Unmanned aerial vehicle - Wikipedia [Link]

org/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle

Unmanned aerial vehicle

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly
known as a drone, is an aircraft without any
human pilot, crew, or passengers on board. UAVs
were originally developed through the twentieth
century for military missions too "dull, dirty or
dangerous"[1] for humans, and by the twenty-first,
they had become essential assets to most militaries.
As control technologies improved and costs fell,
their use expanded to many non-military
applications.[2] These include aerial photography,
area coverage,[3] precision agriculture, forest fire Elbit Systems Hermes-450 taking off
monitoring,[4] river monitoring,[5][6] environmental
monitoring,[7][8][9][10] policing and surveillance,
infrastructure inspections, smuggling,[11] product
deliveries, entertainment, and drone racing.

Terminology
Many terms are used for aircraft which fly without
any persons on board.

The term drone has been used from the early days
of aviation, some being applied to remotely flown
target aircraft used for practice firing of a
battleship's guns, such as the 1920s Fairey Queen Northrop Grumman Bat carrying EO/IR and SAR
and 1930s de Havilland Queen Bee. Later examples sensors, laser rangefinders, laser designators,
included the Airspeed Queen Wasp and Miles infrared cameras

Queen Martinet, before ultimate replacement by the

GAF Jindivik.[12] The term remains in common use. In addition to the software, autonomous
drones also employ a host of advanced technologies that allow them to carry out their missions
without human intervention, such as cloud computing, computer vision, artificial intelligence,
machine learning, deep learning, and thermal sensors.[13] For recreational uses, an aerial
photography drone is an aircraft that has first-person video, autonomous capabilities, or both.[14]

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is defined as a "powered, aerial vehicle that does not carry
a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be
piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal
payload".[15] UAV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases.[16] Missiles with
warheads are generally not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a munition, but certain

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types of propeller-based missile are often called

"kamikaze drones" by the public and media. Also,
the relation of UAVs to remote controlled model
aircraft is unclear, UAVs may or may not include
remote-controlled model aircraft. Some
jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight;
however, the US FAA defines any unmanned flying
craft as a UAV regardless of size. A similar term is
remotely piloted aerial vehicle (RPAV).

UAVs or RPAVs can also be seen as a component of A DJI Phantom quadcopter UAV for commercial
and recreational aerial photography
an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), which
also includes a ground-based controller and a
system of communications with the aircraft.[4] The
term UAS was adopted by the United States
Department of Defense (DoD) and the United States
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2005
according to their Unmanned Aircraft System
Roadmap 2005–2030.[17] The International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the British Civil
Aviation Authority adopted this term, also used in
the European Union's Single European Sky (SES)
Air Traffic Management (ATM) Research (SESAR
Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020.[18] This term A General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper, a hunter-killer
surveillance UAV
emphasizes the importance of elements other than
the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground
control stations, data links and other support
equipment. Similar terms are unmanned
aircraft vehicle system (UAVS) and remotely
piloted aircraft system (RPAS).[19] Many
similar terms are in use. Under new regulations
which came into effect 1 June 2019, the term RPAS
has been adopted by the Canadian Government to
mean "a set of configurable elements consisting of a
remotely piloted aircraft, its control station, the
command and control links and any other system Although most large military UAVs are fixed-wing
elements required during flight operation".[20] aircraft, rotorcraft designs (i.e., RUAVs) such as
this MQ-8B Fire Scout are also used.

Classification types
UAVs may be classified like any other aircraft, according to design configuration such as weight or
engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy, operational role, etc.
According to the United States Department of Defense, UAVs are classified into five categories
below:[21][22]

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Group: Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5

Size Small Medium Large Larger Largest

< 20 lb >1,320 lb >1,320 lb

Max take-off wt > 20 & < 55 > 55 & < 1320
(9.1 kg) (600 kg) (600 kg)

< 1,200 ft < 3,500 ft < 18,000 ft < 18,000 ft > 18,000 ft
Operating altitude
(370 m) (1,100 m) (5,500 m) (5,500 m) (5,500 m)

< 100 kn < 250 kn < 250 kn

Speed Any speed Any speed
(190 km/h) (460 km/h) (460 km/h)

Other classifications of UAVs include:[21]

Range and endurance

There are usually five categories when UAVs are classified by range and endurance:[21]

Very close Close range Short range Medium range Long range
Category:
range UAVs UAVs UAVs UAVs UAVs

Range (km): <5 > 5 & < 50 > 50 & < 150 > 150 & < 650 > 650

Endurance
0.5 – 0.75 1–6 8–12 12 – 36 or 48 > 36 or 48
(hr):

Size
There are usually four categories when UAVs are classified by size, with at least one of the
dimensions (length or wingspan) meet the following respective limits:[21]

Category: Micro/Very small UAVs Mini/Small UAVs Medium UAVs Large UAVs

Length/Wingspan: < 50 cm > 50 cm & < 2 m 5 –10 m > 10 m

Weight
Based on their weight, drones can be classified into 5 categories—

Micro air vehicles Miniature UAV or Small Medium Large

Category: Nano
(MAV) (SUAV) UAVs UAVs

< >= 25 kg & <150

Weight: >= 250 gm & <02 Kg >= 02 Kg & <25 Kg >=150 kg
250 gm Kg

.[23]

