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MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKING (DCN)

OBJECTIVES

Provides a general idea of what we will see in the rest of the book. Four major Concepts are
discussed: Data Communications, Networking, protocol and Standards, and Networking Models.

INTRODUCTION

Data communications and networking are changing the way we do business and the way we live. Business
decisions have to be made ever more quickly, and the decision makers require immediate access to accurate
information. Why wait a week for that report from Germany to arrive by mail when it could appear almost
instantaneously through computer networks? Businesses today rely on computer networks and
internetworks. But before we ask how quickly we can get hooked up, we need to know how networks
operate, what types of technologies are available, and which design best fills which set of needs.

The development of the personal computer brought about tremendous changes for business, industry,
science, and education. A similar revolution is occurring in data communications and networking.
Technological advances are making it possible for communications links to carry more and faster signals.
As a result, services are evolving to allow use of this expanded capacity. For example, established telephone
services such as conference calling, call waiting, voice mail, and caller ID have been extended.
Research in data communications and networking has resulted in new technologies. One goal is to be able
to exchange data such as text, audio, and video from all points in the world. We want to access the Internet
to download and upload information quickly and accurately and at any time.

This chapter addresses four issues: data communications, networks, the Internet, and protocols and
standards. First we give a broad definition of data communications. Then we define networks as a highway
on which data can travel. The Internet is discussed as a good example of an internetwork (i.e., a network of
networks). Finally, we discuss different types of protocols, the difference between protocols and standards,
and the organizations that set those standards.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end the module, the students are expected to introduce the concepts of Multimedia System:

❖ CONTENTS OF THE MODULE

This module contains the following lessons:

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Lesson 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Networking (DCN)

❏ Types Of Computer Networks

❏ Network Lan Technologies

❏ Computer Network Topologies

❏ Computer Network Models

❏ Computer Network And Security

❖ DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO USE THE MODULE PROPERLY

In order to benefit profoundly from this module, please be guided by all the key points presented below.

1. This module contains two (2) lessons. Each lesson is explained substantively.

Read the explanations thoroughly so that you could understand the lesson fully.

2. Please use Microsoft Word Long Size for the answer and convert to PDF.

3. Feel free to chat, call, text or send an email message to me if you have questions, reaction,
reflections about the content or activities in the module.

LESSON 1

Introduction to Multimedia Systems

[Link] is meant by Data Communication and explain its characteristics?

Data communications (DC) is the process of using computing and communication technologies to transfer
data from one place to another, or between participating parties.
DC enables the movement of electronic or digital data between two or more network nodes, regardless of
geographical location, technological medium or data contents.

Data communications incorporate several techniques and technologies to enable any form of electronic
communication. It’s a very broad way to refer to all of this networked technology on any platform or in any
digital environment.
Some common types of data communications technologies include telecommunications, computer
networking and radio/satellite communication. Data communication usually requires the existence of a

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transportation or communication medium between the nodes wanting to communicate with each other, such
as copper wire, fiber optic cables, or wireless signals.
For example, a common example of data communications is a computer connected to the Internet via a Wi-
Fi connection, which uses a wireless medium to send and receive data from one or more remote servers.
Some devices/technologies used in data communications are known as data communication equipment
(DCE) and data terminal equipment (DTE). DCE is used at the sending node, and DTE is used at the
receiving node.
Another way to talk about different types of data communications is to refer to the functionality that is
available for a sender and a receiver to use. In terms of communications function, you have simplex
communications, which are only one-way data communications, and you have half-duplex and full-duplex
data communications models, as well as serial data communications.
With half-duplex communications, information can go both ways, but not at the same time. Full-duplex
models accommodate simultaneous two-way communication of data.
That last form, serial data communications, is widely understood in networking. It means that the data is
packaged into units, and then sent serially to the receiver by the sender. This typically takes the form of
creating data packets with their headers and other bits of information, and then sending them consecutively
to the destination, typically through platforms using the seven-layer OSI model that demonstrates the
natures of different paths between nodes.
Data communication also relies on various types of protocols, depending on the environment in which the
messages sent. Internet protocols like FTP, HTTP and HTTPS were developed in order to optimize data
communications over the Internet.
One other useful way to think about data communications is by analyzing the architecture through which it
occurs.
For the Internet, the traditional model has been client/server architecture.
A client/server architecture consists of stations that are ‘clients’ or consumers, and stations that are ‘servers’
or producers. The client makes the request of the server, and the server returns a result.
Although this has been the dominant model, there are now emerging peer-to-peer architectures that do not
assign traditional roles of client and server to each node in the data communications network.
Increasingly, new systems will contemplate situations where devices either have less defined roles, or other
advances to make network activity more versatile.
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers and a
computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange
data. The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable
media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.
This tutorial should teach you basics of Data Communication and Computer Network (DCN) and will also
take you through various advance concepts related to Data Communication and Computer Network.

