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SEED TECH + CROP PHYSIOLOGY MARATHON

SEED TECH
Seed
SEED TECHNOLOGY
 Botanically seed is fertilized ovule consisting of intact embryo, stored food and
seed coat which is viable and has got the capacity to germinate.
 Seed is the ripened ovule in the ovary of a flower.
 After fertilization, egg cell changed into embryo, ovary changed into fruit and
ovule changed into seed.
 Seed is a mature, integument mega sporangium
 A seed have three parts: Seed coat, Embryo and Cotyledons.
 National Seed Corporation established in 1963.
 National seed Act passed in 1966.
 Maharashtra was the first State to establish an official seed certification Agency
during 1970 as a part of the Department of Agriculture, whereas Karnataka was the
first State to establish the seed certification Agency as autonomous body during
1974.
 At present 22 states in the country have their own Seed Certification Agencies
established under the Seed Act 1966.

A typical seed includes three basic parts:

1. An embryo,
2. A supply of nutrients for the embryo,
3. A seed coat.
Monocotyledonous The embryo has onecotyledon or seed leaf
seeds in monocotyledons e.g. Wheat, Bajra, maize and rice
Dicotyledonous seeds Two cotyledons in almost all dicotyledons and two or more
in gymnosperms e.g Mango, Gram and pea.
Radicle The radicle is the embryonic root.
Plumule The plumule is the embryonic shoot
Epicotyl The embryonic stem above the point of attachment of the
cotyledon(s) is the epicotyl

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hypocotyl The embryonic stem below the point of attachment is
the hypocotyl.

 It should have optimum moisture content for storage

1. long term storage - 8 % & below
2. short term storage -10-13%

Factor Affecting Seed Germination

 Capacity of seed germination
 Moisture
 Temperature
 Oxygen supply [Air]

Types of seed
1. Based on cotyledon
A. Monocot Seed: Seed which have embryo, endosperm and one cotyledon ex Cereals,
grasses etc.
B. Dicot Seed: Seed which have embryo and two cotyledon ex Pulses etc

2. Based on light
A. Positive photoblastic Seed: Seed which germinate in the presence of light ex
tobacco
B. Negetive photoblastic Seed: Seed which germinate in the absence of light ex onion
C. Non photoblastic Seed:
 Seed which can germinate in light and dark
 Most of the crop seed
 Red wave length is most effective in germination[662nm]

3. Other types
A. Orthodox Seed:
 Seed remain viable for long time at low temperature and low moisture content.
 They don’t loss their viability at low temperature
 Example: Seed of cereals and pulses

B. Recalcitrant seed:
 Seed don’t remain viable for long time at low temperature and low moisture
 Very drastic loss of viability

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 Example: Mango, Coconut etc

Maximum moisture for safe storage

1. Cereals 10-12%
2. Pulses 8-10%
3. Oilseeds 6-8%

 National Seed Corporation 1963

 Seed act 1966
 Maharashtra first state to established seed certification agency in 1970 under
the department of Agriculture
 Karnataka first state to established seed certification agency in 1974 as
autonomous body

CLASSES OF SEED
1. Nucleus seed:
1. It is the initial seed of improved variety.
2. Produced by original plant breeder.
3. Produced at experimental farms of concerned research institute or agricultural
university.
4. Genetic purity: 100%
5. Physical purity: 100%
6. Certification is not required for nucleus seed.
7. Colour of tag: none (no colour)
8. It is used for production of breeder seed.

2. Breeder seed:
1. It is the progeny of nucleus or breeder seed.
2. Produced by original or sponsored plant breeder.
3. Produced at experimental farms of concerned research institute or agricultural
university.
4. Genetic purity: 100%
5. Physical purity: 100%
6. Certification is not required for breeder seed.
7. Colour of tag: Golden yellow (size: 12 cm * 6 cm)
8. It is used for production of foundation of seed.

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3. Foundation seed:
1. It is the progeny of breeder seed.
2. Produced by NSC (national seed corporation)
3. Produced at government multiplication farm.
4. Genetic purity: 100%
5. Physical purity: 98%
6. Certification is done by SSCA (state seed certification agency)
7. Colour of tag: white (15 cm * 7.5 cm)
8. It used for production of certified seed.

4. Certified seed:
1. It is progeny of foundation or certified seed.
2. Produced by NSC and SSC(state seed corporation)
3. Produced at fields of progressive farmers.
4. Genetic purity: 99.9%
5. Physical purity: 98%
6. Certification is done by SSCA.
7. Colour of tag: Azur blue (15 * 7.5 cm)
8. It used for distribution to farmers for commercial crop production.

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5. Registered Seed
1. It is produced from foundation seed or registered seed
2. Not produced in India
3. Colour og tag: Purple/Orange

Differences between certified seed and truthful labelled seed

Certified seed Truthful labelled seed
Certification is voluntary Truthful labelling is compulsory for
notified kind of varieties
Applicable to notified kinds only Applicable to both notified and released
varieties
It should satisfy both minimum field and Tested for physical purity and germination
seed standards
Seed certification officer, seed inspectors Seed inspectors alone can take samples for
can take samples for inspection checking the seed quality.
Tag: Blue Tag: Opal Green

SEED VIABILITY
 Viability of seed represents the capacity of the seed to germinate.
 It is an ability of embryo/seed to live, grow and develop into a normal seedling
under favorable environmental condition.

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1. Tetrazolium test:
 Also known as “Biochemical test”
 Chemical used: 2,3,4-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) or bromide (TTB).
 In this test, all the living tissue/cells of the seed produces a stable and non diffusible
compound is called “FORMAZEN” which is bright cherry red in colour.
 Completely stained seed appears in red colour indicate viable seed.
 Completely unstained seed appears in their normal colour indicate non-viable seed.
 It is used for seeds of all field crops.

2. Indigo-Carmine test:
 Chemical used: “Di sodium 5,5-indigtin di sulphate”, which is soluble in indigo
blue.
 This test is used for determining viability of tree and shrub seeds.
 Indigo carmine is a dark blue powder with a copper luster.
 It stains dead area of embryo.
3. Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase Activity (GADA) test:
 GADA test is most suitable for monocots like wheat and maize than dicot.

