Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

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Sedimentary Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Constraining the sedimentology and stratigraphy of submarine

intraslope lobe deposits using exhumed examples from the
Karoo Basin, South Africa
Y.T. Spychala a,⁎, D.M. Hodgson a, S.S. Flint b, N.P. Mountney a
a
Stratigraphy Group, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
b
Stratigraphy Group, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Science, University of Manchester, M13 9PL, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Intraslope lobe deposits provide a process record of the infill of accommodation on submarine slopes and their rec-
Received 30 January 2015 ognition enables the accurate reconstruction of the stratigraphic evolution of submarine slope systems. Extensive
Received in revised form 30 March 2015 exposures of discrete sand-prone packages in Units D/E and E, Fort Brown Formation, Karoo Basin, South Africa,
Accepted 31 March 2015
permit analysis of the sedimentology and stacking patterns of three intraslope lobe complexes and their
Available online 10 April 2015
palaeogeographic reconstruction via bed-scale analysis and physical correlation of key stratal surfaces. The sand-
Keywords:
prone packages comprise tabular, aggradationally to slightly compensationally stacked lobe deposits with constit-
Intraslope lobes uent facies associations that can be attributed to lobe axis, lobe off-axis, lobe-fringe and distal lobe-fringe environ-
Submarine slope ments. Locally, intraslope lobe deposits are incised by low aspect ratio channels that mark basinward progradation
Slope topography of the deepwater system. The origin of accommodation on the slope for lobe deposition is interpreted to be due to
Facies stacking pattern differential compaction or healing of scars from mass wasting processes. The stacking patterns and sedimentary
Facies variability facies arrangement identified in this study are distinct from those of more commonly recognized basin-floor
Karoo Basin lobe deposits, thereby enabling the establishment of recognition criteria for intraslope lobe deposits in other less
well exposed and studied fine-grained systems. Compared to basin floor lobes, intraslope lobes are smaller in
volume, influenced by higher degrees of confinement, and tend to show aggradational stacking patterns.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction offshore Angola (Oluboyo et al., 2014), the Algarve Margin, offshore
Portugal (Marchès et al., 2010), the Gioia Basin, southeastern
Basin floor lobe deposits are the dominant component of submarine Tyrrhenian Sea (Gamberi and Rovere, 2011; Gamberi et al., 2011) and
fan successions and criteria for their recognition are well established the Baiyun Sag, South China Sea (Li et al., 2012).
(e.g., Harms, 1974; Hartog Jager et al., 1993; Sixsmith et al., 2004; The geophysical expression of intraslope lobes is described as
Pyles, 2008; Prélat et al., 2009, 2010; Pyles and Jennette, 2009; layered (high amplitude reflectors) to transparent seismic facies by
Kilhams et al., 2012; Etienne et al., 2012; Burgreen and Graham, most authors (Booth et al., 2003; Adeogba et al., 2005; Li et al., 2012),
2014). By contrast, the characteristics of intraslope lobes, which are though Marchès et al. (2010) report cases that are represented by
also referred to as perched lobes (Plink-Björklund and Steel, 2002; chaotic seismic reflectors. These seismic facies have been interpreted
Prather et al., 2012a) or transient fans (Adeogba et al., 2005; Gamberi as channel-lobe systems and associated mass transport deposits,
and Rovere, 2011), and form in areas of slope accommodation, are poor- respectively. Different mechanisms are invoked to explain the develop-
ly defined (Fig. 1). Intraslope lobes have been identified in several sub- ment of intraslope accommodation needed for intraslope lobe deposits
surface geophysical studies based on multibeam bathymetric data, to form, including tectonics (Marchès et al., 2010; Li et al., 2012), mud
CHIRP profiles and seismic imaging (2D and 3D). Documented exam- diapirism (Adeogba et al., 2005), halokinesis (Booth et al., 2003;
ples include studies from the Gulf of Mexico (Prather et al., 1998; Oluboyo et al., 2014) or slide scars (Morris et al., 2014a). Several com-
Fiduk et al., 1999; Pirmez et al., 2012; Prather et al., 2012b), the Niger monly observed features of intraslope lobes are considered as diagnostic
Delta continental slope offshore Nigeria (Adeogba et al., 2005; Li et al., indicators: 1) a smaller lateral extent and lower aspect ratio than basin
2010; Barton, 2012; Prather et al., 2012a), the Lower Congo Basin, floor lobes (Plink-Björklund and Steel, 2002; Deptuck et al., 2008);
2) common evidence for incision due to their transience that is linked
to a lower base level on the basin floor (Adeogba et al., 2005; Flint
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 113 343 0236.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y.T. Spychala), [email protected]
et al., 2011; Barton, 2012; Prather et al., 2012b) or to slope profiles
(D.M. Hodgson), stephen.fl[email protected] (S.S. Flint), [email protected] that are not in equilibrium (Ferry et al., 2005); 3) association with
(N.P. Mountney). mass transport complexes (MTCs) (Adeogba et al., 2005; Gamberi and

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0037-0738/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
68 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

bypass
zone

int
channel- ras
levee lop
el
system ob
es
MTC
fault

channel-
levee
slo system ba
pe sin
-flo
or
lob
es

ba
sin
flo
or

Fig. 1. Principal features of a stepped deep-water system. Two mechanisms to generate accommodation on the slope are shown: generation of a slope step due to tectonic faulting and
above a scar of a mass transport complex (MTC).