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Data communications system depends on four fundamental

characteristics:
1. Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of
video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
4. Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio
or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If some of
the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video
is the result.

[Link] about different types of connections.

• Dial-Up (Analog 56K).

Dial-up access is cheap but slow. A modem (internal or external) connects to the Internet after the
computer dials a phone number. This analog signal is converted to digital via the modem and sent
over a land-line serviced by a public telephone network. Telephone lines are variable in quality
and the connection can be poor at times. The lines regularly experience interference and this
affects the speed, anywhere from 28K to 56K. Since a computer or other device shares the same
line as the telephone, they can’t be active at the same time.

• DSL. DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line. It is an internet connection that is always
“on”. This uses 2 lines so your phone is not tied up when your computer is
connected. There is also no need to dial a phone number to connect. DSL uses a router to
transport data and the range of connection speed, depending on the service offered, is
between 128K to 8 Mbps.

• Cable. Cable provides an internet connection through a cable modem and operates over
cable TV lines. There are different speeds depending on if you are uploading data
transmissions or downloading. Since the coax cable provides a much greater bandwidth

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over dial-up or DSL telephone lines, you can get faster access. Cable speeds range from
512K to 20 Mbps.

• Wireless. Wireless, or Wi-Fi, as the name suggests, does not use telephone lines or cables
to connect to the internet. Instead, it uses radio frequency. Wireless is also an always on
connection and it can be accessed from just about anywhere. Wireless networks are
growing in coverage areas by the minute so when I mean access from just about anywhere,
I really mean it. Speeds will vary, and the range is between 5 Mbps to 20 Mbps.

• Satellite. Satellite accesses the internet via a satellite in Earth’s orbit. The enormous
distance that a signal travels from earth to satellite and back again, provides a delayed
connection compared to cable and DSL. Satellite connection speeds are around 512K to
2.0 Mbps.

• Cellular. Cellular technology provides wireless Internet access through cell phones. The
speeds vary depending on the provider, but the most common are 3G and 4G speeds. A
3G is a term that describes a 3rd generation cellular network obtaining mobile speeds of
around 2.0 Mbps. 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. The goal of
4G is to achieve peak mobile speeds of 100 Mbps but the reality is about 21 Mbps currently.

[Link] the different types of topologies.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

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Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

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Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the
network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

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STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

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MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to
each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic,
to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted
load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

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Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

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Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

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Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

[Link] the different types of Networks.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a computer
or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one building. These types
of networks are typically found in small offices or residences, and are managed by one person or
organization from a single device.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

We’re confident that you’ve heard of these types of networks before – LANs are the most
frequently discussed networks, one of the most common, one of the most original and one of the
simplest types of networks. LANs connect groups of computers and low-voltage devices together
across short distances (within a building or between a group of two or three buildings in close
proximity to each other) to share information and resources. Enterprises typically manage and
maintain LANs.

Using routers, LANs can connect to wide area networks (WANs, explained below) to rapidly and
safely transfer data.

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3. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Functioning like a LAN, WLANs make use of wireless network technology, such as Wi-Fi.
Typically seen in the same types of applications as LANs, these types of networks don’t require
that devices rely on physical cables to connect to the network.