Degree of autonomy
Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight operations. ICAO
classifies unmanned aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous.[24] Some
UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. For example, a vehicle may be remotely piloted in

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most contexts but have an autonomous return-to-base operation. Some aircraft types may
optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which may include manned aircraft transformed into manned or
Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs). The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control by a human
operator, as remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), or with various degrees of autonomy, such as
autopilot assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human
intervention.[25][26]

Altitude
Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been used at industry events such as
ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum:

▪ Hand-held 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range

▪ Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up to 10 km range
▪ NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range
▪ Tactical 18,000 ft (5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range
▪ MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over 200 km
▪ HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over 30,000 ft (9,100 m) and indefinite range
▪ Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft (15,200 m)
or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km
▪ Orbital low Earth orbit (Mach 25+)
▪ CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer
▪ Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs

Composite criteria
An example of classification based on the composite criteria is U.S. Military's unmanned aerial
systems (UAS) classification of UAVs based on weight, maximum altitude and speed of the UAV
component.

History

Early drones
The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849,[28]
with a balloon carrier (the precursor to the aircraft carrier)[29] in the first offensive use of air power
in naval aviation.[30][31][32] Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200
incendiary balloons at the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however,
some were also launched from the Austrian ship SMS Vulcano. At least one bomb fell in the city;
however, due to the wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some
drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship Vulcano.[33][34][35]

In 1903, Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system

called the Telekino[36] at the Paris Academy of Science, as a way of testing an airship of his own

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design without risking human lives.[37][38]

Significant development of drones started in the 1900s, and

originally focused on providing practice targets for training
military personnel. The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was
A. M. Low's "Aerial Target" in 1916.[39] Low confirmed that
Geoffrey de Havilland's monoplane was the one that flew under
control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system.[40] Following
this successful demonstration in the spring of 1917 Low was
Winston Churchill and others waiting
transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches to watch the launch of a de
D.C.B.s with the Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack Havilland Queen Bee target drone, 6
shipping and port installations and he also assisted Wing June 1941
Commander Brock in preparations for the Zeebrugge Raid.
Other British unmanned developments followed, leading to the
fleet of over 400 de Havilland 82 Queen Bee aerial targets that
went into service in 1935.

Nikola Tesla described a fleet of uncrewed aerial combat

vehicles in 1915.[41] These developments also inspired the
construction of the Kettering Bug by Charles Kettering from
Dayton, Ohio and the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane –
initially meant as an uncrewed plane that would carry an A Ryan Firebee, one of a series of
target drones/unpiloted aerial
explosive payload to a predetermined target. Development
vehicles that first flew in 1951.
continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright
Israeli Air Force Museum, Hatzerim
Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that airbase, Israel, 2006
would explode at a preset time.[42]

The film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny

developed the first scaled remote piloted vehicle in 1935.[39]

Soviet researchers experimented with controlling Tupolev TB-1

bombers remotely in the late 1930s.[43]

World War II
Last preparations before the first
In 1940, Denny started the Radioplane Company and more
tactical UAV mission across the
models emerged during World War II – used both to train Suez canal (1969). Standing: Major
antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack-missions. Nazi Germany Shabtai Brill from the Israeli
produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war, like intelligence corps, the innovator of
the Argus As 292 and the V-1 flying bomb with a jet engine. the tactical UAV.
Fascist Italy developed a specialised drone version of the
Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 flown by remote control, although the
Armistice with Italy was enacted prior to any operational deployment.[44]

Postwar period

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After World War II development continued in vehicles such as

the American JB-4 (using television/radio-command
guidance), the Australian GAF Jindivik and Teledyne Ryan
Firebee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft offered their
Model 1001 for the U.S. Navy in 1955.[39] Nevertheless, they
were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the
Vietnam War. In 1959, the U.S. Air Force, concerned about
The Israeli Tadiran Mastiff, which
losing pilots over hostile territory, began planning for the use of first flew in 1975, is seen by many
uncrewed aircraft.[45] Planning intensified after the Soviet as the first modern battlefield UAV,
Union shot down a U-2 in 1960. Within days, a highly classified due to its data-link system,
UAV program started under the code name of "Red endurance-loitering, and live video-
Wagon". [46] The August 1964 clash in the Tonkin Gulf between streaming.[27]
naval units of the U.S. and the North Vietnamese Navy initiated
America's highly classified UAVs (Ryan Model 147, Ryan
AQM-91 Firefly, Lockheed D-21) into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War.[47] When the
Chinese government[48] showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via Wide World Photos,[49] the
official U.S. response was "no comment".

