metals

Article
Analysis of the Behavior of Dynamic Resistance,
Electrical Energy and Force between the Electrodes in
Resistance Spot Welding Using
Additive Manufacturing
Márcio Batista 1 , Valdir Furlanetto 2 and Sérgio Duarte Brandi 1, *
1 Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, Universidade de São Paulo—USP,
São Paulo 05508-030, Brazil; [email protected]
2 Welding Science Company-Ltda, São Paulo 04764-070, Brazil; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +55-11-971-105-056




Received: 23 March 2020; Accepted: 15 May 2020; Published: 24 May 2020


Abstract: This work is aimed at the analysis of the dynamic resistance, electrical energy and behavior of
the force between electrodes (including thermal expansion) during welding at optimized parameters,
referring to the process of spot welding using additive manufacturing (AMSW). For comparative
purposes, this analysis also includes the conventional resistance spot welding process (RSW).
The experiments were done on low carbon-zinc-coated sheets used in the automotive industry.
The results regarding the welding process using additive manufacturing (AMSW), in comparison to
the conventional resistance spot welding (RSW), showed that the dynamic resistance presented a
different behavior due to the collapse of the deposition at the beginning of the welding, and that a
smaller magnitude of electrical energy (approximately <3.35 times) is required to produce a welding
spot approved in accordance with the norm. No force of thermal expansion was observed during the
passage of the current, in contrast, there was a decrease in the force between the electrodes due to the
collapse of the deposition at the beginning of the welding.

Keywords: resistance spot welding; additive manufacturing; automotive industry; dynamic resistance

1. Introduction
The resistance spot welding process (RSW) is generally used to join sheets with similar thickness
and chemical compositions. The main advantages of this process include ease of automation and
high-speed welding. This process has been widely used for decades, particularly in the automotive
industry [1–5]. Although this process may seem simple, it is necessary to control a large number
of variables to produce satisfactory welding in an automated, high-speed production environment.
In recent years, in order to meet the demand for lighter, economical and low-cost vehicles, the automotive
industry’s manufacturing sector has undergone a revolution, in relation to the use of combinations of
sheet steel with high mechanical strength, various chemical compositions and of different thicknesses.
The chemical composition and surface conditions of the material to be welded are two variables that
have an important effect on weldability [6–11]. In order to improve the weldability of the different sheets
that constitute the current vehicle bodies, a new spot welding process using additive manufacturing
(AMSW) was used in this work [12], due to its intrinsic characteristics of performing a deposition
before welding from several types of materials, in different geometric formats with considerable
precision [13–15].
This new process of spot welding using additive manufacturing (AMSW), under optimized
conditions, has higher mechanical resistance in static shear stresses (tensile shear tests) and static

Metals 2020, 10, 690; doi:10.3390/met10050690 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

 Metals 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 10
Metals 2020, 10, 690 2 of 10
This new process of spot welding using additive manufacturing (AMSW), under optimized
conditions, has higher mechanical resistance in static shear stresses (tensile shear tests) and static
stresses
stresses perpendicular
perpendicular to the
to the weld
weld spot(cross-tension
spot (cross-tension tests)
tests)compared
compared to to
thethe
resistance spotspot
resistance welding
welding
process (RSW). These best results found in spot welding using additive manufacturing
process (RSW). These best results found in spot welding using additive manufacturing (AMSW) (AMSW) are
related to the lower HAZ (heat-affected zone), the absence of indentation and also the greater
are related to the lower HAZ (heat-affected zone), the absence of indentation and also the greater
mechanical resistance of the alloy deposited in relation to the base material [12], as shown in Figure
mechanical resistance of the alloy deposited in relation to the base material [12], as shown in Figure 1.
1.

(a)

(b)

Figure
Figure 1. (a)
1. (a) Macrography related
Macrography related to
tothe
theconventional resistance
conventional spot welding
resistance process process
spot welding (RSW). (b)
(RSW).
Macrography related
(b) Macrography related to
tothe
theprocess
processofof
spot welding
spot using
welding additive
using manufacturing
additive (AMSW)
manufacturing [12].
(AMSW) [12].

