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JIGAWA STATE COLLEGE OF NURSING AND MIDWIFERY, SCHOOL OF NURSING HADEJIA

GROUP: GROUP TEN

COURSE : PRIMARY HEALTH CARE

TITTLE : GROUP PRESENTATION ASSIGNMENT

GROUP MEMBERS

1 ABBAS SHU'AIBU

2 KHADIJA MUHAMMAD ADAM

3 ABUBAKAR ADAMU ABDULLAHI

4 HAUWA ISMA'IL IBRAHIM

5 ALIYU HUSSAIN

6 MARYAM HUSSAIN RUBA

7 HAUWA GARBA MUHAMMAD

8 ISHAQ YUSUF

9 NASIBA MUHAMMAD UMAR

LECTURE'S NAME: MAL. ABDULLAHI IBRAHIM

March, 2022

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QUESTION

1.Family life education

2.Family planning

3.Control of diarrheal diseases (Oral Rehydration Therapy).

ANSWER

1.Family life education

introduction

In North America, family life education developed as an educational specialty around the turn of the
twentieth century in response to the changing social conditions of the time (Lewis-Rowley et al. 1993).
Changes such as urbanization, industrialization, and the changing roles of women commonly resulted in
family and societal difficulties, including increased parent-child strife, juvenile delinquency, shifts in
marital roles, and an increased divorce rate. Families were inadequately prepared to deal with these
changes, and the founders of family life education believed that providing educational programs in
family life education would help to ameliorate or reduce these and other family-related social problems
and thus improve family living and social well-being.

By the end of the twentieth century, the family life education movement in North America had
experienced considerable growth in the number and kinds of programs available and in the scholarship
underlying these programs (Arcus 1995). These developments were not unique to North America,
however, as other countries throughout the world have sought ways to help families deal with social
and economic changes. Some examples of international family life education initiatives include the
Marriage Encounter movement, founded in Spain but present in other countries; the International
Family Life Education Institute, Taiwan; Marriage Care (formerly Catholic Marriage Guidance), United
Kingdom; the Australian Family Life Institute; and family planning and sexuality education programs
throughout the world. The United Nations named 1994 as the International Year of the Family, further
attesting to the importance of providing support for families globally.

family life education is also been seen as any organized effort to provide family members with
information, skills, experiences, or resources intended to strengthen, improve or enrich their
familyexperience.

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Family life education is a kind of community education, both preventive and educational in nature. Its
main intention is to educate the people about the family relationship, functions and how the system can
be sustained in a better way.

Definition
Family life education is defined by the National Council on Family Relations (NCFR) as "the educational
effort to strengthen individual and family life through a family perspective.

The purpose of family life education is to strengthen and enrich individual and family wellbeing (Thomas
and Arcus 1992).

Major objectives include

(1) gaining insight into one's self and others;

(2) acquiring knowledge about human development and behavior in the family setting over the life
course;

(3) understanding marital and family patterns and processes;

(4) acquiring interpersonal skills for present and future family roles; and

(5) building strengths in individuals and families (Arcus and Thomas 1993).

It is assumed that if these and other similar objectives are met through family life education, then
families will be better able to deal with or prevent problems and will be empowered to live their family
lives in ways that are both personally satisfying and socially responsible. Family life education programs
are preventative, intended to equip individuals for their family roles rather than to repair family
dysfunction.

Family Life Education During Childhood

Basic family life concepts, attitudes, and skills that need to be learned during childhood include
developing a sense of self, learning right from wrong, learning about family roles and responsibilities,
making and keeping friends, respecting similarities and differences in individuals and families, and
learning to make choices (Bredehoft 1997). Although these may be learned within the family, they also
receive attention in family life programs because some families may be unable or unwilling to educate
their children about these concepts or their efforts may be unsuccessful or may not happen at the right
tsocial

Family Life Education During Adolescence

Family life education for adolescents addresses two important kinds of needs:

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(1) their current normative needs associated with changing physical, sexual, cognitive, social, and
emotional developments, and

(2) their anticipatory or future family-related needs to help prepare them for adult roles and
responsibilities in marriage and parenting.