4. Potassium Permagnate method: Qualitative test

5. Grodex Test:
 Germinator indicator
 Brand Name: Triphynyle Tetrazolium Bromide Powder form

SEED DORMANCY
 It is the resting stage (or) survival mechanism of the seed because dormancy delays
germination, therefore it is of great importance and effectiveness as a survival
mechanism.

Type of Seed dormancy

1. Innat or Primary: Due to genetic factors and chemical present in seed coat
2. Enforced: Due to deeper placement of seed
3. Induced or secondary: Due to environmental factors like temperature, water logging.

Dormancy breaking treatments

1. Scarification
 Any treatments may be physical or chemical that weakens or softens the seed coat is
known as scarification. This method is more applicable to Malvaceae and
Leguminaceae group of seeds.
 KNO3 (1-3%) is strongest dormancy breaker.
 Thiourea used in case of potato.

Types -
A. Acid scarification

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 By using concentrated H2SO4 @ 100 ml/kg of seed for 2-3 minutes treatments
dormancy can be overcome in the above group of seeds. The duration of treatment
will vary and it depends on type and nature of seed coat.
 E.g. Tree crops 1-3 hours, Rose seeds, treat the seed partially with acid and then
given with warm stratification.
 Cotton and H2so4 ratio 10:1

B. Mechanical scarification
 Seeds are rubbed on a sand paper or with a help of mechanical scarifier or by
puncturing on seed coat with the help of needle to enhance / increase the moisture
absorption by seeds.
 E.g. Bitter gourd for sand scarification, sand and seed 2:1 ratio should be followed.
Rub against hard surface of seed for 5 to 10 minutes,

C. Hot water treatments

 It is effective in case of leguminous tree crop seeds.
 The seeds should be soaked in boiled water for 1-5 minutes for 60-80 minutes.
 Some crops like Bengal gram and Groundnut, hot water treatment for more than 1
minute is found injurious to seed.

2. Stratification treatment
 When seed dormancy is due to embryo factor, seeds can be subjected to
stratification treatments.
A. Cold stratification
 Incubate the seed at low temperature of 0-5° C over a moist substratum for 2-3 days
to several months. It depends on the nature of seed and kind of dormancy. (e.g.)
Cherry and oil palm seeds.

B. Warm stratification
 Some seeds require temperature of 40-50° C for few days e.g. paddy. In case of oil
palm it requires temperature of 40-50° C for 2 months for breaking dormancy.
 Care should be taken during the treatment and moisture content of seed should not
be more than 15%.

A. Temperature treatments
1. Low temperature treatments
 Plants which grow in temperate and cooler climate, require a period of chilling for
breakage of dormancy. For chilling treatment :Seeds should be kept 2-8 degree
celcius for 12-24 hours. E.g. Apple seed dormancy can be released by low
temperature treatment by storing the seeds at 5°C.

2. High temperature treatment

 Normally high temperature treatments are exhibited by early flowering "winter"
annuals. E.g. Blue bell (Hyacinthoidesnonscripta). Their seeds are shed in early
summer and do not germinate until they have been exposed to the heat during high
summer.

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3. Alternate temperature treatments

 Most of the plant species which grow in temperate and cool temperate regions
require
 alternate temperature for breakage of dormancy (e.g.) Bull rush (Typha).

B. Seed Treatment with Growth Regulators/Chemicals

 If the endogenous dormancy is due to the presence of inhibitors, we can apply
growth regulators at the low level to break dormancy.
 GA &Cytokinin and kinetin can be used at concentration of 100-1000 ppm to break
dormancy.
 GA is light substituting chemical. KNO3 2% can be used for breaking the dormancy
of light requiring seeds (e.g.) Oats, Barley and Tomato.
 Thiourea can be used for breaking dormancy for both light and chilling treatment
requiring seeds (e.g.) lettuce - thiourea @ 10-2 to 10-3 M is used.
 Ethrel can be used for breaking the dormancy of cotton seed. The dormancy in
cotton seed is due to the presence of ABA in pericarp of seed.
 Nitrogenous compounds like Thiourea, Hydroxylamine, Nitric acid, Nitrtate, can
also be used for breaking dormancy.
 Sulphidral compounds like 2 mercapto ethanol and 2,3 dimercaptoehtanol can also
be used.
 Plant products like strigol (root exudation from striga parasite host plant) can also be
used for breaking the seed dormancy.

Isolation distance
 It is separation distance of pure and healthy plants from that of contaminated
plant to avoid the contamination or cross pollination.

CROPS FOUNDATION SEEDS (M) CERTIFIED SEED (M)

Self pollinated crops
Cereals & millets
Paddy, Wheat 3 3
Pulses
Moong, Urd 10 5
Soybean 3 3
Oilseeds
Groundnut 3 3
Vegetables
Tomato, Lettuce 50 25
Pea 10 5
Potato 5 5
Often cross pollinated crops
Cereals & millets
Sorghum 200 100

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Sorghum Hybrid 300 200
Pulses
Red Gram 200 100
Oilseeds
Sesame 100 50
Vegetables
Okra, Chilli, Carrot 400 200
Cabbage, Radish,Spinach 1600 1000
Coaliflower, Cucurbits 1000 500
[All]
Cross pollinated crops
Cereals & millets
Maize, Bajra, 400 200
Maize Inbred line 400 -
Bajra Hybrid 1000 200
Oilseeds
Sunflower 400 200
others
Sun hemp 200 1000

Germination of seed
 Embryo of seed grow into a plant
 Radical produces root and plumule developed into shoot.
 Highest viability is found in the seed of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera).
 Generally, most common temperature for seed germination is 25 ± 3 oC.
 Tobacco seeds germinate better in light than in darkness.
 Datura, tomato and onion germinate at a faster rate in dark than in light.
 Germination % = No. of germinated seeds ÷ 100 × 100

Crops Purity (%) Germination (%)

Physical
Wheat, barley, oats, mustard, chick pea 98 85
Paddy, sorghum, maize, linseed, berseem, Lucerne, 98 80
tomato
Sesamum, jute 97 80
Millet, sudan grass 97 75
Soybean, sunflower, castor, cluster bean, true potao 98 70
seed, chilli, raidsh
Urd bean, mung bean, pigeon pea, cowpea, lentil, 98 75
cabbage, cauliflower, onion, carrot, French bean,
pea
Cotton, clover 98 65
Ground nut 97 70
Coriander, cumin 95 65

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Papaya 98 60
Coconut, areca nut, oil palm 98 90
Chrysanthemum 98 50

Seed Multiplication Ratio

 It is nothing but the number of seeds to be produced from a single seed when it is
sown and harvested.
 According to expert group of seeds (1989), the seed multiplication ratio for different
crops are as follows.