Although
Although this new
this new welding
welding process
process (AMSW)
(AMSW) is similar
is similar to projection
to projection welding,
welding, it completely
it has has completelydifferent
different characteristics regarding mechanical and metallurgical properties. For example: AMSW
characteristics regarding mechanical and metallurgical properties. For example: AMSW welding has no
welding has no sheet thickness limit; the height of the projection is unique for any thickness (0.3 ±
sheet thickness limit; the height of the projection is unique for any thickness (0.3 ± 0.1); the geometry
0.1); the geometry of the projection can be changed; and it is possible to transform a weld spot with
of thefragile
projection can be changed;
characteristics to ductileand
by itchanging
is possible
the to transform
chemical a weld spot
composition of thewith fragile characteristics
deposition [12]. It is
to ductile by changing
important the chemical
to highlight composition
that this new spot weldingof the deposition
process using [12]. It ismanufacturing
additive important to highlight
(AMSW) that
this new
was spot welding
patented by theprocess
authorsusing
of thisadditive manufacturing
article (U.S. (AMSW) was patented by the authors of
Patent 15,442,655).
this articleTherefore,
(U.S. Patent this 15,442,655).
work aims to better understand the phenomena that occur during welding in
relation to this
Therefore, this work new spot welding
aims process
to better using additive
understand manufacturing
the phenomena that(AMSW) on zinc-coated
occur during welding in
sheets
relation to used in thespot
this new automotive
welding sector.
processFor this purpose,
using the behavior
additive of the dynamic
manufacturing (AMSW) resistances, the
on zinc-coated
magnitudes of the welding energies, the force between the electrodes and
sheets used in the automotive sector. For this purpose, the behavior of the dynamic resistances,the thermal expansion of
the weld spot were studied and analyzed. By way of comparison, welding spots were also made by
the magnitudes of the welding energies, the force between the electrodes and the thermal expansion of
the conventional resistance spot welding process (RSW), aiming at the quantification of the effect of
the weld spot were studied and analyzed. By way of comparison, welding spots were also made by the
the welding variables on the spots produced by the two processes. Figure 2 shows the typical
conventional
behavior of resistance spotresistance
the electrical welding(dynamic)
process (RSW),
in steel aiming at theresistance
sheets during quantification of the effect
spot welding (RSW).of the
welding variables on the spots produced by the two processes. Figure 2 shows the typical behavior of
the electrical resistance (dynamic) in steel sheets during resistance spot welding (RSW). This behavior
can be basically divided into five stages [16–21]. Figure 2 also shows the correlation between the
dynamic resistance and the formation of the welding spot.
Metals 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10

This behavior
Metals 2020, 10, 690can
be basically divided into five stages [16–21]. Figure 2 also shows the correlation
3 of 10
between the dynamic resistance and the formation of the welding spot.

2. The five stages

Figure 2. stages (1–5)
(1-5) of the behavior and correlation between dynamic resistance and the
the
formation of the weld spot, referring to the
the resistance
resistance spot
spot welding
welding process
process (RSW).
(RSW). Adapted from
[19].
Reference [19].