Important family life content includes understanding one's self and others; building self-esteem; making
choices about sexuality;

forming, maintaining, and ending relationships; taking responsibility for one's actions; understanding
family roles and responsibilities; and improving communication skills (Hennon and Arcus 1993).
Programs differ in the emphasis placed on this content, with some focusing on personal development
themes and others giving greater attention to marriage and family relationships.

The assumption underlying anticipatory family education is that if adolescents are prepared for their
potential future family roles, then their adult life experiences in these roles will be more successful
(Hennon and Arcus 1993). As most adolescents have not yet selected a marital partner, anticipatory
education for marriage emphasizes acquiring knowledge about marriage and intimate relationships,
improving relationship skills, and exploring personal attitudes and values regarding marriage, marital
expectations, and marital roles (Stahmann and Salts 1993). Anticipatory education for parenthood helps
adolescents acquire knowledge about child development and different patterns of child rearing and
sometimes includes the study and observation of children (Brock, Oertwein, and Coufal 1993). These
programs are most successful when they also include the precursors of successful parenting—self-
understanding and the development of interpersonal relationship skills (de Lissovoy 1978).

Family Life Education for Adults

Two characteristics distinguish family life education for adults from that for children and adolescents:
first, it is more complex and more varied, as adults must not only meet their own needs for family living
but may also bear some responsibility for the family socialization of the next generation(s); second, it is
more likely to be related to family life tasks and transitions than to age or developmental level, that is,
getting married or becoming parents is more important than the age at which these transitions might
occur (Hennon and Arcus 1993).

The earliest family life education for adults was parent education, provided for mothers who met in
groups specifically organized to improve parent understanding and parenting practices (Lewis-Rowley et
al. 1993). Fathers are increasingly involved, but most parent education is still provided to mothers.
Important outcomes of parent education include more positive child behaviors, more positive
perceptions of child behaviors, and improved parent-child interactions (Brock, Oertwein, and Coufal
1993). Early generic programs have been adapted to specific target groups, including parents with
different backgrounds, different parenting needs, and children of different ages. Despite the diversity of

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programs available, research indicates that no one parent education program is more effective than the
others (Medway 1989).

During later adulthood, special family life education needs emerge related to the impact of
developmental and health changes on one's self-esteem and sexuality, the loss of significant others such
as parents or partners, changes in work roles, and the impact of changing family structure on roles and
relationships (addition/loss of family members) (Arcus 1993). Family life education for this age group is
limited, but examples include Becoming a Better Grandparent (Strom, Strom, and Collinsworth 1990),
designed to increase satisfaction and performance as a grandparent, and Survival KIT for the Holidays
(Wood 1987), designed to help adults deal with loss and grief through educational experiences and the
development of support systems. Preretirement programs typically focus on financial planning (Riker
and Myers 1990), but they may not include important topics such as later-life transitions and changes in
family roles. Because transportation and mobility may be issues for older adults, innovative approaches
such as a correspondence course in human sexuality (Engel 1983) and disseminating gerontological
information through interactive television (Riekse, Holstege, and Faber 2000) have promise for later-life
family life education.

Challenges in Family Life EducationEducation

Family life education is an important means to help ameliorate family issues and problems, but in many
situations these programs by themselves may not be sufficient unless their development and
implementation are supported by social and educational policies and political decisions. School boards
and community interest groups may place restrictions on the content taught in schools, thereby failing
to meet some important needs of this age group. Inadequate financial support often means that
programs are available primarily to those who can afford to pay registration fees, not necessarily to
those who may want or need the programs the most. And, as seen at the beginning of the twenty-first
century, resolving the AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) crisis in Africa and elsewhere will
not only require adequate family education and governmental support to make this education widely
available but also political decisions that will ensure that medications are available to those who need it
at a reasonable cost.