Crop Seed Multiplication Crop Seed Multiplication

Ratio Ratio
Wheat 1:20 Lucerne 1:25
Paddy 1:80 (Varieties) Oats 1:15
1:100 (Hybrids) Bhendi 1:100
Maize 1:80 (Varieties) Tomato 1:400
1:100 (Hybrids) Brinjal 1:450
Sorghum 1:100 Chillies 1:240
Bajra 1:200 Watermelon 1:100
Ragi 1:80 Pumpkin 1:160
Gram 1:10 Bittergourd 1:41
Blackgram 1:40 Bottlegourd 1:99
Greengram 1:40 Ridgegourd 1:83
Cowpea 1:40 Cucumber 1:200
Horsegram 1:40 French bean 1:9
Moth bean 1:40 Clusterbean 1:50
Red gram 1:100 Peas 1:19
Cole crops 1: 433 Onion 1:171
Potato 1:4 Radish 1:100
Groundnut 1:8 Carrot 1:83
Linseed 1:50 Mustard and rape 1:100
Cotton 1:50 Soybean 1:16
Jute 1:100 Sunflower 1:50
Mestha 1:40 Sesame 1:250
Sunhemp 1:30 Safflower and castor 1:60
Berseem 1;10 Lucerne 1:25

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Seed Purity
 Purity % = Weight of pure seed ÷ Total weight of the working sample× 100
 Real value of seed = Purity % × germination % ÷ 100
 KOH-Bleach test for sorghum, NaOH test for wheat, Peroxidase test for soybean
and
 Phenol test for wheat are used for purity test.
 Impurity percentage is called Dockage.

Seed vigour
 A condition of good health and naturally robust in seeds which have capacity for
rapid germination, normal growth and survival in wide range of environment.
 Physiologically mature seeds are most vigourous.
 Seed vigour can be tested by many methods like physical test, performance test,
stress tolerance test, biochemical test etc.
 Length, breadth and diameter of large seeds like paddy, wheat, maize, and soybean
can be measured with the help of graph paper or micrometer.
 Generally larger seed are more vigour than smaller seeds.
 Seed vigour can be determined by weighing 1000 seed weight (test weight).

Important Events
YEARS EVENTS
1924 International Seed Testing Association [ISTA] was established at Norway
(Present HQ-Switzerland)
st
1961 1 Seed Testing laboratory was establishes at IARI New Delhi
1963 Establish National Seed Corporation in New Delhi
1966 Indian Seed Act
1968 Seed Rule under seed act 1966
1969 Seed act came into forced throughout the country
2001 PPV&FR Act
2002 National seed Policy
2004 New seed act was formulated & introduced to replace seed act 1966

2005 New seed act 2004 came into force in Jan. 2005

Seed Replacement Ratio (SRR)

SRR is the percentage of area sown out of the total area of crop planted in the
season by using certified/quality seeds other than the farm saved seed. So, it is a
measure of cropped area covered with quality seed.
Paddy 17
Bajra 8
Maize 6
Redgram 6.1
Blackgram 17.7

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Greengram 11.7
Cowpea 14.2
Groundnut 5
Sunflower 50
Sesame 15

Storage structure used by the farmers:

 Mud and earthen structures: Life - 8-10 years
 Bamboo structures : Life - 4-5 years
 Wooden structures : Life - 15-20 years

Cryopreservation
 It is also called as cryogenic storage. Seeds are placed in liquid nitrogen at -196°C.
 Seeds are actually placed into the gaseous phase of the liquid nitrogen -150°C for
easy handling and safety.

Seed policy
1. Enactment of the Seeds Act, 1966
2. Seed Review Team-SRT (1968)
3. National Commission on Agriculture’s Seed Group (1972)
4. Launching of the World Bank aided National Seeds Programme (1975-85) in
three phases leading to the creation of State Seeds Corporations,
A. State Seed Certification Agencies,
B. State Seed Testing Laboratories,
C. Breeder Seed Programmes etc
5. Seed Control Order (1983)
6. Seed Transport Subsidy Scheme (1987)
7. New Policy on Seed Development (1988)
8. Seed Bank Scheme (2000)
9. National Seeds Policy (2002)
10. The Seeds Bill (2004)
11. Formulation of National Seed Plan (2005)
12. National Food Security Mission (2007)
13. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna (2007)

CROP PHYSIOLOGY
Water relation of plant
 Study of various vital activities and metabolism of the plant is known as plant
physiology.
 Father of plant physiology: “Stephan Hales”
 Father of Indian plant physiology: “J.C. Bose”
 Water forms 80-90% of fresh weight of plant body.

Diffusion:

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 The movement of molecules or atoms or ions of a material from an area of higher
concentration to an area of their lower concentration is called diffusion.
 Diffusion rate: Gas > liquid > Solid.
 Exchanges of gases like CO2 and O2 take place through diffusion.
 The distributions of hormones in plants take place through diffusion.