Another important phenomenon during welding is the thermal or volumetric expansion of the
base material. This
Thisphenomenon
phenomenonoccurs occursduring
duringthetheheating
heatingofofthe
themetal
metal
inin
thethe solid
solid state,
state, as as
wellwell
as
as in the stage of transformation from solid to liquid and also during the heating in
in the stage of transformation from solid to liquid and also during the heating in the liquid state.the liquid state.
However,
However, aa free
free volumetric
volumetric expansion
expansion of of the
the metal
metal inin the
the liquid
liquid state
state during
during welding is not possible
due to the compression
compression of the electrodes.
electrodes. This compression is necessary to maintain the electrical and
thermal
thermal contact
contactatatthe
theinterfaces, and
interfaces, to avoid
and the expulsion
to avoid of theofliquid
the expulsion metal during
the liquid weldingwelding
metal during [22,23].
[22,23].
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Characteristics of the Specimens
2.1. Characteristics of the Specimens
Additive manufacturing spot welding (AMSW) was performed, as well as, by way of comparison,
resistance spot welding (RSW), and approximately 150 samples were produced and analyzed for each
Additive manufacturing spot welding (AMSW) was performed, as well as, by way of
welding process. The sheets were overlapped and welded through a spot made in the middle of this
comparison, resistance spot welding (RSW), and approximately 150 samples were produced and
area,2020,
Metals and thex dimensions of the specimens were based on AWS B4.0 standard, as shown in Figure
4 of 3.
analyzed 11, FOR PEER
for each REVIEW
welding process. The sheets were overlapped and welded through a spot made 10
in
the middle of this area, and the dimensions of the specimens were based on AWS B4.0 standard, as
shown in Figure 3.

Figure
Figure3.3.Schematic
Schematic drawing
drawing (mm) of the
(mm) of the test
test specimens
specimensused
usedininthe
theexperiments,
experiments, dimensions
dimensions based
based on
on AWS
AWS B4.0B4.0 standard.
standard.

For the accomplishment of the experiments, low carbon steel sheets of the automotive sector,
with 0.8 mm of thickness and coated with zinc by the process of hot immersion were used. Table 1
presents the main elements regarding the chemical composition of the sheet.

Table 1. Chemical composition of the steel sheet used in the experiments.

 Metals 2020, 10, 690 4 of 10

Figure 3. Schematic drawing (mm) of the test specimens used in the experiments, dimensions based
ForB4.0
on AWS the standard.
accomplishment of the experiments, low carbon steel sheets of the automotive sector,
with 0.8 mm of thickness and coated with zinc by the process of hot immersion were used. Table 1
For the accomplishment
presents the main elements of regarding
the experiments, low carbon
the chemical steel sheets
composition of the automotive sector,
of the sheet.
with 0.8 mm of thickness and coated with zinc by the process of hot immersion were used. Table 1
Chemical the
Table 1.regarding
presents the main elements composition
chemicalofcomposition
the steel sheetofused
the in the experiments.
sheet.
Alloy C Mn P S Si Cu Ni Cr Mo Al Ti
Table 1. Chemical composition of the steel sheet used in the experiments.
wt% 0.0030 0.6100 0.0330 0.0046 0.0770 0.0180 0.0056 0.0230 0.0020 0.0500 0.0480
Alloy C Mn P S Si Cu Ni Cr Mo Al Ti
wt% 0.0030 0.6100 0.0330 0.0046 0.0770 0.0180 0.0056 0.0230 0.0020 0.0500 0.0480
Table 2 shows the mechanical properties of the zinc-coated steel sheet used in the experiments.
Table 2 shows the mechanical properties of the zinc-coated steel sheet used in the experiments.
Table 2. Mechanical properties of the steel sheet used in the experiments.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the[MPa]

Yield Strength steel sheet used in the
88 ±experiments.
17
Tensile
Yield Strength
Strength [MPa]
[MPa] 88372
± 17± 1,5
Ductility
Tensile [% Elongation]
Strength [MPa] 37244± ±1,5
0.6
Ductility [% Elongation] 44 ± 0.6
2.2. Additive Manufacturing Spot Welding process (AMSW)
2.2. Additive Manufacturing Spot Welding process (AMSW)
Additive manufacturing spot welding (AMSW) was performed in two stages. In the first stage
Additive4a)
(Figure manufacturing
the deposition spot
of welding
the spot (AMSW) was performedgeometry
with a predetermined in two stages. In the
(height andfirst stage on
diameter)
(Figure 4a) the deposition of the spot with a predetermined geometry (height and
individual sheets was performed. The equipment used in the experiments to perform laser deposition diameter) on
individual sheets was
with metallic performed.
powder was theThe equipment
RPMI 535 model,used in the experiments
manufactured by RPM to perform laser deposition
INNOVATIONS, INC (Rapid
withCity,
metallic
SD, powder
USA). Inwas
the the RPMI
second 535(Figure
stage model, 4b)
manufactured by RPM
the sheets were INNOVATIONS,
overlapped, one sheet INC
with(Rapid
deposition
City,and
SD, the
USA). In the second stage (Figure 4b) the sheets were overlapped, one sheet with
other one without, as shown in Figure 4. Then, the electrodes with flat contact face were deposition
and positioned
the other one without,
on the sheetsas
at shown
the same in coordinates
Figure 4. Then, the
of the electrodesforwith
deposition flat contactofface
the execution were
the resistance
positioned on the sheets
spot welding [12]. at the same coordinates of the deposition for the execution of the resistance
spot welding [12].