During the War of Attrition (1967–1970) in the Middle East, Israeli intelligence tested the first
tactical UAVs installed with reconnaissance cameras, which successfully returned photos from
across the Suez Canal. This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed
on any short runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs) were developed and tested in battle.[50]

In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting
expensive anti-aircraft missiles.[51] After the 1973 Yom Kippur war, a few key people from the team
that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a
commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first
Israeli UAV.[52]

In 1973, the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia
(Vietnam).[53] Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were missing or
captured. The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about 3,435 UAV missions during
the war[54] at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF General George S.
Brown, Commander, Air Force Systems Command, in 1972, "The only reason we need (UAVs) is
that we don't want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit."[55] Later that year, General John
C. Meyer, Commander in Chief, Strategic Air Command, stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk
flying ... the loss rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them ...they save lives!"[55]

During the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Soviet-supplied surface-to-air missile-batteries in Egypt and
Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets. As a result, Israel developed the IAI Scout as the
first UAV with real-time surveillance.[56][57][58] The images and radar decoys provided by these
UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize the Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982
Lebanon War, resulting in no pilots downed.[59] In Israel in 1987, UAVs were first used as proof-of-
concept of super-agility, post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight simulations that involved
tailless, stealth-technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight-control, and jet-

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steering.[60]

Modern UAVs
With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable
technologies in the 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew
within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. The U.S. funded
the CTC or counterterror center within the CIA which sought to
fight terrorism with the aid of modernized drone
technology.[61] In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to
AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. The STM Kargu was the first lethal
Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat autonomous weapon to attack
developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in the 1991 enemy combatants in warfare.
Gulf War. UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more
capable fighting-machines, deployable without risk to aircrews.
Initial generations primarily involved surveillance aircraft, but some carried armaments, such as
the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, that launched AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles.

CAPECON, a European Union project to develop UAVs,[62] ran from 1 May 2002 to 31 December
2005.[63]

As of 2012, the United States Air Force (USAF) employed 7,494 UAVs – almost one in three USAF
aircraft.[64][65] The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs.[66] By 2013 at least 50
countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and others designed and built their
own varieties. The use of drones has continued to increase.[67] Due to their wide proliferation, no
comprehensive list of UAV systems exists.[65][68]

The development of smart technologies and improved electrical-power systems led to a parallel
increase in the use of drones for consumer and general aviation activities. As of 2021, quadcopter
drones exemplify the widespread popularity of hobby radio-controlled aircraft and toys, however
the use of UAVs in commercial and general aviation is limited by a lack of autonomy and by new
regulatory environments which require line-of-sight contact with the pilot.

In 2020, a Kargu 2 drone hunted down and attacked a human target in Libya, according to a report
from the UN Security Council's Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021. This may have
been the first time an autonomous killer-robot armed with lethal weaponry attacked human
beings.[69][70]

Superior drone technology, specifically the Bayraktar TB2, played a role in Azerbaijan's successes
in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war against Armenia.[71]

UAVs are also used in NASA missions. The Ingenuity helicopter is an autonomous UAV that
operated on Mars from 2021 to 2024. Current the Dragonfly spacecraft is being developed, and is
aiming to reach and examine Saturn's moon Titan. Its primary goal is to roam around the surface,
expanding the amount of area to be researched previously seen by landers. As a UAV, Dragonfly
allows examination of potentially diverse types of soil. The drone is set to launch in 2027, and is

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estimated to take seven more years to reach the Saturnian

system.

Miniaturization is also supporting the development of small

UAVs which can be used as individual system or in a fleet
offering the possibility to survey large areas, in a relatively
small amount of time.[72]

According to data from GlobalData, the global military Artist's concept of Ingenuity landing
uncrewed aerial systems (UAS) market, which forms a on Mars
significant part of the UAV industry, is projected to experience
a compound annual growth rate of 4.8% over the next decade.
This represents a near doubling in market size, from $12.5 billion in 2024 to an estimated $20
billion by 2034.[73]

Design
Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have
recognizably similar physical components. The main
exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or
life support systems. Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a
camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and
as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry
heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than
their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments. General physical structure of a UAV

Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems, and can thus

be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested
electronic control systems. For small UAVs, the quadcopter design has become popular, though
this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion
technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and
batteries.

Control systems for UAVs are often different from crewed craft. For remote human control, a
camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital
commands replace physical cockpit controls. Autopilot software is used on both crewed and
uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets.[74][75][76]

Aircraft configuration
UAVs can be designed in different configurations than manned aircraft both because there is no
need for a cockpit and its windows, and there is no need to optimize for human comfort, although
some UAVs are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for optionally piloted modes. Air
safety is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer greater
freedom to experiment. Instead, UAVs are typically designed around their onboard payloads and
their ground equipment. These factors have led to a great variety of airframe and motor

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configurations in UAVs.

For conventional flight the flying wing and blended wing body offer light weight combined with low
drag and stealth, and are popular configurations for many use cases. Larger types which carry a
variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct fuselage with a tail for stability, control and
trim, although the wing configurations in use vary widely.

For uses that require vertical flight or hovering, the tailless quadcopter requires a relatively simple
control system and is common for smaller UAVs. Multirotor designs with 6 or more rotors is more
common with larger UAVs, where redundancy is prioritized.[77][78]

Propulsion
Traditional internal combustion and jet engines remain in use for drones requiring long range.
However, for shorter-range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over. The distance
record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by
a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill "in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles
across the Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel" holds this record.[79]

Besides the traditional piston engine, the Wankel rotary engine is used by some drones. This type
offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration-free running. Claims
have also been made for improved reliability and greater range.