Osmosis:
 A special diffusion of solvent from the solution of lower concentration to solution of
higher concentration when both are separated by a semi-permeable membrane.
 Osmosis was discovered by “Abbe Nollet”.
 Endosmosis: When water moves into the cell during osmosis.
 Exosmosis: When water starts moving out of the cell during osmosis.
 Semi permeable membrane: Such membranes allow diffusion of solvent molecules
but do not allow the passage of solutes e.g., artificial membrane like Cellophane and
Copperferocyanide membranes and parchment paper.
 Cell membrane, tonoplast and organaller membrane are selective permeable
membrane.
 Cell wall, filter membrane are permeable membrane.
 Osmotic pressure of a solution is measured by “Osmometer”
 Osmotic pressure of a cell is measured by “incipient plasmolysis”.
 Root hair absorbs water through process of osmosis.
 Conduction of water from one cell to another cell in plant and distribution of
water in plants through osmosis.
 Turgidity is developed by the process of endosmosis which helps to maintain a
definite shape of leaves, stem and flowers.
 The opening and closing of stomata depend on the process of osmosis.
 The leaves of Mimosa pudica (Touch me not) plant are drooping down only by
contact and dehiscence of fruits are depends upon turgor changes after osmosis.

Turgor pressure:
 When a cell is immersed in water, then water enters into the cell then cell content
develop a pressure against the cell wall which is called turgor pressure. Turgor
pressure is also known as hydrostatic pressure.

Wall pressure:
 To oppose the turgor pressure, an equal and opposite pressure is developed by cell
wall.
 Plant cell do not burst when placed in a pure water due to wall pressure but a animal
cell burst when placed in pure water because wall pressure is absent due to absence
of cell in animal cell.
 A flaccid cell has zero turgor pressure.
 The highest value of turgor pressure is found in fully turgid cell an equal to
osmotic pressure i.e., TP = OP for fully turgid cell.
 The value of turgor pressure is assumed as negative during the plasmolysis of cell.
 Turgor pressure maintains normal shape of cell.

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 3-D structure is maintained in mitochondria, chloroplast and microbodies is
maintained due to turgor pressure.
 Turgor pressure provides essential power to the plumule to coming out from the soil
and help in penetration of radical into the soil.

Diffusion Pressure Deficit (DPD) or Suction Pressure:

 The difference between the diffusion pressure of the solution and its pure solvent at
a particular temperature is called DPD.
 Term “Diffusion Pressure Deficit” (DPD) was given by “Mayer”.
 “Suction pressure” tem was given by “Renner”
 DPD is also known as demand of water in cell.
 DPD is directly proportional to concentration of solute.
 Diffusion of water takes place from the region of lower DPD to the region of
higher DPD in the process of osmosis.
 Normally, osmotic pressure is greater than turgor pressure in a cell.
 The difference between osmotic pressure and turgor pressure is called “DPD” or
“suction pressure”.
 DPD = OP – TP or WP
 DPD of any free solution is equal to the osmotic pressure of that solution.
 DPD = OP
 For fully turgid cell, OP = TP, so that DPD = 0
 For flaccid cell, TP = 0, so that DPD = OP
 For plasmolysed cell, TP = negative, so that DPD = OP + TP.
 DPD of the plasmolysed cell is greater than osmotic pressure.
 Demand of water: Plasmolysed cell > Flaccid cell > partially turgid cell > Fully
turgid cell.

Water potential:
 The difference between the free energy of molecules of pure water and free energy of
the solution is called water potential of the system.
 Water potential is given by “Tayler and Slatyer”
 The water potential of pure water is maximum
 Water always flows from higher water potential to lower water potential.

Types of solution:
1. Isotonic solution: If solution in which a cell is placed has equal osmotic
concentration to that of cell sap.
2. Hypotonic solution: If solution in which a cell is placed has greater osmotic
concentration to that of cell sap. In such solution endosmosis takes place.
3. Hypertonic solution: If solution in which a cell is placed has lower osmotic
concentration to that of cell sap. In such solution exosmosis takes palce.

Plasmolysis:
 If a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water molecules diffused out from
the cell. As a result of exosmosis the protoplasm of cell detached from the cell wall

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and start shrinking. This is called plasmolysis.
 The First stage of plasmolysis is “limiting plasmolysis”.
 The Second stage of plasmolysis is “incipient plasmolysis”.
 The Final stage of plasmolysis is “evident plasmolysis”.
 In plasmolysed cell, hypertonic solution is present in between the cell wall and
protoplasm.

Imbibitions:
 Adsorption of undissolved liquid by any solid material is called imbibitions or
Adsorption of water by hydrophilic colloids in known as imbibitions.
 Imbibitions power: Agar-Agar > pectin > protein> starch > cellulose.
 A huge pressure is developed in materials due to imbibitions. This pressure is
called imbibitions pressure.
 Absorption of water during seed germination is only initiates through imbibitions.
 Breaking of seed coat during seed germination is due to imbibitions process.
 Initial process of water absorption in roots by root hairs is imbibitions.

Water absorption by plant

Form of water:
1. Gravitational water: water reach deep at the soil due to gravitational force. It is
not available to plants.
2. Hygroscopic water: thin film of water is tightly held by the soil particles is
called hygroscopic water. It is also not available to plants.
3. Chemically compound water: the amount of water present in the chemical
compound. It is also not available to plants.
4. Capillary water: water exists between soil particles in small capillary pores is
called capillary water. It is most available to plants.
 Plants only absorb capillary water.
 Holard: Total amount of water presents in the soil.
Holard = Chresard + Echard
 Chresard: water available to the plants.
 Echard: water is not available to plants.
 The maximum water absorption takes place from root hair zone.
 The wall of root hair consists of cellulose and pectic substances (calcium pectates).
Both are highly hydrophilic in nature. These substances have a great capacity for
water absorption.
 Transplanted plants cannot grow easily because their root hairs are damaged.
Pathway of water absorption:
 Soil solution > Root hairs > Cortex > Endodermis (passage cells) > Pericycle cells
> xylem.
 The first step of water absorption is imbibitions i.e., first of all water is
absorbed on pectin wall of root hairs.
 Water move inside plant in two different pathways:
1. Symplast pathways: it is living pathways, water moves through plasmodesmata.
2. Apoplast pathways: it is non-living pathways, water moves through

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intercellular space xylem cavity.
 Term “Apoplast and symplast” given by “Munch”

Active absorption of water:

 Water is absorbed by using ATP/energy
 Only 4% of total water is absorbed by active process.

