseases and Pests of Adenium

Leaf Blight Stem Rot Dry Rot

Caudex Rot Mealy Bug Aphid

Stink Bug Mealy Bug Spider Mite

Soft Scale Caterpillar Phytoplasma

Source: www.tropicanursery.com, www.link.springer.com

834 | Commercial Flowers, Volume 5

line patterns were observed on the plant. This disease can be prevented by choosing
healthy pathogen-free planting materials. Infected plants can be uprooted and
burnt. Spraying of systemic insecticides can be recommended to control the vectors.
12.1.4 Mosaic
This disease is caused by cucumber mosaic virus and is transmitted by aphids
(Baker et al., 2003). Later, Chen et al. (2010) observed CMV infection in A. obesum
plants occurring in Taiwan. Symptoms included chlorosis on leaf margins, localized
lesions, systemic mosaic and necrotic ringspots. No chemical control is available
that can effectively control this disease. To achieve this, it is crucial to remove weeds
and diseased plants from the field, as well as use clean and sanitized tools. Another
option consists of the use of resistant varieties or the so-called trap crops.
12.1.5 Little Leaf Disease
This disease is caused by Candidatus phytoplasma asteris (Raj et al., 2006).
Symptoms included phyllody and excessive development of internodes resulting
in little leaves. Infected plants can be uprooted and burnt.

12.2.0 Pests
Insect pests affecting adenium are mealy bug, aphids, spider mites, weevils,
whitefly, cochineals, caterpillar, seed bug, stink bugs, soft scale, lepidopteran larvae
etc. Mealy bug is one of the most serious pests that infect the above ground and the
roots of the plant. It causes distortion of shoots and flowers. While repotting, the
roots can be checked for presence of root mealy bug. Milk weed bugs (Spilostethus
pandurus or Caenocoris nerii) are orange coloured beetles and they destroy the seed
pods by feeding on them (Kumar, 2015). Lepidopteran larvae attack in spring
when the new shoots appear and feed on the tender fresh leaves and flower buds.
Stink bugs appear at the end of monsoon and suck on the juices of seed pods. The
thrips and aphids are also vectors of the viral diseases which spread easily if not
controlled. Insecticidal soap and micro-encapsulated diazinon (Knox.Out) are safe
for the plants and systemic Dimethoate 267EC is not phytotoxic if used as labelled
at temperatures below 32oC. However, Cygon has the same active ingredient but
the “inert” solvent kills foliage (Dimmitt, 1998). Soft scale can be easily controlled
by pruning off the infested leaves and shoots.

13.0 Biotechnology
13.1.1 Molecular Markers
The genetic diversity of 10 genotypes of Adenium obesum was determined
in India by Chavan et al. (2018) based on DNA based molecular marker RAPD.
The genotype ‘Deang Udam Sap’ and ‘Picotte’ were found to be more genetically
divergent genotypes followed by genotypes ‘Deang Udam Sap’ and ‘Mor Lok
Dok’. Genotypes ‘Double Sweet heart’ and ‘Vithoon’s White’ were found to be
genetically closest genotypes followed by genotypes ‘Mor Lok Dok’ and ‘Picotte’.
Genetic similarity between genotype ‘Arrogant’ and ‘Mung Siam Purple’ was also
found to be considerable.
Adenium | 835

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