Small drones mostly use lithium-polymer batteries (Li-Po), while some larger vehicles have
adopted the hydrogen fuel cell. The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than
gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi-
engine, multi-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving
aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, Battery elimination
circuitry (BEC) may be used to centralize power distribution and minimize heating, under the
control of a microcontroller unit (MCU).

Ornithopters – wing propulsion

Flapping-wing ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, have been flown as microUAVs. Their
inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions.

Sub-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to "land" on
vertical surfaces.[80] Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects.[81]

Computer control systems

UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology, beginning with analog
controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-on-a-chip (SOC) and single-board
computers (SBC).

System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board

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(FCB) or autopilot. Common UAV-systems control

hardware typically incorporate a primary
microprocessor, a secondary or failsafe processor,
and sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes,
magnetometers, and barometers into a single
module.

Architecture A flight controller run on either CleanFlight or

BaseFlight firmware for multirotor UAVs

Sensors
Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state. Exteroceptive sensors
deal with external information like distance measurements, while exproprioceptive ones correlate
internal and external states.[82]

Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are used for separation
assurance and collision avoidance.[83]

Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors on board: 6 DOF
implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical inertial measurement unit – IMU), 9 DOF
refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10 DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS
receiver.[84]

In addition to the navigation sensors, the UAV (or UAS) can be also equipped with monitoring
devices such as: RGB, multispectral, hyper-spectral cameras or LiDAR, which may allow providing
specific measurements or observations.[85]

Actuators
UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM of the motors)
linked to motors/engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and helicopters mostly),
weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.

Software
The software running on a UAV is called the autopilot or the flight stack. The purpose of the flight
stack is to fly the mission autonomously or with remote-pilot input. An autopilot achieves this by
obtaining data from sensors, controlling the motors to make progress along a path, and facilitate
communications with ground control and mission planning.[86]

UAVs are real-time systems that require high-frequency to changing sensor data. As a result, UAVs
rely on single-board computers for their computational needs. Examples of such single-board
computers include Raspberry Pis, Beagleboards, etc. shielded with NavIO, PXFMini, etc. or
designed from scratch such as NuttX, preemptive-RT Linux, Xenomai, Orocos-Robot Operating
System or DDS-ROS 2.0.

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Flight stack overview

Layer Requirement Operations Example

From machine code to processor

Firmware Time-critical ArduCopter-v1, PX4
execution, memory access

Flight control, navigation, radio

Middleware Time-critical PX4, Cleanflight, ArduPilot
management

Operating Computer- Optical flow, obstacle avoidance, SLAM, ROS, Nuttx, Linux distributions,
system intensive decision-making Microsoft IOT

Due to the open-source nature of UAV software, they can be customized to fit specific applications.
For example, researchers from the Technical University of Košice have replaced the default control
algorithm of the PX4 autopilot.[87] This flexibility and collaborative effort has led to a large number
of different open-source stacks, some of which are forked from others, such as CleanFlight, which
is forked from BaseFlight and from which three other stacks are forked.

Loop principles
UAVs employ open-loop, closed-loop or hybrid control
architectures.

▪ Open loop – This type provides a positive control signal

(faster, slower, left, right, up, down) without incorporating
feedback from sensor data.
▪ Closed loop – This type incorporates sensor feedback to
adjust behavior (reduce speed to reflect tailwind, move to
altitude 300 feet). The PID controller is common.
Sometimes, feedforward is employed, transferring the need
to close the loop further.[88] Typical flight-control loops for a
multirotor

Communications
UAVs use a radio for control and exchange of video and other data. Early UAVs had only
narrowband uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links carried
command and control (C&C) and telemetry data about the status of aircraft systems to the remote
operator.

In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having separate
links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a broadband link is used to carry all types of data. These
broadband links can leverage quality of service techniques and carry TCP/IP traffic that can be
routed over the Internet.

The radio signal from the operator side can be issued from either:

▪ Ground control – a human operating a radio transmitter/receiver, a smartphone, a tablet, a

computer, or the original meaning of a military ground control station (GCS).
▪ Remote network system, such as satellite duplex data links for some military powers.
Downstream digital video over mobile networks has also entered consumer markets, while

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direct UAV control uplink over the cellular mesh and LTE have been demonstrated and are in
trials.[89]
▪ Another aircraft, serving as a relay or mobile control station – military manned-unmanned
teaming (MUM-T).[90]
Modern networking standards have explicitly considered drones and therefore include
optimizations. The 5G standard has mandated reduced user plane latency to 1ms while using ultra-
reliable and low-latency communications.[91]

UAV-to-UAV coordination supported by Remote ID communication technology. Remote ID

messages (containing the UAV coordinates) are broadcast and can be used for collision-free
navigation.[92]

Autonomy
The level of autonomy in UAVs varies widely. UAV
manufacturers often build in specific autonomous operations,
such as:[93]

▪ Self-level: attitude stabilization on the pitch and roll axes.