Passive absorption of water:

 According to “Kramer” water absorption in plant takes place by transpiration.
 About 96% of water is absorbed by passive method.
 In water logged condition, anaerobic respiration takes place in roots due to absence
of oxygen, as a result alcohol are formed which degenerate roots. So water logged
soil is physiologically dry.

Ascent of sap:
 Upward movement of water against the gravitational force up to top parts of plants is
called ascent of sap.
 Xylem is water conducting tissue in plants.

Various theories to explain ascent of sap

1. Vital force theory: According to this, all living cell involves in ascent of sap.
 Pulsation theory: Given by “Sir J.C. Bose”

2. Root pressure theory: Given by “Priestly”.

 According to this, a positive pressure is develop into xylem sap, due to turgidity or
activity of root cells is called root pressure, which water upwards in xylem.
 Term “root pressure” and phenomenon was discovered by “Stephan hales”.

3.Physical force theory:

 Capillary force theory: Given “Boehm”
 Imbibitions force theory: Given by “Unger and Von Sachs”
 Transpiration pull and cohesion force theory: Given by “Dixon and Jolly”. It is
most accepted theory for ascent of sap. According to this, three component are
involves in ascent of sap.
 Cohesion: Adhesion: Transpiration pull:
 Transpiration pull: A negative pressure is developed in xylem, due to rapid
transpiration in leaves. This creates a transpiration pull, which is responsible for
pulling up of water column in xylem. Ascent of sap is combined effect of cohesion,
adhesion and transpiration pull.

Transpiration and stomatal structure

 Loss of water in form of water vapour from the aerial parts like leaves of living plant
is called transpiration.
 Only 1-2% of absorbed water is used by plants while 98-99% of water lost in
atmosphere by transpiration.

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 “Transpiration is an essential evil” called by “Curtis”
 “Transpiration is an unavoidable evil” called by “Steward”
 In succulent xerophytes, minimum transpiration occurs.
 In submerged hydrophytes, transpiration is absent.
 Maximum transpiration occurs in “mesophytes”

Stomatal transpiration:
 When transpiration occurs through stomata which are present on the leaves of the
plants, is called stomatal transpiration.
 About 80-90 % transpiration is stomatal transpiration.

Cuticular transpiration:
 When transpiration occurs through the cuticle which are present on herbaceous stem
and leaves.
 Cuticle is a wax like thin layer present on epidermis.
 About 9% transpiration is Cuticular transpiration.

Foliar transpiration:
 When transpiration occurs through the leaves is called foliar transpiration.
 Total foliar transpiration = stomatal transpiration + Cuticular transpiration.

Lenticular transpiration:
 Lenticels are minute pore like structure found on the stem of some woody plants and
epidermis of some fruits. When transpiration occurs through lenticels is called
lenticular transpiration.
 Approximately, 0.1% to 1% of transpiration is lenticular transpiration.
 Atmospheric humidity is the most important factors that effects rate of transpiration.
 The rate of transpiration is higher in low atmospheric humidity.
 The value of Q10 for transpiration is 2.
 Action spectrum of transpiration is blue to red.
 Rate of transpiration is faster in blue light as compared to red light.
 Transpiration ration is low for C4 plants while for C3 plants.

Anti transpirants: A chemical substance which reduces the rate of transpiration

are known as anti transpirant.
 Stomatal closure type: 2,4-D, Atrazine, PMA, Phosphon D, Potassium
metabisulphates.
 Film farming type:
 Thin film forming: Hexadeconol, Cetyl alcohol, Paclobutrazole.
 Thick film forming: Mobileaf, Waxol, S-800, Hico-110R, Folicot, Silicon.
 Reflectant type: Kaoline (5%), China clay, Ca-bicarbonates, lime water.
 Growth retardant type: Cycocel (CCC), Phosphor.
 PMA closed the stomata for more than two weeks partially.
 Potometer is used to measure transpiration.
 Cobalt chloride test: firstly performed by “Stall”. This method is used to
compare the transpiration from the both surface of leaves.

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Mechanism of opening and closing of stomata:

1. Photosynthesis in guard cell hypothesis: This theory is proposed by
Schewndener & Von mohl.
2. Starch-sugar interconversion theory: This theory was proposed by Sayre in 1926.
3. Active K+ - H+ exchange theory or active proton transport mechanism: This
theory is given by “Levitt” in 1973-74).
 This is modern and most accepted theory for stomatal opening and closing.
 Due to K-malate, concentration of guard cell increased and water enters inside the
guard cell, so it becomes turgid and stomata open.
 Plant hormone ABA acts on guard cells, K-malate are not formed, so concentration
in guard cell decreases, water moves outsides the guard cell and stomata closed.
 Stomata open during the night in succulent’s plants and closed during day. This
nature of stomata in Opuntia is called Scotoactive stomata.
 In CAM plants, organic acid is formed during night which broken down during day
and CO2 is liberated which is used in photosynthesis.
 Blue light is most effective and causing stomatal opening.
 Temperature quotient of opening of stomata is [Q10] = 2
 Stomata open at low concentration of CO2 while closed at high concentration of CO2.
Cytokinin hormones induce the opening of stomata while ABA stimulate the
stomata for closing
 The main reason of osmotic pressure of the opened stomata is the potassium
chloride or
potassium malate.
 Porometer is used to find out the area of the stomata on the leaf.

Guttation
 Loss of water from the uninjured plant in the form of water droplets is called
Guttation.
 The term “Guttation” was given by “Burgerstein”
 Guttation water is not pure water, while transpiration water is 100% pure water.
 Normally guttation process is found in herbaceous plants like grasses, tomato,
balsum, colocasia and some plants of Cucurbitaceae family.
 Guttation occurs from the margins of leaves through the special pore (always open)
like structure are called “Hydathodes” or “water stomata”
 Generally guttation occurs during night or early morning.
 Parenchymatous and loose tissue is lies beneath the Hydathodes which are
known as epithum or transfer tissue.
 The process of guttation is takes place due to the root pressure, developed in cortex
cells of root.
Bleeding
 Fast flowing of liquid from the injured or cutting parts of the plants is called
bleeding or exudation.
 This process takes places due to high root pressure.
 Manometer is used to measure root pressure

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 The highest bleeding is found in Caryota urens (Toddy palm)
 Bleeding process has economic importance because opium, latex of rubber is
obtained by this.