2. FAMILY PLANING

Family planning is "the ability of individuals and couples to anticipate and attain their desired number of
children and the spacing and timing of their births.Family planning may involve consideration of the
number of children a woman wishes to have, including the choice to have no children and the age at
which she wishes to have them. These matters are influenced by external factors such as marital
situation, career considerations, financial position, and any disabilities that may affect their ability to
have children and raise them. If sexually active, family planning may involve the use of contraception
and other techniques to control the timing of reproduction.Family planning has been of practice since
the 16th century by the people of Djenné in West Africa. Physicians advised women to space their
children, having them every three years rather than too many and too quickly.

Types of family planning

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There are two types of family planning namely:

Permanent family planning and

Temporary family planning

1. PERMANENT FAMILY PLANNING

i. Tubal Ligation

ii. Vasectomy for Permanent Birth Control

iii. Insertion of intra uterine device (IUD).

iv. Hystrectomy

What are Permanent Methods of Birth Control?

Sterilization is considered a permanent method of birth control that a man or woman may choose.

Although sterilization, or a tubal ligation (tubes tied), for women and vasectomy for men can sometimes
be reversed, the surgery is much more complicated than the original procedure and may not be
successful.

Thus, when choosing a sterilization method, you should be certain you do not desire future pregnancies.

What Is Tubal Ligation (Tubes Tied)?

About 600,000 American women each year elect to have surgery for sterilization, referred to as tying the
Fallopian tubes or tubal ligation. Some women have a hysterectomy (removal of the uterus and
sometimes also the tubes and ovaries) each year but, but this is usually not performed only for birth
control.

Most US women who have undergone sterilization experience either a postpartum minilaparotomy
procedure or an interval (timing of the procedure does not coincide with a recent pregnancy) procedure.
A postpartum tubal ligation is usually performed through a small incision made through the navel
immediately following vaginal delivery of an infant, or it may be performed through an open incision at
the time of cesarean section. An interval tubal sterilization is usually done with the use of small
instruments inserted into a woman's abdomen following laparoscopy wherein the a scope is inserted
through the umbilicus. Interval minilaparotomy - a small abdominal incision in bikini area - is usually the
procedure of choice when distortion of the abdominal contents or adhesions are anticipated, which
might compromise the ability to complete the procedure laparoscopically.The majority of cases of
surgical sterilization for women are performed under general anesthesia.

The Fallopian tubes (through which the egg passes from the ovaries and where the egg is fertilized by
the sperm) may be blocked with silastic rings, clips, bands, segmental destruction with
electrocoagulation, or suture ligation with partial salpingectomy (removal of a segment in each of the

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fallopian tubes). Female sterilization prevents fertilization by interrupting the passage of sperm upward
through the Fallopian tube.

How effective: Sometimes this method does not provide permanent birth control (i.e. tubal ligation
failure). The United States Collaborative Review of Sterilization has examined the failure rate of female
sterilization. Rates vary according to the procedure performed. Overall, about 18.5 women out of 1,000
women who have the procedure become pregnant within 10 years. This is likely caused by an
incomplete closure of the tubes. If pregnancy does occur after the procedure, there is an increased risk
for an ectopic pregnancy pregnancy in a location other than the anticipated position within the uterus).

Advantages: Female sterilization does not involve hormones. It is a permanent form of birth control.
There are no changes in libido (sexual desire), menstrual cycle, or breastfeeding ability. The procedure is
usually performed as a same-day procedure done in an outpatient surgical facility.

Disadvantages: The procedure involves general or regional anesthesia. It is permanent form of birth
control, and some women may regret their decision at a later date. The two most common factors
associated with regret are young age and unpredictable life events, such as change in marital status or
death of a child. Regret also has been shown to correlate with external pressure by the clinician, spouse,
relatives, or significant others.