▪ Altitude hold: The aircraft maintains its altitude using
barometric pressure and/or GPS data.
▪ Hover/position hold: Keep level pitch and roll, stable yaw
heading and altitude while maintaining position using UAV's degrees of autonomy
GNSS or inertial sensors.
▪ Headless mode: Pitch control relative to the position of the
pilot rather than relative to the vehicle's axes.
▪ Care-free: automatic roll and yaw control while moving horizontally
▪ Take-off and landing (using a variety of aircraft or ground-based sensors and systems; see also
"autoland")
▪ Failsafe: automatic landing or return-to-home upon loss of control signal
▪ Return-to-home: Fly back to the point of takeoff (often gaining altitude first to avoid possible
intervening obstructions such as trees or buildings).
▪ Follow-me: Maintain relative position to a moving pilot or other object using GNSS, image
recognition or homing beacon.
▪ GPS waypoint navigation: Using GNSS to navigate to an intermediate location on a travel path.
▪ Orbit around an object: Similar to Follow-me but continuously circle a target.
▪ Pre-programmed aerobatics (such as rolls and loops)
▪ Pre-programmed delivery ( delivery drones)
One approach to quantifying autonomous capabilities is based on OODA terminology, as suggested
by a 2002 US Air Force Research Laboratory report, and used in the table on the right.[94]

Full autonomy is available for specific tasks, such as airborne refueling[95] or ground-based battery
switching.

Other functions available or under development include; collective flight, real-time collision

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avoidance, wall following, corridor centring, simultaneous

localization and mapping and swarming, cognitive radio and
machine learning. In this context, computer vision can play an
important role for automatically ensuring flight safety.

Performance considerations

A Northrop Grumman X-47B

Flight envelope unmanned combat aircraft
UAVs can be programmed to perform aggressive maneuvers or demonstrator of the US Navy refuels
landing/perching on inclined surfaces,[96] and then to climb in flight from a tanker aircraft.
toward better communication spots.[97] Some UAVs can
control flight with varying flight modelisation,[98][99] such as VTOL designs.

UAVs can also implement perching on a flat vertical surface.[100]

Endurance
UAV endurance is not constrained by the physiological
capabilities of a human pilot.

Because of their small size, low weight, low vibration and high
power to weight ratio, Wankel rotary engines are used in many
large UAVs. Their engine rotors cannot seize; the engine is not
susceptible to shock-cooling during descent and it does not
require an enriched fuel mixture for cooling at high power.
These attributes reduce fuel usage, increasing range or payload.

Proper drone cooling is essential for long-term drone

endurance. Overheating and subsequent engine failure is the UEL UAV-741 Wankel engine for
most common cause of drone failure.[101] UAV operations

Hydrogen fuel cells, using hydrogen power, may be able to

extend the endurance of small UAVs, up to several hours.[102][103]

Micro air vehicles endurance is so far best achieved with flapping-wing UAVs, followed by planes
and multirotors standing last, due to lower Reynolds number.[82]

Solar-electric UAVs, a concept originally championed by the AstroFlight Sunrise in 1974, have
achieved flight times of several weeks.

Solar-powered atmospheric satellites ("atmosats") designed for operating at altitudes exceeding

20 km (12 miles, or 60,000 feet) for as long as five years could potentially perform duties more
economically and with more versatility than low Earth orbit satellites. Likely applications include
weather drones for weather monitoring, disaster recovery, Earth imaging and communications.

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Electric UAVs powered by microwave power transmission or

laser power beaming are other potential endurance
solutions.[104]

Another application for a high endurance UAV would be to

"stare" at a battlefield for a long interval (ARGUS-IS, Gorgon
Stare, Integrated Sensor Is Structure) to record events that
could then be played backwards to track battlefield activities.

Lengthy endurance flights

Flight time
UAV Date Notes
hours:minutes

The aircraft is currently in

Boeing the Hiller Aviation Museum.
58:11 1989 [105]
Condor
Flight time against mass of small
(less than 1 kg) drones[82]
General
Atomics 40:00 1992 [106][107]
Gnat

Smallest UAV to cross the

11 August Atlantic
TAM-5 38:52 [108]
2003

QinetiQ
Zephyr September [109][110]
54:00
Solar 2007
Electric

RQ-4 Set an endurance record for

22 March
Global 33:06 a full-scale, operational
2008
Hawk uncrewed aircraft.[111]

QinetiQ
Zephyr 28–31 July [112]
82:37
Solar 2008
Electric

Solar electric powered.

QinetiQ Remained aloft for 14 days.
9–23 July
Zephyr 336:22 Also filed for FAI altitude
2010
7 record of 70,740 ft (21,561
m)[113]

The delicacy of the British PHASA-35 military drone (at a late stage of development) is such that
traversing the first turbulent twelve miles of atmosphere is a hazardous endeavor. It has, however,
remained on station at 65,000 feet for 24 hours. Airbus' Zephyr in 2023 has attained 70,000 feet
and flown for 64 days; 200 days aimed at. This is sufficiently close enough to near-space for them
to be regarded in "pseudo-satellites" as regards to their operational capabilities.[114]

Reliability

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Reliability improvements target all aspects of UAV systems, using resilience engineering and fault
tolerance techniques.