Wilting
 Drooping of soft part of plants due to loss in turgidity in their cells is called wilting.
 Wilting is caused due to high rate of transpiration during mid-day or deficiency of
water in soil and also in prolonged drought condition.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
General introduction
 Photosynthesis is anabolic and endergonic process.
 Photosynthesis is a process in which organic compound (carbohydrates) are
synthesized from the inorganic raw material (H20 and CO2) in presence of light and
pigment (chlorophyll).
 Main product of photosynthesis is glucose
 By-product of photosynthesis is oxygen.
 In photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy.

 90% of total photosynthesis is carried out by aquatic plants (85% by algae)

 Remaining 10 % of photosynthesis is carried out by land plants.
 First true and oxygenic photosynthesis starts in Cyanobacteria (BGA).
 Absorption spectrum of photosynthesis is blue and red light. This is the maximum
absorbed part of spectrum.
 Action spectrum of photosynthesis is Red and Blue light. This is most effective
in reaction.
 Rate of photosynthesis is higher in red wavelength of light, but highest in white light
(full spectrum), than monochromatic light.

Photosynthetic pigments
 Chlorophylls:
 It is a green pigment which traps solar radiation and convert light energy to the
chemical energy.
 Generally, it is of two types.
a. Chlorophyll -a (C55H72O5N4Mg): It is present in all green plants.
b. Chlorophyll-b (C55H70O6N4Mg): It is present in all green plants except BGA, red,
Brown algae and diatoms.
 Carotenoids: It is present in all green plants. These are called shield pigments,
because they protect chlorophyll from photo oxidation by light intensity and also
from oxygen produced during photosynthesis.
 Along with chlorophyll-b, the Carotenoids are also called as accessory pigments,
because they absorb energy and give it to chlorophyll-a.

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 Carotenoids are two types:
1. Carotenes: C40H56
 The red colour of tomato and chilies is, because of lycopene.
 The common carotene is β-carotene which is converted to vitamin-A by animals and
humans
2. Xanthophylls: [C40H56O] Also known as carotenols.
 Characteristics xanthophylls of brown algae are fucoxanthin.
 Phycobilins:
1. Phycocyanin: it is present in BGA.
2. Phycoerythrin: it is present in red algae.
 Chlorophyll-a and carotene is universal pigment, which are found in all oxygen
liberatingcells.
 Succinyl co-A combined with Glycine to form protochlophyll. This protochlophyll
convert into chlorophyll in presence of light.

Pigment system
 Discovery of Red drop and Emerson effect proved that presence of two pigment
systeminvolves in photosynthesis. Pigment system I and II (PS-I and PS-II)
 Pigment system I (PS-I): Reaction center: P700
 Pigment system-II (PS-II): Reaction center: P680
 Photosynthetic unit or Quantasomes: A photosynthetic unit consist 200-300
molecules of chlorophyll. Park and Biggins discovered Quantasomes.

Mechanism of photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis occurs in two phases: light reaction and dark reaction.

Light reaction
 Also called hill reaction or photochemical reaction or generation of assimilatory
powers (NADPH2 + ATPs) or photo phase.
 During light reaction, two pigment systems interact with each other to trap light
energy and convert it into chemical energy (ATP).

Cyclic ETS and Photophosphorylation

 In cyclic ETS, only PS-I take part.
 Reaction center of PS-I is Chl-a-700 or P-700.
 Cyclic ETS or PS-I is activated by wavelength of light greater than 680 nm.
 Cyclic ETS occurs at grana thylakoids and stroma thylakoids.
 During cyclic ETS, the electron ejected from reaction of PS-I, return back to its
reaction centre so it is called cyclic ETS.
 In cyclic ETS, no oxygen evolution occurs because photolysis of water is absent.
 In cyclic ETS, phosphorylation takes place at two places, thus two ATP are
produces in each cyclic ETS.
 In cyclic ETS, NADPH2 (reducing power) is not formed in cyclic process.
 Plastocyanin (PC) is Cu-containing blue protein in cyclic ETS.

Non cyclic ETS and Photophosphorylation

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 Also known as Z-scheme.
 In non cyclic ETS, both PS-I and PS-II involved in non cyclic ETS.
 Phycobilins present only in PS-II.
 Reaction of PS-II is Chl-a-680 P-680.
 Non cyclic ETS occurs at grana thylakoids only.
 The e- ejected from PS-II never back to Chl-a-680 (reaction centre) and finally
accepts by NADP.
 Gap filling of e- in PS-II is filled by photolysis of water, due to this, oxygen
evolution occurs in non cyclic ETS.
 Each turn of non cyclic ETS produces 1ATP and 2NADPH2.
 12 NADPH2 +18ATP are required as assimilatory power to produce one molecules
of glucose inn dark reaction i.e., 6 turns of Z-scheme are necessary for production of
one glucose molecules in Calvin cycle.
 Remaining 12 ATP comes from 6 turn of cyclic ETS.
 Primary e- acceptor in non cyclic reaction is PQ (Fe-S protein) or plastoquinone.
 Recently pheophytin (it is chlorophyll like structure without Mg) is considers as
first e- acceptor in Z-scheme.
 Plastocyanin (PC) is link between PS-I and PS-II in non cyclic ETS.
 Final e- acceptor in Z-scheme is NADP+ (Hill reagent).
 During non cyclic ETS energy flow takes place from PS-II to PS-I.
Light independent reactions
 Light independent reaction/dark reaction occurs in stroma of chloroplast.
 It is also called Blackman reaction.
 This reaction do not requires light, that’s why it is called dark reaction.
 This reaction uses the product of light reaction like energy (ATP) and reducing
power (NADPH2).
 Reduction of carbon dioxide occurs in the reaction, that’s why it is also called as
photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle (PCR cycle) or carbon assimilation.
 Pentose sugar is the first compound used in this dark reaction, so it is called
pentose phosphates pathway.
 Dark reaction is completely a enzymatic reaction, that’s why it is also called as
biochemical phase of photosynthesis.
 Calvin presented these reaction in cyclic manner thus it is also called calvin cycle.
 First stable product of this cycle is 3 carbon containing compound
“phosphoglyceric acid” (PGA), so it is also called C3 cycle.