Regret is difficult to measure because it encompasses a complex spectrum of feelings that can change
over time. This helps to explain that while some studies have shown "regret" on the part of 26% of
women, fewer than 20% seek reversal and fewer than 10% actually undergo the reversal procedure.

Female sterilization does not protect a woman from sexually transmitted diseases, and it involves all of
the risks of surgery. Occasionally, sterilization cannot be done laparoscopically, and an abdominal
incision may be necessary to reach the Fallopian tubes. There may be some short-term discomfort.

What Are Female Sterilization Implants?

The Essure system involves a small metallic implant that is placed into the Fallopian tubes of women
who wish to be permanently sterilized.

During the implantation procedure, the doctor inserts one of the devices into each of the two Fallopian
tubes. This is done with a special catheter (tube) that is inserted through the vagina into the uterus, and
then into the Fallopian tube. General anesthesia is not required, and the procedure can be performed in
the doctor's office. The device works by making scar tissue form over the implant, blocking the Fallopian
tube and preventing fertilization of the egg by the sperm. A similar system uses a silicone implant known
as the Adiana system.

During the first three months, women cannot rely on the implants and must use alternate birth control.
At the three-month point, women must undergo a final X-ray procedure in which dye is placed in the
uterus and an X-ray is taken to confirm proper device placement. Once placement is confirmed, you do
not need another form of birth control.

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The Essure device has a reported effectiveness of 99.8%. Potential disadvantages of the system include
the fact that not all women will achieve successful placement of both inserts. Side effects during or
immediately following the procedure may include mild-to-moderate cramping, nausea, vomiting,
dizziness, light-headedness, bleeding and/or spotting.

The procedure cannot be reversed. This is a permanent form of birth control. Sometimes doctors have
difficulty placing the implants. There is risk of ectopic pregnancy, a life-threatening condition which
frequently requires emergency medical care. Implants, like surgical sterilization do not protect against
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

What Is a Vasectomy?

Vasectomy, the most common form of surgical sterilization in men, involves making a small incision in
the scrotal sac, followed by cutting or burning of the vas deferens (the tubes that carry sperm), and
blocking both cut ends. The procedure is usually performed under local anesthesia in an outpatient
setting. Vasectomy prevents the passage of sperm into seminal fluid by blocking the vas deferens. More
than 200,000 men in the US undergo vasectomy each year.

Following vasectomy, some men may develop bruising in their testicles. Because, some sperm may
remain in the vas deferens for several months after the procedure, a man is not considered sterile until
he has produced sperm-free ejaculations. Semen is tested in the lab several weeks after the procedure
to determine if the semen is free of sperm. This usually requires 15 to 20 ejaculations. (The couple
should use another form of birth control during this period, or the man may ejaculate by masturbation.)

How effective: The failure rate is determined to be approximately 0.1%.

Advantages:

Vasectomy involves no hormones.

It is permanent.

The procedure is quick with few risks.

It is performed as an outpatient procedure in a clinic or doctor's office.

Disadvantages:

Men may regret the decision later.

Vasectomy does not prevent a man from contracting sexually transmitted diseases.

Short-term discomfort usually follows the procedure.

2.TEMPORARY FAMILY PLANNING

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Temporary family planning refers to the use of some device or drugs to plan for birth for a specific
period of time.

Examples

Oral contraceptive

behavioural method

Use of condoms

Synthetic hormones injection

1.Oral contraceptive
Birth control pills, also known as oral contraceptives, have been marketed in the United States since
1962. Over the past 40 years, there have been changes in the types of estrogen and progestin
(hormones) used in the pills and lower amounts of hormones overall.According to the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, birth control pills are the leading birth control option used by women
under the age of thirty.Birth control pills today are designed to improve safety and reduce side
effects.Lower doses of estrogen are associated with a decrease in side effects such as:Weight gainBeast
tendernessNauseaBirth control pills are available in an oral pill and chewable pill, usually taken by
mouth and swallowed with a liquid.Over 30 different combinations of birth control pills are available in
the United States.The majority of the pill combinations have 21 hormonally active pills followed by 7
pills containing no hormones.A woman begins by taking a pill on the first day of her period or the first
Sunday after her period has begun.By taking a pill a day, a woman can usually take pills consistently
throughout her cycle.