Figure 4. Stages of AMSW process: (a) schematic drawing (mm) of the laser deposition (additive
manufacturing) using metallic powder (first stage); (b) also showing the overlapping sheets, one sheet
with deposition and the other one without for the execution of the welding (second stage), respectively.
Adapted from [12].

The metallic powder used in the experiments, through the laser deposition process, was the 316L
austenitic stainless steel manufactured by the gas atomization process. Table 3 shows the chemical
composition of the metallic powder used in the experiments.
 manufacturing) using metallic powder (first stage); (b) also showing the overlapping sheets, one sheet
with deposition and the other one without for the execution of the welding (second stage),
respectively. Adapted from [12].

The metallic powder used in the experiments, through the laser deposition process, was the 316L
Metals 2020, 10,
austenitic 690
stainless 5 of 10
steel manufactured by the gas atomization process. Table 3 shows the chemical
composition of the metallic powder used in the experiments.
Table 3. Chemical composition of the metallic powder—316L Stainless Steel.
Table 3. Chemical composition of the metallic powder—316L Stainless Steel.
Alloy C Mo Ni Mn Cr Si Fe
Alloy C Mo Ni Mn Cr Si Fe
wt% 0.015 2.6 13.1 1.6 17.2 0.7 Balance
wt% 0.015 2.6 13.1 1.6 17.2 0.7 Balance

2.3. Characteristics
2.3. Characteristicsof
ofthe
the Resistance
Resistance Spot
Spot Welding
Welding Equipment
Equipment used
used in
in the
the Experiments
Experiments
In order
In order to
to capture
capture and
and monitor
monitor the
the magnitudes
magnitudes of of voltage,
voltage, current,
current, force
force and
and displacement
displacement
between the electrodes, digital oscilloscopes, as well as load sensors and linear displacement
between the electrodes, digital oscilloscopes, as well as load sensors and linear displacement sensors sensors
were used.
were used. Subsequently,
Subsequently,thethe
captured signals
captured were were
signals processed by a software
processed named RAFT,
by a software nameddeveloped
RAFT,
by the company: WTC—Welding Technology Corporation (Farmington
developed by the company: WTC—Welding Technology Corporation (Farmington Hills, MI, Hills, MI, USA) to perform
USA)
dynamic
to perform resistance
dynamiccalculations [24]. In this[24].
resistance calculations experiment, a stationarya spot
In this experiment, welding
stationary equipment
spot welding
(Figure 5a) with
equipment a maximum
(Figure 5a) with force capacity of
a maximum 5.0 kN
force between
capacity the electrodes
of 5.0 kN between andthe
a medium frequency
electrodes and a
direct current was used. The geometry of the contact (electrode/sheet) used during
medium frequency direct current was used. The geometry of the contact (electrode/sheet) used the experiments,
referring
during toexperiments,
the spot welding referring
using additive
to spotmanufacturing
welding using (AMSW),
additivewas the flat face, (AMSW),
manufacturing with a diameter of
was the
16 mm and a height of 20 mm (Figure 5b). For the welding with the resistance spot
flat face, with a diameter of 16 mm and a height of 20 mm (Figure 5b). For the welding with the welding (RSW)
process, anspot
resistance electrode
weldingwith a spherical
(RSW) process,contact face and
an electrode a radius
with of 8 mm,
a spherical a diameter
contact face andofa 16 mm of
radius and8
a height of 20 mm was used. Figure 5 shows an overview of the equipment
mm, a diameter of 16 mm and a height of 20 mm was used. Figure 5 shows an overview of the and accessories used in
the experiments.
equipment and accessories used in the experiments.