Dark reaction/C3 cycle/Blackman reaction/PCR cycle/carbon

assimilation/reductive pentose phosphate pathways/biochemical phase
 CO2 acceptor is RUBP (ribulose bisphosphate), 5C containing compound/pentose
sugar. This step is called carboxylation.
 Rubisco (Ribulose bis-phosphate carboxylase-oxygenase) is the main enzyme in
darkreaction, which generally present in the stroma of chloroplast of mesophyll cell.
 Rubisco enzyme makes 16% protein of the chloroplast.
 Rubisco is the most abundant enzyme.
 In the presence of CO2, Rubisco act as carboxylase enzyme and catalyzed

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carboxylation reaction.
 First stable compound, 3C containing, PGA are formed.
 12 NADPH2 and 18 ATP are used for the synthesis of one glucose molecule.
 Erythrose (C4), Xylulose (C5), Ribose (C5) and Sedoheptultose (C7) are the
intermediate compound.
 Largest monosaccharide in photosynthesis is 7 carbon containing
compound Sedoheptultose.
 6 turn of Calvin cycle are required to form one molecules of glucose.
Diversity in dark reaction
 In 1966, “Hatch and Slack” gave cyclic pathways of C4 in sugarcane and maize
leaves that’s why also called Hatch and slack pathways
 In this type of dark reaction, first stable product is 4C containing compound OAA, so
it is called C4 cycle.
 OAA is the dicarboxylic acid, so it is also called DCA (dicarboxylic acid) cycle.
 It is also called CO2 concentrating mechanism or Co-operative photosynthesis.
 Plants in which, C4 cycle occurs, are called C4 plants.
 Mostly monocots are C4 plants like sugarcane, maize, sorghum, oat, millets like bajra
etc.
 Main reason of this C4 cycle is presence of kranz (wreath) anatomy in leaves of C4
plants.
 In kranz anatomy, a special type of cell, called green bundle sheath cell are present
around the vascular bundles.
 In kranz anatomy, Rubisco enzyme present in chloroplast of bundle sheet cell while
chloroplast of mesophyll cell posses PEPcase enzyme, which act only as carboxylase
enzyme.
 Photosynthetically C4 plants are more efficient than C3 plant because of absence of
photorespiration or Warburg effect.
C4 cycle/Hatch and Slack pathways/ CO2 concentrating mechanism/ Co-operative
photosynthesis/DCA cycle
 Here, two carboxylation steps occur in C4 cycle. First carboxylation occurs in
mesophyll cell by PEPcase enzyme, while second/final carboxylation occurs in
bundle sheath cell by Rubisco enzyme.
 CO2 acceptor in mesophyll cell: 3C containing compound PEP (phosphoenol
pyruvate)
 CO2 acceptor in bundle sheath cell: RUBP.
 12 NADPH2 and 30 ATP are used for production one glucose molecule.

CAM plants/Crassulacean acid metabolism/Dark CO2 fixation/Acidification

 Generally plants of Crassulaceae family are succulent xerophytes plants
 Here, Scotoactive type stomata are present which open in night and close at day time.
 Initial CO2 fixation (CAM process) occurs during night time because PEPcase
enzyme induces carboxylation reaction in night but light reaction occurs in day time.
 Final CO2 fixation (C3 cycle) occurs in day time.
 PEPcase and Rubisco both are present in same mesophyll cell. There is no kranz
anatomy.

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 Primary acceptor of CO2: PEP.
 First stable product is OAA.
 30 ATP and 12 NADPH2 are required for the synthesis of one glucose molecule.

Photorespiration
 Also called photosynthetic carbon oxidation cycle or glycolate metabolism.
 Photorespiration term is given by “Krotkov”
 Photorespiration is discovered by “Decker and Tio”.
 Photorespiration occurs during day times in C3 plants, because O2 concentration is
higher than CO2 concentration in the green cell of C3 plants. In this condition,
Rubisco enzyme acts as oxygenase.
 It is harmful process with respect to two aspect:
In this process, ATP are consumed instead of production of ATP. In this process,
25% carbons are lost in form of CO2.
 First stable product is a 2C containing compound, glycolate, that’s why it is also
called as C2 cycle or gylcolate pathways.
 Photorespiration occurs in three organelles: mitochondria, peroxisome and
chloroplast. First preference goes to peroxisome.
S.No. C3 plants C4 plants
1. E.g., wheat, oats, barley, rice, E.g., sugarcane, maize, sorghum,
cotton, beans, spinach, sunflower, Atriplex, Amaranthus etc.
chlorella etc.
2. Only Calvin cycle present Hatch-Slack pathways is present
3. First stable product is 3 carbon First stable product is 4 carbon
containing phosphoglyceric acid containing oxaloacetic acid (OAA)
(PGA)
4. The leaves have diffused mesophyll The leaves have “cane type” of anatomy
and only one type of chloroplast (Krantz anatomy) with compact
mesophyll around the bundle sheath of
vascular bundles and dimorphic
chloroplast.
5. Photorespiration is present Photorespiration is absent
6. Photosynthetically less efficient Photosynthetically more efficient
7. Carbon di oxide compensation Carbon di oxide compensation point is
point is high, about 50 ppm low, 2 to 5 or even 0 ppm.
8. Rate of CO2 evolution in light is Rate of CO2 evolution in light is
higher apparently none
9. Carbonic anhydrase activity is higher Carbonic anhydrase activity is low
10. Optimum temperature for Optimum temperature for
photosynthesis is low to high photosynthesis is high.
Cellular Respiration
 It is vital, catabolic, exothermic, enzymatic, oxidative process.
 Respiration is process in which, complex organic energy rich compound

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(carbohydrate, fats and protein) are broken down inside the cell into simple inorganic
compound and releasing energy in form of ATP.
ATP:
 ATP is discovered by Lohmann in 1926
 ATP cycle (ADP-ATP system) by Lipmann in 1941.
 ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is an instant and immediate source of energy within the
cell.
 ATP is high energy molecules or store house of energy. ATP also called energy
currency of cell.
 ATP is present in all living cell, so it also called universal energy carrier. 1 ATP = 7.3
Kcal energy = 34 KJ of energy.