Effectiveness of birth control pills

Effectiveness: Pregnancy rates range from 0.1% with perfect use to 5% with typical use.

Pros (advantages):

Birth control pills may be used to treat irregular menstrual periods, and a woman can manipulate her
menstrual cycle to avoid a period during certain events, such as vacations or weekends by extending the
number of intake days of hormonally active pills or by skipping the non-active pill week.

Birth control pills help prevent certain conditions, like:Benign breast diseasePelvic inflammatory disease
(PID)Functional cysts in the breasts. Functional cysts are reduced by the suppression of ovarian hormone
production.Ectopic pregnancies are prevented by the inhibition of ovulation.Birth control pills have also
been known to prevent certain ovarian and endometrial cancers.

Side effects of birth control pills

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Problems encountered when in taking birth control pills include:

Nausea.

Breast tenderness.

Weight gain.

Breakthrough bleeding.

Absent periods.

Headaches.

Depression.

Anxiety.

Diminished sexual desire (libido).

Disadvantages of birth control pills

It's important to take the pills daily and consistently (same time every day). If a woman stops taking her
birth control pills, it may take several months for her to resume normal ovulatory menstrual cycles. If 6
months elapse without the return of menstrual flow she may need to be examined by her health care
provider.

Additional risks of birth control pills

Blood clots. Some women may be at risk for blood clots (venous thrombosis). At particular risk are
smokers over the age of 35, as well as women with elevated bloodlipid (cholesterol) levels, diabetes,
high blood pressure, and obesity.Breast cancer. The association of birth control pill use and breast
cancer in young women is controversial. The Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer
performed the most comprehensive study to date in 1996. The results demonstrated that current pill
users, and those who had used birth control pills within the past 1-4 years, had a slightly increased risk
of breast cancer. Although these observations support the possibility of a marginally elevated risk, the
group noted that the pill users had more breast examinations and breast imaging studies than the
nonusers. Thus, although the consensus opines that birth control pills can lead to breast cancer, the risk
is small and the resulting tumors spread less aggressively than usual. Current thought is that birth
control pill use may be a cofactor that can interact with another primary cause to stimulate breast
cancer.Cervical cancer. The relationship between birth control pill use and cervical cancer is also quite
controversial. Important risk factors for cervical cancer include early age of first sexual intercourse and
exposure to the human papillomavirus. The current thinking is that if birth control pills contribute to the
risk of cervical cancer, their impact is small and related to risky sexual behaviors. Thus, women who use

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birth control pills should have an annual Pap test.STDs and birth control pills. Birth control pills do not
provide protection from STDs.

2.Behavioural method:

is used to avoid pregnancy that involve vaginal intercourse include the withdrawal and calendar-based
methods, which have little upfront cost and are readily available.

There are a variety of options when choosing a natural or behavioral type of birth control. These
include:

Continuous abstinence:

Continuous abstinence implies completely refraining from sexual intercourse.

Effectiveness: It is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy.Pros: There are no hormonal side effects.STDs
and continuous abstinence: This type of birth control prevents sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

Withdrawal method (coitus interruptus intimate): The withdrawal method involves withdrawal of the
entire penis from the vagina before ejaculation (before sperm leaves the penis). Fertilization is
prevented because sperm does not contact the female partner's egg. This method remains a significant
means of fertility control in less advantaged countries.