Individual reliability covers robustness of flight controllers, to ensure safety without excessive
redundancy to minimize cost and weight.[115] Besides, dynamic assessment of flight envelope
allows damage-resilient UAVs, using non-linear analysis with ad hoc designed loops or neural
networks.[116] UAV software liability is bending toward the design and certifications of crewed
avionics software.[117]

Swarm resilience involves maintaining operational capabilities and reconfiguring tasks given unit
failures.[118]

Applications
In recent years, autonomous drones have begun to transform various application areas as they can
fly beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS)[119] while maximizing production, reducing costs and risks,
ensuring site safety, security and regulatory compliance,[120] and protecting the human workforce
in times of a pandemic.[121] They can also be used for consumer-related missions like package
delivery, as demonstrated by Amazon Prime Air, and critical deliveries of health supplies.

There are numerous civilian, commercial, military, and aerospace applications for UAVs.[2] These
include:

General
Recreation, Disaster relief, archeology, conservation of biodiversity and habitat,[122] law
enforcement, crime, and terrorism.
Commercial
Aerial surveillance, filmmaking,[123] journalism, scientific research, surveying, cargo
transport, mining, manufacturing, Forestry, solar farming, thermal energy, ports and
agriculture.

Warfare
As of 2020, seventeen countries have armed UAVs, and more
than 100 countries use UAVs in a military capacity.[124] The
first five countries producing their UAVs are the United States,
China, Israel, Iran and Turkey.[125][126][127][128] Top military
UAV manufactures are including General Atomics, Lockheed
Martin, Northrop Grumman, Boeing, Baykar,[129][126] TAI,
IAIO, CASC and CAIG.[128] China has established and
expanded its presence in military UAV market[128] since 2010.
In the early 2020s, Turkey also established and expanded its A Baykar Bayraktar TB2 of the
presence in the military UAV market.[125][128][126][129] Ukrainian Air Force armed with
MAM-L; two ground control stations
In the early 2010s, Israeli companies mainly focus on small in the background
surveillance UAV systems, and by the number of drones, Israel
exported 60.7% (2014) of UAVs on the market while the United

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States exported 23.9% (2014).[130] Between 2010 and 2014, there were 439 drones exchanged
compared to 322 in the five years previous to that, among these only small fraction of overall trade
– just 11 (2.5%) of the 439 are armed drones.[130] The US alone operated over 9,000 military UAVs
in 2014; among them more than 7000 are RQ-11 Raven miniature UAVs.[131] Since 2010, Chinese
drone companies have begun to export large quantities of drones to the global military market. Of
the 18 countries that are known to have received military drones between 2010 and 2019, the top
12 all purchased their drones from China.[128][132] The shift accelerated in the 2020s due to China's
advancement in drone technologies and manufacturing, compounded by market demand from the
Russian invasion of Ukraine and the Israel-Gaza conflict.[133][134][135][136]

For intelligence and reconnaissance missions, the inherent stealth of micro UAV flapping-wing
ornithopters, imitating birds or insects, offers potential for covert surveillance and makes them
difficult targets to bring down.

Unmanned surveillance and reconnaissance aerial vehicle are used for reconnaissance, attack,
demining, and target practice.

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine a dramatic increase in UAV development took
place with Ukraine creating the Brave1 platform to promote rapid development of innovative
systems.

Civil

Suppliers
The civilian (commercial and general) drone market is
dominated by Chinese companies. Chinese manufacturer DJI
alone had 74% of the civil market share in 2018, with no other
company accounting for more than 5%.[137] The companies
continue to hold over 70% of global market share by 2023,
despite under increasing scrutinies and sanctions from the
United States.[138] The US Interior Department grounded its
fleet of DJI drones in 2020, while the Justice Department
Zipline's aircraft being launched
prohibited the use of federal funds for the purchase of DJI and
from a base in Rwanda to deliver
other foreign-made UAVs.[139][140] DJI is followed by American blood products
company 3D Robotics, Chinese company Yuneec, Autel
Robotics, and French company Parrot.[141][142]

As of May 2021, 873,576 UAVs had been registered with the US FAA, of which 42% were
categorized as commercial and 58% as recreational.[143] 2018 NPD point to consumers increasingly
purchasing drones with more advanced features with 33 percent growth in both the $500+ and
$1000+ market segments.[144]

The civil UAV market is relatively new compared to the military one. Companies are emerging in
both developed and developing nations at the same time. Many early-stage startups have received

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support and funding from investors, as is the case in the United States, and from government
agencies, as is the case in India.[145] Some universities offer research and training programs or
degrees.[146] Private entities also provide online and in-person training programs for both
recreational and commercial UAV use.[147]

Consumer drones are widely used by police and military organizations worldwide because of the
cost-effective nature of consumer products. Since 2018, the Israeli military have used DJI UAVs for
light reconnaissance missions.[148][149][134] DJI drones have been used by Chinese police in
Xinjiang since 2017[150][151] and American police departments nationwide since 2018.[152][153] Both
Ukraine and Russia used commercial DJI drones extensively during the Russian invasion of
Ukraine.[154] These civilian DJI drones were sourced by governments, hobbyists, international
donations to Ukraine and Russia to support each side on the battlefield, and were often flown by
drone hobbyists recruited by the armed forces. The prevalence of DJI drones was attributable to
their market dominance, affordability, high performance, and reliability.[155]

Entertainment
Drones are also used in nighttime displays for artistic and advertising purposes with the main
benefits are that they are safer, quieter and better for the environment than fireworks. They can
replace or be an adjunct for fireworks displays to reduce the financial burden of festivals. In
addition they can complement fireworks due to the ability for drones to carry them, creating new
forms of artwork in the process.[156][157][158]

Drones can also be used for racing, either with or without VR functionality.