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 5.
5. (a)
(a) Resistance
Resistance spot
spot welding
welding equipment
equipment and
and accessories,
accessories, (b)
(b) the
the geometry
geometry of
of the
the contact
contact
(electrode/sheet) used during the experiments.
(electrode/sheet) used during the experiments.

2.4. Optimized
2.4. OptimizedWelding
Welding Parameters
Parameters and
and Weld
Weld Point
Point Acceptance
Acceptance Criteria
Criteria
For the
For the selection
selectionofof
thethe
optimized welding
optimized parameters,
welding the minimum
parameters, dimensions
the minimum for the approval
dimensions for the
of the diameter
approval of the of the spotofweld
diameter the were observed,
spot weld wereas well as the
observed, as minimum
well as theresistance
minimum forresistance
tensile shear
for
tests, as shown in Table 4.
tensile shear tests, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Dimensions and minimum tensile strength used for welding spot approval.

Spot Diameter Spot Diameter Minimum Strength:

Sheet Thickness (mm)
(Macrography Test) (mm) (Peel Test) (mm) Tensile Shear Test (kN)
0.8 3.1 3.6 2.3

Table 5 presents the optimized parameters for the execution of the experiments for both resistance
spot welding (RSW) and spot welding using additive manufacturing (AMSW).
 Sheet Spot Diameter Minimum Strength:
Spot Diameter (Peel
Thickness (Macrography Tensile Shear Test
Test) (mm)
(mm) Test) (mm) (kN)
0.8 3.1 3.6 2.3

Metals Table
2020, 10,5690
presents
the optimized parameters for the execution of the experiments for 6both
of 10
resistance spot welding (RSW) and spot welding using additive manufacturing (AMSW).

Table 5. Optimized
Table 5. Optimized welding
welding parameters
parameters for
for the
the execution
execution of
of the
the experiments.
experiments.
Welding
Welding Process
Process Current
Current(kA)
(kA) Time (ms)
Time Force(kN)
(ms) Force (kN) HoldingTime
Holding Time(ms)
(ms)
RSW
RSW 7.8
7.8 225
225 2.9
2.9 300
300
AMSW
AMSW 8.0
8.0 60
60 1.1
1.1 300
300

3. Results
3. Results and
and Discussion
Discussion

3.1.
3.1. Analysis of the Dynamic Resistance Behavior
Behavior between
between the
the Spot
Spot Welding
Welding Process
Process using
using Additive
Additive
Manufacturing
Manufacturing (AMSW)
(AMSW) and
and the
the Conventional
Conventional Resistance
Resistance Spot
SpotWelding
WeldingProcess
Process(RSW)
(RSW)
Figure
Figure 66 shows
shows the
the comparison
comparison ofof the
the dynamic
dynamic resistance,
resistance, using
using the
the optimized
optimized parameters,
parameters,
between
between the
the spot
spot welding
welding process
process using
using additive
additive manufacturing
manufacturing (AMSW)
(AMSW) andand the
the resistance
resistance spot
spot
welding (RSW) process on zinc-coated sheets.
welding (RSW) process on zinc-coated sheets.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Dynamic resistance of the spot welding process using additive manufacturing
manufacturing (AMSW)
(AMSW) andand
the resistance
the resistance spot
spot welding
welding (RSW)
(RSW) process
processon
onzinc-coated
zinc-coatedsheets
sheets(numbers
(numbersdescription
descriptionin
inthe
thetext).
text).