Effectiveness:

This depends largely on the man's capability to withdraw prior to ejaculation. The theoretical failure rate
is estimated to be approximately 4% during the first year of proper usage of this method. The true
failure rate probably approaches 19% during the first year. The failure rate implies that the method is
ineffective in preventing pregnancy, and some couples using it will conceive. The higher the failure rate,
the more likely a woman is to have an unintended pregnancy.Pros: This method can be used at any time,
with no devices, cost, and no chemicals or hormones. It may also offer a lower risk for other
problems.Cons: There is a high risk for unintended pregnancy.STDs and withdrawal: This method does
not protect against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

Synthetic hormone Injections

An injection of a synthetic hormone depomedroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA, brand name: Depo-
Provera) can be given every 3 months to stop ovulation. You receive it by injection in the doctor's office.
After injection, the medication is active within 24 hours and lasts for at least 3 months. It prevents your
ovaries from releasing eggs.

Effectiveness:

DMPA is an extremely effective contraceptive option. Other medications or patient weight do not
diminish its efficacy. The failure rate is approximately 0.3% during the first year of use.

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Pros:

DMPA does not produce the serious adverse effects seen with estrogen, such as a tendency to increase
blood formation. It lowers risk for certain types of endometrial cancers. Problematic irregular periods
may normalize with Depo-Provera usage.Cons: Some women may cease menstruating within the first
year of usage. Irregular bleeding can be treated by giving the next dose earlier or by adding a low-dose
estrogen temporarily. Because DMPA lasts in the body for several months in women who have used it
on a long-term basis, it can significantly delay a return to normal fertility. About 70% of former users
desiring pregnancy conceive within 12 months, and 90% will conceive within 24 months. Other adverse
effects, such as weight gain, depression, and menstrual irregularities may continue for as long as 1 year
following the last injection. Recent studies suggest a possible link between DMPA and bone density loss.
Results are conflicting and limited.STDs and Injections: This method does not protect against STDs.

3.Control of diarrheal diseases (Oral Rehydration Therapy).

Diarrhoeal disease is the second leading cause of death in children under five years old. It is both
preventable and treatable.Each year diarrhoea kills around 525 000 children under five.A significant
proportion of diarrhoeal disease can be prevented through safe drinking-water and adequate sanitation
and hygiene.Globally, there are nearly 1.7 billion cases of childhood diarrhoeal disease every
year.Diarrhoea is a leading cause of malnutrition in children under five years old.

Diarrhoeal disease is the second leading cause of death in children under five years old, and is
responsible for killing around 525 000 children every year. Diarrhoea can last several days, and can leave
the body without the water and salts that are necessary for survival. In the past, for most people, severe
dehydration and fluid loss were the main causes of diarrhoea deaths. Now, other causes such as septic
bacterial infections are likely to account for an increasing proportion of all diarrhoea-associated deaths.
Children who are malnourished or have impaired immunity as well as people living with HIV are most at
risk of life-threatening diarrhoea.

Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of three or more loose or liquid stools per day (or more frequent
passage than is normal for the individual). Frequent passing of formed stools is not diarrhoea, nor is the
passing of loose, "pasty" stools by breastfed babies.

Diarrhoea is usually a symptom of an infection in the intestinal tract, which can be caused by a variety of
bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms. Infection is spread through contaminated food or drinking-
water, or from person-to-person as a result of poor hygiene.

Interventions to prevent diarrhoea, including safe drinking-water, use of improved sanitation and hand
washing with soap can reduce disease risk. Diarrhoea should be treated with oral rehydration solution

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(ORS), a solution of clean water, sugar and salt. In addition, a 10-14 day supplemental treatment course
of dispersible 20 mg zinc tablets shortens diarrhoea duration and improves outcomes.

There are three clinical types of diarrhoea:

Acute watery diarrhoea – lasts several hours or days, and includes cholera;

Acute bloody diarrhoea – also called dysentery;

Andpersistent diarrhoea – lasts 14 days or longer.

Scope of diarrhoeal disease

Diarrhoeal disease is a leading cause of child mortality and morbidity in the world, and mostly results
from contaminated food and water sources. Worldwide, 780 million individuals lack access to improved
drinking-water and 2.5 billion lack improved sanitation. Diarrhoea due to infection is widespread
throughout developing countries.