Respiratory substrate:
 All the reserve food rich in energy is respiratory substrates.
 Carbohydrates, fats, protein and organic acids are main respiratory substrates.
Glucose is most common respiratory substrate.
 Carbohydrates are first to be used up followed by fats, protein and organic acid. 1 gm
carbohydrate = 4.4 Kcal
 1 gm fat = 9.8 Kcal
 1 gm protein = 4.8 Kcal.
 Proteins are used in last especially in case of starvation.
 Fats are not directly used in respiration; first of all it will break down into acetyl
CoA and other product and enter into kreb cycle.

RQ (respiratory Quotient):
 Ratio of volume of CO2 evolved to volume of O2 used during respiration.
 RQ = CO2/O2
 RQ value helps to determine the quality of respiratory substrate.
 If RQ value is less than one or < 1, it means substrate is poor in O2
RQ value:
1. Carbohydrate and green leaves = 1
2. Fat, protein, starved leaves, colored petals and germinating fatty seed = < 1 Protein =
R.Q. = 0.8 - 0.9 Fat = R.Q. = 0.7
3. Organic acid, maturing fatty seeds, germinating protein rich seeds = > 1 Oxalic acid
= R.Q. =4 Citric acid = R.Q. = 1.3 Malic acid = R.Q. = 1.33
4. Anaerobic respiration = infinite.
5. Succulents plant (in dark time) = 0
6. CAM plant (in day time) = > 1
7. Mixed diet (carbohydrates + fats) = < 1 (0.7)
Types of respiration:
1. On the basis of respiratory substrates, Blackman gave two types of respiration:
a. Floating respiration: When respiratory substrates are carbohydrates.
b. Protoplasmic respiration: When respiratory substrates are protein. But oxidation of
protein in legume seeds is called floating respiration.
2. On the basis of availability of oxygen two types of respiration:

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a. Aerobic respiration: food is completely oxidized with the help of oxygen into CO2,
H2O and releasing huge energy (686 Kcal) or 36/38 ATP per glucose molecules.
b. Anaerobic respiration: incomplete oxidation of food into alcohol or organic acid
without use of oxygen and releasing only 2 ATP.
Aerobic respiration
 Complete oxidation of glucose is a four step process:
1. Glycolysis
2. Formation of acetyl CoA
3. Krebs’ cycle
4. ETS (terminal oxidation)

Glycolysis
 Glycolysis was discovered by: Embden, Meyerhof and Paranas, that’s why it is
also called EMP pathway.
 Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm of cell.
 It is a common phase in aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
 Glycolysis is a series of 10 biochemical reaction.
 Final product of gylcolysis is 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, 2 ATP and 2 NADH2 from
one molecule of glucose.
 When ATP is produced without ETS is called substrate level phosphorylation.

Formation of acetyl CoA

 It is also called transition reaction/gateway step or link reaction.
 When respiration is aerobic, then pyruvic acid is oxidized and convert into 2
carbon containing compound – Acetyl Co-A
 This reaction occurs only in presence of oxygen.
 This reaction occurs in perimitochondrial space.
 One molecule of pyruvic acid produces one molecule of NADH2.

Kreb cycle
 Discovered by H.A. Kreb in nematodes and pigeon muscles in 1937.
 This cycle occurs in mitochondrial matrix.
 First product of kreb cycle is citric acid so it is also called citric acid cycle.
 Citric is a tri carboxylic acid (TCA) that’s why, it is also called TCA cycle.
 OAA (oxalo acetic acid) is the acceptor of acetyl Co-A.
 3 NADH2, 1 FADH2 and 1 GTP (ATP) produced by each turn of TCA cycle = 12
ATP.
ETS (electron transport system)
 Also called oxidative phosphorylation.
 Also called terminal oxidation of NADH2 and FADH2
 Five different types of cytochrome are present in a chain: sequence of
cytochrome is ctyo.-b, cyto.-C1, cyto.-C, cyto-a and cyto-a3.
 Ubiquinone and cyto.c are mobile electron carriers in mitochondrial ETS.
 During ETS, NADH2 gives 3 ATP while FADH2 produced only 2 ATP.

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Brief knowledge of ATP production in respiration of one glucose molecule
Gylcolysis:
 ATP form at substrate level phosphorylation = 4 ATP.
 ATP produces via ETS (by terminal oxidation of NADH2) = 6 ATP ATP consumed
in glycolysis = 2 ATP.
 Gross ATP production is 10 ATP, but 2 ATP are used. Total ATP or Net ATP
production is 8 ATP.
 Direct gain = 2 ATP.
 Link reaction or Gateway reaction: (from 2 moles of pyruvic acid) 2 NADH2 = 6
ATP
 Kreb cycle: (from 2 moles of acetyl CoA)
 ATP/GTP produced at substrate level phosphorylation = 2 GTP/ATP. ATP produced
via ETS: 6 NADH2 = 18 ATP 2 FADH2 = 4 ATP
 Total ATP in kreb cycle = 24 ATP.
 Total ATP produced from one glucose molecule is 38 ATP.

Anaerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration was first reported by “Kostytchev”.
 Term is also given by Kostychev.
 In this, only 2-3% energy is conserved in form of ATP.

Agriculture Padhai Online Classes Mob. 8461968163 Page 26