4. Campus Area Network (CAN)

Larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks (MANs, explained below), these
types of networks are typically seen in universities, large K-12 school districts or small businesses.
They can be spread across several buildings that are fairly close to each other so users can share
resources.

5. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs – and incorporate elements
from both types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area (typically a town or city, but
sometimes a campus). Ownership and maintenance is handled by either a single person or company
(a local council, a large company, etc.).

6. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer physical
distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected to each other
over one large network to communicate even when they’re miles apart.

The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the
world. Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by multiple
administrators or the public.

7. Storage-Area Network (SAN)

As a dedicated high-speed network that connects shared pools of storage devices to several servers,
these types of networks don’t rely on a LAN or WAN. Instead, they move storage resources away
from the network and place them into their own high-performance network. SANs can be accessed
in the same fashion as a drive attached to a server. Types of storage-area networks include
converged, virtual and unified SANs.

8. System-Area Network (also known as SAN)

This term is fairly new within the past two decades. It is used to explain a relatively local network
that is designed to provide high-speed connection in server-to-server applications (cluster
environments), storage area networks (called “SANs” as well) and processor-to-processor
applications. The computers connected on a SAN operate as a single system at very high speeds.

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9. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

As an alternative to traditional switch-based Ethernet LANs, POLAN technology can be integrated
into structured cabling to overcome concerns about supporting traditional Ethernet protocols and
network applications such as PoE (Power over Ethernet). A point-to-multipoint LAN architecture,
POLAN uses optical splitters to split an optical signal from one strand of singlemode optical fiber
into multiple signals to serve users and devices.

10. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

These types of networks are built and owned by businesses that want to securely connect its various
locations to share computer resources.

11. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

By extending a private network across the Internet, a VPN lets its users send and receive data as if
their devices were connected to the private network – even if they’re not. Through a virtual point-
to-point connection, users can access a private network remotely.

[Link] the types 3 of cryptographic algorithms

Hash functions

A cryptographic hash function does not use keys for its basic operation. This function creates a
small digest or “hash value” from often large amounts of data through a one-way process. Hash
functions are generally used to create the building blocks that are used in key management and
provide security services such as:

• Providing source and integrity authentication services by generating message

authentication codes (MACs)
• Compressing messages for generating and verifying digital signatures
• Deriving keys in key-establishment algorithms
• Generating deterministic random numbers

Symmetric-key algorithms

Also referred to as a secret-key algorithm, a symmetric-key algorithm transforms data to make it

extremely difficult to view without possessing a secret key.

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The key is considered symmetric because it is used for both encrypting and decrypting. These keys
are usually known by one or more authorized entities. Symmetric key algorithms are used for:

• Providing data confidentiality by using the same key for encrypting and decrypting data.
• Providing Message Authentication Codes (MACs) for source and integrity authentication
services. The key is used to create the MAC and then to validate it.
• Establishing keys during key-establishment processes
• Generating deterministic random numbers

Asymmetric-key algorithms

Also referred to as public-key algorithms, asymmetric-key algorithms use paired keys (a public
and a private key) in performing their function. The public key is known to all, but the private key
is controlled solely by the owner of that key pair. The private key cannot be mathematically
calculated through the use of the public key even though they are cryptographically related.
Asymmetric algorithms are used for:

• Computing digital signatures

• Establishing cryptographic keying material
• Identity Management

[Link] the different layers in OSI Models

❖ Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node
to another node.

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o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex
or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

❖ Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer

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o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the

receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control
layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which
is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
• Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher
processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.

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❖ Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol
(IP).

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❖ Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

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o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer
to another computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds
the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port address. The
responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the
correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has
arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service
and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented
service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before
delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-
to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures
that message reach at the destination without any error.

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❖ Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which
can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

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❖ Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

❖ Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods,
the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
❖ Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
❖ Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such
as text, audio, video.

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❖ Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage
the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.

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[Link] about peer-to-peer processing.

A peer-to-peer network is a simple network of computers. It first came into existence in

the late 1970s. Here each computer acts as a node for file sharing within the formed network.
Here each node acts as a server and thus there is no central server to the network. This allows
the sharing of a huge amount of data. The tasks are equally divided amongst the nodes. Each
node connected in the network shares an equal workload. For the network to stop working, all
the nodes need to individually stop working. This is because each node works independently.