Rovere, 2011; Li et al., 2012); 4) deposits delimited by onlap and 2. Geological and stratigraphic settings
downlap terminations (Booth et al., 2003; Li et al., 2012); 5) prevalence
of coarse sand that is deposited in response to hydraulic jumps due to a The evolution of the Karoo Basin has long been associated with a
break in slope related to a stepped slope profile (Komar, 1971; Ferry magmatic arc and the tectonics of a fold-thrust belt (Cape Fold Belt;
et al., 2005); and 6) mounded or tabular morphologies (e.g., Oluboyo Fig. 2A), thus characterising it as a retroarc foreland basin (Visser and
et al., 2014). Prackelt, 1996; Visser, 1997; Catuneanu et al., 1998). Recent studies
Intraslope lobes are important features in the reconstruction of the (e.g., Tankard et al., 2009) suggest that an early phase of subsidence
evolution of the slope and the analysis of sediment dispersal patterns, enabled a basin fill that pre-dates the initiation of the Cape Orogeny,
and indicate the presence of an uneven slope profile during deposition. and was induced by dynamic topography. This topography is thought
Although attempts have been made to determine the importance of to have been derived from the coupling of mantle flow processes to dis-
submarine slope deposits within a source-to-sink system (Eschard tant subduction of the palaeo-Pacific Plate (Pysklywec and Mitrovica,
et al., 2004), intraslope lobes have rarely been identified in outcrop 1999).
studies (Plink-Björklund and Steel, 2002; Sinclair and Tomasso, 2002; The Laingsburg depocentre is located in the south-western part of
Beaubouef et al., 2007; Figueiredo et al., 2010; Bernhardt et al., 2012; the Karoo Basin and adjacent to the present-day Cape Fold Belt (Flint
van der Merwe et al., 2014). Therefore, the sub-seismic depositional et al., 2011). The stratigraphic unit of study is the Fort Brown Formation
architecture of intraslope lobes can be considered as one of the missing of the Ecca Group, which is exposed along the limbs of large, post-
pieces in understanding the record of deep-marine systems and their depositional folds (Fig. 2B). The Fort Brown Formation is a 400 m-thick
preserved stratigraphic successions. submarine slope succession (Di Celma et al., 2011; Flint et al., 2011;
Extensive fieldwork carried out in the Laingsburg depocentre of the Hodgson et al., 2011) that overlies the Laingsburg Formation, a
Karoo Basin, South Africa (e.g., Grecula et al., 2003a; Sixsmith et al., 550 m-thick sand-rich basin floor and base-of-slope succession
2004; Di Celma et al., 2011; Flint et al., 2011; Hodgson et al., 2011; (Sixsmith, 2000; Grecula et al., 2003a,b; Sixsmith et al., 2004; Brunt
Brunt et al., 2013a; Morris et al., 2014b; van der Merwe et al., 2014), et al., 2013b). The Fort Brown Formation is divided into Units C to G
has established the stratigraphic and palaeogeographic framework in de- (Flint et al., 2011; van der Merwe et al., 2014). These sand prone-units
tail and enables the identification of lobes that were deposited in a slope are each separated by regional hemipelagic claystones that locally
setting. In this study, we focus on a more detailed characterisation of include additional thin (1–15 m-thick) intercalated sand-prone units
some of the intraslope lobes of the Karoo Basin. Specific objectives are informally referred to as interfans (B/C interfan and D/E interfan)
as follows: 1) to determine the characteristic facies associations and (Grecula et al., 2003a; Hodgson et al., 2011). The sequence stratigraphy
anatomies of the intraslope lobes in the study area; 2) to compare their of the Fort Brown Formation has been proposed by Flint et al. (2011) to
characteristics with those of basin floor lobes; and 3) to discuss the origin comprise two composite sequence sets, the lower one containing Units
of the transient slope accommodation. The establishment of recognition B/C, C and D and the upper one containing Units D/E, E and F. Each
criteria for the identification of intraslope lobes will help reduce uncer- individual unit represents a lowstand sequence set, with subunits. For
tainties in the interpretation of depositional environments observed in example, Unit E is divided into Subunits E1, E2, and E3 based on the
core and outcrop where the palaeogeographic context is not clear. occurrence of claystone layers of regional mapped extent. Each subunit
 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81 69

A C
Tanqua
depocentre

Fort Brown Fm.