Aerial photography
Drones are ideally suited to capturing aerial shots in photography and cinematography, and are
widely used for this purpose.[123] Small drones avoid the need for precise coordination between
pilot and cameraman, with the same person taking on both roles. However, big drones with
professional cine cameras, there is usually a drone pilot and a camera operator who controls
camera angle and lens. For example, the AERIGON cinema drone which is used in film production
in big blockbuster movies is operated by 2 people.[159] Drones provide access to dangerous, remote
or otherwise inaccessible sites.

Environmental monitoring
UASs or UAVs offer the great advantage for environmental monitoring to generate a new
generation of survey at very-high or ultra-high resolution both in space and time. This gives the
opportunity to bridge the existing gap between satellite data and field monitoring. This has
stimulated a huge number of activities in order to enhance the description of natural and
agricultural ecosystems. Most common applications are:

▪ Topographic surveys[160] for the production of orthomosaics, digital surface models and 3D
models;
▪ Monitoring of natural ecosystems for biodiversity monitoring,[161] habitat mapping,[162]

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detection of invasive alien species[163] and study of ecosystem degradation due to invasive
species or disturbances;
▪ Precision agriculture[164] which exploits all available technologies including UAV in order to
produce more with less (e.g., optimisation of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation);
▪ River monitoring several methods have been developed to perform flow monitoring using
image velocimetry methods which allow to properly describe the 2D flow velocity fields.[165]
▪ Structural integrity of any type of structure whether it be a dam, railway or other dangerous,
inaccessible or massive locations for building monitoring.[166]
These activities can be completed with different measurements, such as photogrammetry,
thermography, multispectral images, 3D field scanning, and normalized difference vegetation
index maps.

Agriculture, forestry and environmental studies

As global demand for food production grows exponentially, resources are depleted, farmland is
reduced, and agricultural labor is increasingly in short supply, there is an urgent need for more
convenient and smarter agricultural solutions than traditional methods, and the agricultural drone
and robotics industry is expected to make progress.[167] Agricultural drones have been used to help
build sustainable agriculture all over the world leading to a new generation of agriculture.[168] In
this context, there is a proliferation of innovations in both tools and methodologies which allow
precise description of vegetation state and also may help to precisely distribute nutrients,
pesticides or seeds over a field.[5]

The use of UAVs is also being investigated to help detect and fight wildfires, whether through
observation or launching pyrotechnic devices to start backfires.[169]

UAVs are also now widely used to survey wildlife such as nesting seabirds, seals and even wombat
burrows.[170]

Law enforcement
Police can use drones for applications such as search and rescue and traffic monitoring.[171]

Humanitarian Aid
Drones are increasingly finding their application in humanitarian aid and disaster relief, where
they are used for a wide range of applications such as delivering food, medicine and essential items
to remote areas or image mapping before and following disasters [172]

Safety and security

Threats

Nuisance

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UAVs can threaten airspace security in numerous ways, including

unintentional collisions or other interference with other aircraft,
deliberate attacks or by distracting pilots or flight controllers. The
first incident of a drone-airplane collision occurred in mid-
October 2017 in Quebec City, Canada.[173] The first recorded
instance of a drone collision with a hot air balloon occurred on 10
August 2018 in Driggs, Idaho, United States; although there was
no significant damage to the balloon nor any injuries to its 3
occupants, the balloon pilot reported the incident to the National
Transportation Safety Board, stating that "I hope this incident
helps create a conversation of respect for nature, the airspace, and
rules and regulations".[174] Unauthorized UAV flights into or near
major airports have prompted extended shutdowns of commercial
US Department of Agriculture
flights.[175] poster warning about the risks of
flying UAVs near wildfires
Drones caused significant disruption at Gatwick Airport during
December 2018, needing the deployment of the British
Army.[176][177]

In the United States, flying close to a wildfire is punishable by a maximum $25,000 fine.
Nonetheless, in 2014 and 2015, firefighting air support in California was hindered on several
occasions, including at the Lake Fire[178] and the North Fire.[179][180] In response, California
legislators introduced a bill that would allow firefighters to disable UAVs which invaded restricted
airspace.[181] The FAA later required registration of most UAVs.