By
By the
theanalysis
analysisofofFigure
Figure6, it6,can be noticed
it can that the
be noticed thatinitial dynamic
the initial resistance
dynamic of the spot
resistance welding
of the spot
using additive manufacturing was 15.2% greater when compared to the
welding using additive manufacturing was 15.2% greater when compared to the conventional conventional resistance spot
welding
resistance(RSW). This fact is
spot welding due toThis
(RSW). the greater electrical
fact is due to theresistivity of the material
greater electrical of deposition,
resistivity and also
of the material of
the smaller area for the passage of the current when compared to the
deposition, and also the smaller area for the passage of the current when compared to the conventional resistance spot
welding process.
conventional It can also
resistance spotbe observed
welding that the
process. behavior
It can also beofobserved
the dynamic resistance
that the behavior forofthe
theresistance
dynamic
spot
resistance for the resistance spot welding process on zinc-coated sheets was as expected, i.e., (1)of
welding process on zinc-coated sheets was as expected, i.e., (1) there was an initial decrease the
there
electrical resistance due to oxide fragmentation, and to the increase of the contact
was an initial decrease of the electrical resistance due to oxide fragmentation, and to the increase of area, through the
collapse of the
the contact roughness
area, throughatthe thecollapse
interfaces of the
of the sheets. Subsequently,
roughness at the interfaces(2) there
of thewas a small
sheets. increase in
Subsequently,
dynamic
(2) there resistance
was a small because of the
increase in increase
dynamicofresistance
the temperature,
becausefollowed by a small
of the increase of drop in dynamic
the temperature,
resistance (3). This small drop is related to the burning of zinc. After the zinc burns, the highs and
lows of the roughness of the base material meet and then their collapse occurs. This collapse increases
the contact area by decreasing the dynamic resistance. After this fact, the dynamic resistance increased
again due to the increase in temperature (4). And in the last stage, (5) there was a decrease of the
dynamic resistance caused by the increase of the contact area through the penetration of the electrodes
on the surfaces of the sheets.
In relation to the spot welding process using additive manufacturing (AMSW) on zinc-coated
sheets, a drop of the dynamic resistance occurred from the beginning of the welding to around 40 ms
After the zinc burns, the highs and lows of the roughness of the base material meet and then their
collapse occurs. This collapse increases the contact area by decreasing the dynamic resistance. After
this fact, the dynamic resistance increased again due to the increase in temperature (4). And in the
last stage, (5) there was a decrease of the dynamic resistance caused by the increase of the contact
area through the penetration of the electrodes on the surfaces of the sheets.
Metals 2020, 10, 690 7 of 10
In relation to the spot welding process using additive manufacturing (AMSW) on zinc-coated
sheets, a drop of the dynamic resistance occurred from the beginning of the welding to around 40 ms
(6), where
wherea acurve
curve inflection
inflection occurred
occurred (7).
(7). A A possible
possible explanation
explanation for thisfor this
drop drop
in the in the resistance
dynamic dynamic
resistance (6) is theofincrease
(6) is the increase of the
the contact contact
area due toarea
the due to theofcollapse
collapse of the deposition.
the deposition. With respectWith
to respect
the curveto
the curve inflection
inflection (7) this may(7) this may beto
be related related to the temperature
the temperature raise due raise
to due to the increase
the increase of the of the melted
melted mass
mass
betweenbetween the deposited
the deposited material
material andbase
and the the base material
material atfinal
at the the final moments
moments in formation
in the the formation of
of the
the welding
welding spot.spot. Shortly
Shortly afterinflection
after the the inflection of the there
of the curve, curve, there
was was adrop
a sudden sudden drop inresistance,
in dynamic dynamic
resistance, or more
or more precisely precisely
in 46 in 46fact
ms (8). This msis(8). Thistofact
related theiszinc
related to the
burning, zinc burning,
as previously as previously
explained in stage
explained
(3). in stage (3).