S33°
Laingsburg
Ca depocentre
pe
Fold Belt

S34°

Thickness in metres

Laingsburg Fm.
E18.5° E21° 50 km

Roggekraal N
B Heuningberg Anticline
Roggekraal N
Zoutkloof N

Zoutkloof S
W
ilg
er
ho
ut

Vischkuil Fm.
Geelbek
Baviaans Syncline
Laingsburg

river
Geelbek
Buff
elsriv
er
5 km

D E 1 km
Geelbek river

Roggekraal N N N
Roggekraal

loof N
Zoutk

2. 5 km Zoutkloof S

Fig. 2. (A) The Laingsburg depocentre is located inboard of the Cape Fold Belt. Black square indicates the area of study. (B) Location of detailed study areas: Roggekraal and Zoutkloof in the
North, Geelbek in the South. White squares indicate the zoom-in areas in D and E. Shading corresponds to colours of boxes in C. (C) Schematic stratigraphic log sections of the Fort Brown
Fm., Laingsburg Fm. and Waterford Fm. (Flint et al., 2011). Units D/E and E are highlighted by the black square. (D) Detailed view of the Zoutkloof and (E) Geelbek study areas. White lines
indicate outcrop exposure, black dots indicate positions of logged sections, and black boxed areas of detailed correlation panels (Fig. 9).
Satellite images taken from Google Earth.

is interpreted as a lowstand systems tract. In this framework, the re- Roggekraal and Roggekraal N) to illustrate down-dip and strike varia-
gional claystones that separate the units are interpreted as associated tions in the successions. Unit E2 in the Geelbek area (Fig. 2B) comprises
transgressive (TST) and highstand (HST) sequence sets and the equally tabular sand-rich deposits, which, based on a detailed regional dataset,
widespread claystones between sub-units are interpreted as combined are interpreted to be intraslope lobes that formed above a stepped
transgressive and highstand systems tracts that record the deep-water slope profile up-dip of a ramp dominated by sediment bypass (van
expression of maximum flooding surfaces (Flint et al., 2011). Limited der Merwe et al., 2014). The existence of these intraslope lobe deposits
chronostratigraphic age control in the Fort Brown Formation (McKay demonstrates the location and timing of slope accommodation and can
et al., 2015) precludes establishment of the duration of depositional be used to constrain the stratigraphic evolution of the Laingsburg
sequences. submarine slope system.
This study focuses on two areas. Exposures of the Unit D/E interfan
and Subunit E1 in the NW area of Zoutkloof (Fig. 2B) have been 3. Methodology and dataset
interpreted previously as lobes that formed in a slope setting
(Figueiredo et al., 2010), but have not been hitherto characterised in de- For this study, 125 measured sections (each ranging from 3 to 36 m
tail. Four correlation panels were constructed (Zoutkloof S, Zoutkloof N, in length and totalling 2.8 km in cumulative thickness) were logged at
70 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

1:50 scale in the field, recording grain size, sedimentary structures and laminations that are transitional to wavy laminations. Ripple foresets
the nature and extent of bounding surfaces. In the Zoutkloof area can be draped by thin (b0.1 cm thick) silty laminae. Individual beds
(Fig. 2B, D), 80 sedimentary logs and 422 palaeocurrent measurements can preserve multiple flow directions. Carbonaceous material and
from ripple lamination and climbing-ripple lamination were collected mud chips are dispersed in the sandy matrix. Bed bases are sharp or
over three large, adjacent fold limbs to reconstruct the large-scale loaded. Medium- to thin-bedded sandstones show tabular geometries
geometries of exhumed intraslope complexes (Fig. 2B). In the south- and can be traced for kilometres down-dip and in strike section.
eastern study area (Geelbek area; Fig. 2B, E), 45 sedimentary logs and
173 palaeoflow measurements were collected from ripple lamination, 4.2.2. Interpretation
climbing-ripple lamination and tool marks along an oblique dip section. This facies association is interpreted to be deposited by low-density
In areas of specific interest, 11 additional detailed short sections were turbidity currents in a lobe off-axis setting. Bedforms such as planar
measured and correlated (Fig. 2E). This has permitted the development lamination and current-ripple lamination are produced beneath dilute
of a detailed sedimentological model to account for facies distributions turbulent flows, which rework sediment along the bed (Allen, 1982;
and small-scale geometries. Correlation panels for the Geelbek area Southard, 1991; Best and Bridge, 1992). Beds with opposing
are hung from the regional claystones separating Subunits E2 and E3. palaeocurrent indicators suggest reflection and deflection of the flow
The Zoutkloof correlation panels are hung from the base of Unit D/E (Edwards et al., 1994). Beds with repeating patterns of climbing-ripple
that overlies a regional claystone above Unit D. and wavy lamination are interpreted to indicate highly unsteady flow
behaviour due to either long-lived surging or collapsing flows (Jobe
4. Facies associations et al., 2012).