In low-income countries, children under three years old experience on average three episodes of
diarrhoea every year. Each episode deprives the child of the nutrition necessary for growth. As a result,
diarrhoea is a major cause of malnutrition, and malnourished children are more likely to fall ill from
diarrhoea.

Dehydration
The most severe threat posed by diarrhoea is dehydration. During a diarrhoeal episode, water and
electrolytes (sodium, chloride, potassium and bicarbonate) are lost through liquid stools, vomit, sweat,
urine and breathing. Dehydration occurs when these losses are not replaced.

The degree of dehydration is rated on a scale of three.

Severe dehydration (at least two of the following signs):lethargy/unconsciousnesssunken eyesunable to

drink or drink poorlyskin pinch goes back very slowly ( ≥2 seconds)

Some dehydration (two or more of the following signs):restlessness, irritabilitysunken eyesdrinks

eagerly, thirstyNo dehydration (not enough signs to classify as some or severe dehydration).

Causes
Infection: Diarrhoea is a symptom of infections caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic
organisms, most of which are spread by faeces-contaminated water. Infection is more common when
there is a shortage of adequate sanitation and hygiene and safe water for drinking, cooking and
cleaning. Rotavirus and Escherichia coli, are the two most common etiological agents of moderate-to-

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severe diarrhoea in low-income countries. Other pathogens such ascryptosporidium and shigella species
may also be important. Location-specific etiologic patterns also need to be considered.

Malnutrition: Children who die from diarrhoea often suffer from underlying malnutrition, which makes
them more vulnerable to diarrhoea. Each diarrhoeal episode, in turn, makes their malnutrition even
worse. Diarrhoea is a leading cause of malnutrition in children under five years old.

Source: Water contaminated with human faeces, for example, from sewage, septic tanks and latrines, is
of particular concern. Animal faeces also contain microorganisms that can cause diarrhoea.

Other causes: Diarrhoeal disease can also spread from person-to-person, aggravated by poor personal
hygiene. Food is another major cause of diarrhoea when it is prepared or stored in unhygienic
conditions. Unsafe domestic water storage and handling is also an important risk factor. Fish and
seafood from polluted water may also contribute to the disease.

Prevention and treatment

Key measures to prevent diarrhoea include:

access to safe drinking-water;use of improved sanitation;hand washing with soap;exclusive

breastfeeding for the first six months of life;good personal and food hygiene;health education about
how infections spread; androtavirus vaccination.

Key measures to treat diarrhoea include the following:

Rehydration: with oral rehydration salts (ORS) solution. ORS is a mixture of clean water, salt and sugar. It
costs a few cents per treatment. ORS is absorbed in the small intestine and replaces the water and
electrolytes lost in the faeces.Zinc supplements: zinc supplements reduce the duration of a diarrhoea
episode by 25% and are associated with a 30% reduction in stool volume.Rehydration: with intravenous
fluids in case of severe dehydration or shock.Nutrient-rich foods: the vicious circle of malnutrition and
diarrhoea can be broken by continuing to give nutrient-rich foods – including breast milk – during an
episode, and by giving a nutritious diet – including exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life
– to children when they are well.Consulting a health professional, in particular for management of
persistent diarrhoea or when there is blood in stool or if there are signs of dehydration.

WHO response

WHO works with Member States and other partners to:promote national policies and investments that
support case management of diarrhoea and its complications as well as increasing access to safe
drinking-water and sanitation in developing countries;

conduct research to develop and test new diarrhoea prevention and control strategies in this area;

build capacity in implementing preventive interventions, including sanitation, source water

improvements, and household water treatment and safe storage;

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develop new health interventions, such as the rotavirus immunization; and help to train health workers,
especially at community level.

REFERENCES

en.m.Wikipedia.Org

Www.khullakitab.com

Www.Encyclopedia.com

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