3.2. Comparative
3.2. Comparative Analysis
Analysis of
of Electrical
Electrical Energy
Energy between
between the
the Spot
Spot Welding
Welding Process
Process using
using Additive
Additive
Manufacturing (AMSW) and the Conventional Resistance Spot Welding Process
Manufacturing (AMSW) and the Conventional Resistance Spot Welding Process (RSW) (RSW)
Figure 77shows
Figure showsthe comparison
the comparison of the
of electrical energy,
the electrical through
energy, the optimized
through parameters,
the optimized between
parameters,
the spot welding process using additive manufacturing (AMSW) and the
between the spot welding process using additive manufacturing (AMSW) and the resistance spot resistance spot welding
(RSW) process
welding (RSW)onprocess
zinc-coated sheets. It can
on zinc-coated be observed
sheets. It can bethat the totalthat
observed electrical energy
the total relatedenergy
electrical to the
spot welding
related to the process using process
spot welding additiveusing
manufacturing was 782 J, andwas
additive manufacturing for 782
the resistance spotresistance
J, and for the welding
process was 2624 J, i.e., the electric energy was 235.54% higher when compared
spot welding process was 2624 J, i.e., the electric energy was 235.54% higher when compared to the spot welding
to the
spot welding process using additive manufacturing. This result is due to a higher concentrationinofa
process using additive manufacturing. This result is due to a higher concentration of energy
predetermined
energy area, performed
in a predetermined through thethrough
area, performed laser deposition, and also due
the laser deposition, andtoalso
thedue
greater electrical
to the greater
resistivity, and lower thermal conductivity of the deposited material. These facts result
electrical resistivity, and lower thermal conductivity of the deposited material. These facts result in lower losses,
in
and greater efficiency in the generation of thermal energy during welding.
lower losses, and greater efficiency in the generation of thermal energy during welding.

Figure 7. Comparison
Comparison ofof electrical
electrical energy
energy between
between the
the spot
spot welding
welding process
process using additive
manufacturing (AMSW) and the resistance spot welding (RSW) process
process on
on zinc-coated
zinc-coated sheets.
sheets.

3.3. Comparative
3.3. Comparative Analysis
Analysis of
of the
the Behavior
Behavior of
of the
the Force
Force between
between the
the Electrodes
Electrodes Referring
Referring to
to the
the Spot
Spot Welding
Welding
Process using Additive Manufacturing (AMSW) and the Resistance Spot Welding Process (RSW)
Process using Additive Manufacturing (AMSW) and the Resistance Spot Welding Process (RSW)
Figure 8 shows the comparison of the force behavior between the electrodes, through the optimized
Figure 8 shows the comparison of the force behavior between the electrodes, through the
parameters, in relation to the spot welding process using additive manufacturing (AMSW), and the
optimized parameters, in relation to the spot welding process using additive manufacturing
resistance spot welding (RSW) process on sheets coated with zinc.
(AMSW), and the resistance spot welding (RSW) process on sheets coated with zinc.
Metals 2020, 10, 690 8 of 10
Metals 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 10

Figure
Figure 8. Comparison of
8. Comparison of the
the force
force behavior
behavior between
between the
the spot
spot welding
welding process
process using
using additive
additive
manufacturing (AMSW) and the resistance spot welding (RSW) process on zinc coated sheets.
manufacturing (AMSW) and the resistance spot welding (RSW) process on zinc coated sheets.