Security vulnerabilities
By 2017, drones were being used to drop contraband into prisons.[182]

The interest in UAVs cyber security has been raised greatly after the Predator UAV video stream
hijacking incident in 2009,[183] where Islamic militants used cheap, off-the-shelf equipment to
stream video feeds from a UAV. Another risk is the possibility of hijacking or jamming a UAV in
flight. Several security researchers have made public some vulnerabilities in commercial UAVs, in
some cases even providing full source code or tools to reproduce their attacks.[184] At a workshop
on UAVs and privacy in October 2016, researchers from the Federal Trade Commission showed
they were able to hack into three different consumer quadcopters and noted that UAV
manufacturers can make their UAVs more secure by the basic security measures of encrypting the
Wi-Fi signal and adding password protection.[185]

Aggression
UAVs could be loaded with dangerous payloads, and crashed into vulnerable targets. Payloads
could include explosives, chemical, radiological or biological hazards. UAVs with generally non-
lethal payloads could possibly be hacked and put to malicious purposes. Anti-UAV systems are
being developed by states to counter this threat. This is, however, proving difficult. As J. Rogers
stated in an interview to A&T "There is a big debate out there at the moment about what the best

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way is to counter these small UAVs, whether they are used by hobbyists causing a bit of a nuisance
or in a more sinister manner by a terrorist actor".[186]

Countermeasures

Counter unmanned air system

The malicious use of UAVs has led to the development of
counter unmanned air system (C-UAS) technologies.
Automatic tracking and detection of UAVs from commercial
cameras have become accurate thanks to the development of
deep learning based machine learning algorithms.[187] It is also
possible to automatically identify UAVs across different
cameras with different view points and hardware specification
with re-identification methods.[188] Commercial systems such Italian Army soldiers of the 17th
as the Aaronia AARTOS have been installed on major Anti-aircraft Artillery Regiment
international airports.[189][190] Once a UAV is detected, it can "Sforzesca" with a portable drone
be countered with kinetic force (missiles, projectiles or another jammer in Rome
UAV) or by non-kinetic force (laser, microwaves,
communications jamming).[191] Anti-aircraft missile systems
such as the Iron Dome are also being enhanced with C-UAS
technologies. Utilising a smart UAV swarm to counter one or
more hostile UAVs is also proposed.[192]

Regulation
Regulatory bodies around the world are developing unmanned
Cannon anti-drone system
aircraft system traffic management solutions to better integrate
UAVs into airspace.[193]

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is becoming increasingly regulated by the civil aviation
authorities of individual countries. Regulatory regimes can differ significantly according to drone
size and use. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) began exploring the use of
drone technology as far back as 2005, which resulted in a 2011 report.[194] France was among the
first countries to set a national framework based on this report and larger aviation bodies such as
the FAA and the EASA quickly followed suit.[195] In 2021, the FAA published a rule requiring all
commercially used UAVs and all UAVs regardless of intent weighing 250g or more to participate in
Remote ID, which makes drone locations, controller locations, and other information public from
takeoff to shutdown; this rule has since been challenged in the pending federal lawsuit
RaceDayQuads v. FAA.[196][197]

EU Drone Certification - Class Identification Label

The implementation of the Class Identification Label ([Link]
el/) serves a crucial purpose in the regulation and operation of drones.[198] The label is a

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verification mechanism designed to confirm that drones within a specific class meet the rigorous
standards set by administrations for design and manufacturing.[199] These standards are necessary
to ensure the safety and reliability of drones in various industries and applications.

By providing this assurance to customers, the Class Identification Label helps to increase
confidence in drone technology and encourages wider adoption across industries. This, in turn,
contributes to the growth and development of the drone industry and supports the integration of
drones into society.

Export controls
The export of UAVs or technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km is
restricted in many countries by the Missile Technology Control Regime.

See also
▪ List of unmanned aerial vehicles ▪ Radio-controlled aircraft
▪ Delivery drone ▪ Autonomous aircraft
▪ Drone in a Box ▪ Optionally piloted vehicle
▪ International Aerial Robotics Competition ▪ Sypaq Corvo Precision Payload Delivery
▪ List of films featuring drones System
▪ MARSS Interceptor ▪ Satellite Sentinel Project
▪ Micromechanical Flying Insect ▪ Tactical Control System
▪ ParcAberporth ▪ UAV ground control station
▪ Quadcopter ▪ Unmanned underwater vehicle

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▪ Axe, David. Drone War Vietnam. Pen & Sword, Military. Great Britain. (2021). ISBN 978 1
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▪ Sayler, Kelley (June 2015). "A world of proliferated drones: a technology primer" ([Link]
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▪ Wagner, William (1982), Lightning Bugs and other Reconnaissance Drones; The can-do story
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Further reading
▪ Cahill, Bill (April 2022). "Lightning Bugs & Buffalo Hunters: The Ryan Model 147 Drone in
Vietnam". The Aviation Historian (39): 18–27. ISSN 2051-1930 ([Link]
051-1930).
▪ Hill, J., & Rogers, A. (2014). The rise of the drones: From The Great War to Gaza. Vancouver
Island University Arts & Humanities Colloquium Series.
▪ Javier Garcia-Bernardoa; Peter Sheridan Dodds; Neil F. Johnson (2016). "Quantitative patterns
in drone wars" ([Link]
earch/papers/files/2016/[Link]) (PDF). Science direct. Archived from the
original ([Link]
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▪ Rogers, A., & Hill, J. (2014). Unmanned: Drone warfare and global security. Between the Lines.
ISBN 9781771131544

External links
▪ How Intelligent Drones Are Shaping the Future of Warfare ([Link]
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