In a P2P network, the "peers" are computer systems which are connected to each other via
the Internet. Files can be shared directly between systems on the network without the need of a
central server. In other words, each computer on a P2P network becomes a file server as well as a
client.

The only requirements for a computer to join a peer-to-peer network are an Internet
connection and P2P software. Common P2P software programs include Kazaa, Limewire,
BearShare, Morpheus, and Acquisition. These programs connect to a P2P network, such as
"Gnutella," which allows the computer to access thousands of other systems on the network.

Once connected to the network, P2P software allows you to search for files on other people's
computers. Meanwhile, other users on the network can search for files on your computer, but
typically only within a single folder that you have designated to share. While P2P networking
makes file sharing easy and convenient, is also has led to a lot of software piracy and illegal music
downloads. Therefore, it is best to be on the safe side and only download software and music from
legitimate websites.

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[Link] are the Components of Data Communication?

1. Message:
This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The message simply refers
to data or piece of information which is to be communicated. A message could be in
any form, it may be in form of a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

2. Sender:
To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there who will play
role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in data communication system. It is
simple a device that sends data message. The device could be in form of a computer,
mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or a workstation, etc.

3. Receiver:
It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a device that
receives message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in form of a computer,
telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission-Medium:
In entire process of data communication, there must be something which could act as
a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission medium plays that part. It is
physical path by which data or message travels from sender to receiver. Transmission
medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided (without wires), for example,
twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves, microwaves, etc.

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5. Set-of rules (Protocol):

To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already designed by the designers
of the communication systems, which represent a kind of agreement between communicating
devices. These are defined as protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a set of rules that govern
data communication. If two different devices are connected but there is no protocol among them,
there would not be any kind of communication between those two devices. Thus the protocol is
necessary for data communication to take place.

A typical example of a data communication system is sending an e-mail. The user which send
email act as sender, message is data which user wants to send, receiver is one whom user wants
to send message, there are many protocols involved in this entire process, one of them is Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), both sender and receiver must have an internet connection
which uses a wireless medium to send and receive email.

Assignment # 2 :

1. What are the layers in OSI Reference Models ?Understand and Describe each layer Briefly.

Below are the seven layers of OSI Reference Models:

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model:

Physical Layer:
The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned with electrically or optically transmitting raw
unstructured data bits across the network from the physical layer of the sending device to the
physical layer of the receiving device. It can include specifications such as voltages, pin layout,
cabling, and radio frequencies. At the physical layer, one might find “physical” resources such as
network hubs, cabling, repeaters, network adapters or modems.

Data Link Layer:

At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-to-node data transfer
where data is packaged into frames. The data link layer also corrects errors that may have occurred
at the physical layer.

The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers of its own. The first, media access control (MAC),
provides flow control and multiplexing for device transmissions over a network. The second, the
logical link control (LLC), provides flow and error control over the physical medium as well as
identifies line protocols.

Network Layer:
The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer, and delivering them
to their intended destinations among based on the addresses contained inside the frame. The
network layer finds the destination by using logical addresses, such as IP (internet protocol). At

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this layer, routers are a crucial component used to quite literally route information where it needs
to go between networks.

Transport Layer:
The transport layer manages the delivery and error checking of data packets. It regulates the size,
sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data between systems and hosts. One of the most
common examples of the transport layer is TCP or the Transmission Control Protocol.

Session Layer:
The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A session or connection
between machines is set up, managed, and termined at layer 5. Session layer services also include
authentication and reconnections.

Presentation Layer:
The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the syntax or
semantics that the application accepts. Because of this, it at times also called the syntax layer. This
layer can also handle the encryption and decryption required by the application layer.

Application Layer:
At this layer, both the end user and the application layer interact directly with the software
application. This layer sees network services provided to end-user applications such as a web
browser or Office 365. The application layer identifies communication partners, resource
availability, and synchronizes communication.

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