Figure
Figure 88also
alsoshows
shows thethebehavior of the
behavior of force (versus
the force time) oftime)
(versus the entire
of thewelding
entire process
weldingsequence,
process
that
sequence, that is, the stabilization of the force (1), the behavior of the force during the the
is, the stabilization of the force (1), the behavior of the force during the passage of current
passage (2),
of the
and the force for solidification or cooling of the welding spot
current (2), and the force for solidification or cooling of the welding spot (3). (3).
As
As for
for the
the behavior
behavior of of the
the force
force between
between the the electrodes
electrodes during
during thethe passage
passage of of the
the electric
electric current
current
by the resistance spot welding process, a thermal expansion force (2)
by the resistance spot welding process, a thermal expansion force (2) that came from 2.90 that came from 2.90 kN kNto 3.19 kN
to 3.19
was observed,
kN was i.e., i.e.,
observed, an increase
an increase of 10%. ThisThis
of 10%. factfact
is due to the
is due melting
to the melting between
between thethe
sheets, thethe
sheets, metal
metalin
the liquid state has a larger volumetric expansion than in the solid state. On the
in the liquid state has a larger volumetric expansion than in the solid state. On the other hand, there other hand, there was
awas
decrease in the
a decrease inforce between
the force the electrodes
between the electrodesfromfrom
1.1 kN
1.1 to
kN2.5
to kN during
2.5 kN the the
during passage
passageof current (2)
of current
when compared
(2) when compared to the tospot
the welding process
spot welding using using
process additive manufacturing,
additive i.e., a decrease
manufacturing, of 77.27%.
i.e., a decrease of
This result is related to the instantaneous collapse of the deposition during
77.27%. This result is related to the instantaneous collapse of the deposition during the passage the passage of the current,
of the
causing
current, acausing
partial aloss of contact
partial loss ofofcontact
the electrodes from the from
of the electrodes surfaces
the of the sheets.
surfaces of the sheets.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
Based on the materials used, the experiments carried out and the results obtained, it is possible to
Based on the materials used, the experiments carried out and the results obtained, it is possible
conclude that:
to conclude that:
1. 1.TheThe behavior
behavior of the
of the dynamic
dynamic resistance
resistance related
related totothe
thespot
spotwelding
weldingprocess
process using
using additive
additive
manufacturing
manufacturing (AMSW)
(AMSW) was was different
different whenwhen comparedtotothe
compared theconventional
conventional resistance
resistance spot
welding
welding process
process (RSW). (RSW). This result
This result is related
is related to the collapse
to the collapse of the deposition
of the deposition due to its
due to its heating in
heating
the first in the firstofmilliseconds
milliseconds welding. of welding.
2. 2. As shown
As shown by the
by the behavior
behavior of of
thethe dynamic
dynamic resistance,referring
resistance, referringtotothe
theprocess
processofofspot
spot welding
welding
using additive manufacturing (AMSW), the formation of the welding
using additive manufacturing (AMSW), the formation of the welding spot occurs at the spot occurs at the final
final
moments
moments of passage
of the the passage of electric
of the the electric current.
current. ThisThis fact
fact is is evidenced
evidenced by thebyburning
the burning
of theofzinc
the
zinc represented in stage 8 of
represented in stage 8 of the Figure 6. the Figure 6.
3. 3.TheThe spot welding
spot welding processprocess using manufacturing
using additive additive manufacturing
(AMSW) requires(AMSW) requires
smaller smaller
magnitudes of
magnitudes of electrical energy (approximately <3.35 times) to produce
electrical energy (approximately <3.35 times) to produce an approved welding spot according to an approved
welding spot
the standard whenaccording
comparedtowiththe the
standard when compared
conventional resistance with the conventional
spot welding (RSW). resistance
4. spot welding
A thermal (RSW).
expansion force during the electric current flow was observed for the resistance
4. A thermal expansion
spot welding process (RSW). forceOnduring the electric
the other hand, current flowwelding
for the spot was observed
processforusing
the resistance
additive
spot welding process (RSW). On the other hand, for the spot
manufacturing (AMSW), there was a decrease in the force between the electrodes duewelding process using additive
to the
manufacturing
collapse (AMSW),
of the deposition there
at the was
start of awelding.
decrease in the force between the electrodes due to the
collapse of the deposition at the start of welding.
Metals 2020, 10, 690 9 of 10

5. Patent
The process of resistance spot welding using additive manufacturing (AMSW) was patented by
the authors of this article. Patent Number: 15442655–USA.

Author Contributions: M.B., V.F. and S.D.B. conceived and designed the experiments; M.B. and V.F. performed
the experiments; M.B. and S.D.B. analyzed the data; and M.B. and S.D.B. wrote the paper. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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