Six facies associations (FA) are identified based on inferred sedimenta-

4.3. FA 3: interbedded thin-bedded sandstones and siltstones
ry processes and depositional environments. Five of the six facies associ-
ations represent particular lobe sub-environments (lobe axis, lobe off-
4.3.1. Observations
axis, lobe fringe and distal lobe fringe) and have been modified from
This facies association comprises thin-bedded (0.01 to 0.2 m), very-
Prélat et al. (2009) according to the observed facies in the intraslope
fine-grained sandstone interbedded with sandy siltstone and coarse to
lobe deposits. FA1-5 represent lobe axis to lobe distal fringe, whereas FA
fine siltstone. Sandstone beds show planar, current-ripple or wavy lam-
6 represents hemipelagic background sedimentation.
ination, whereas siltstone beds commonly display planar lamination
with rare isolated starved ripple forms at their base where there is a
4.1. FA 1: thick-bedded sandstone
sand component to the siltstone (Fig. 3C). Contacts between sandstone
and siltstone beds are sharp, undulating or loaded. Stoss-side preserva-
4.1.1. Observations
tion of climbing ripple lamination in sandstone beds is observed in 2D,
This facies association is dominated by structureless, 0.7 to 2.5 m-thick
and ripple geometries are locally preserved as sigmoid-shaped
beds of lower to upper fine-grained sandstone that commonly contain
bedforms where 3D observations are possible (see Fig. 12b in Kane
parallel lamination with some lenticular mudstone chips (mm-sized)
and Hodgson, 2011). Commonly, interbedded sandstones and siltstones
aligned parallel to the laminae. Overall, beds are moderately to well
form stacked, aggradational packages up to 5 m thick, which internally
sorted. Most beds lack grading, though weak normal grading is ob-
show no discernible trends in grain size or bed thickness. Individual
served towards the tops of some beds that consist of 0.2-0.1 m-thick
packages dominantly comprise ripple and climbing-ripple laminated
caps of mica-rich, moderately sorted silty sandstone. Intraformational
sandstones in their lower part and planar laminated sandstones in
mudclasts are rarely observed at bed bases. Bed bases are sharp, loaded
their upper part.
or erosive and can preserve tool marks. Bed amalgamation is common
and can lead to N 10 m-thick packages of structureless sandstones
(high-amalgamation zones; Fig. 3A). Amalgamation surfaces are indi- 4.3.2. Interpretation
cated by discontinuous layers of mudclasts or subtle grain size breaks. Ripple lamination formed due to reworking by dilute turbulent
Amalgamated sandstone packages can overlie surfaces that truncate flows with moderate aggradation rates, whereas climbing-ripple
underlying strata by up to 5 m. These surfaces are mantled with thin lamination is indicative of high aggradation rates (Allen, 1971, 1982;
layers of mudstone clast conglomerates. Thick-bedded sandstones Southard, 1991). Ripple and planar laminated packages correspond
show tabular geometries. They are laterally extensive for up to 6 km. with TC and TD divisions of Bouma (1962). This facies association
is interpreted as a combination of deposition from sluggish, small-
4.1.2. Interpretation volume flows (Jobe et al., 2012) and flows that underwent rapid
Thick-bedded, structureless and amalgamated sandstones with weak deceleration that led to high rates of sediment fallout. This implies
normal grading are interpreted to be the deposits of high-density turbid- that some flows were responding to changes in confinement, similar
ity currents (Kneller and Branney, 1995) with high aggradation rates to flows that undergo expansion and rapid deposition when exiting
(Arnott and Hand, 1989; Leclair and Arnott, 2005; Talling et al., 2012). channel confinement (e.g., Morris et al., 2014b). Observed facies and
Their geometries, thickness and facies conform to lobe- or channel-axis thicknesses of this facies association conform to an interpretation of a
settings (e.g., Prélat et al., 2009; Brunt et al., 2013a). lobe-fringe setting.

4.2. FA 2: medium- to thin-bedded structured sandstone 4.4. FA 4: bipartite beds

4.2.1. Observations 4.4.1. Observations

This facies association comprises lower fine- to very-fine-grained, Bipartite sand-prone beds (0.01 to 1.5 m thick) are composed of a
normally graded sandstone beds that are well sorted. Bed thicknesses lower and upper division. The well sorted lower division that comprises
range from 0.1 to 0.7 m. Sedimentary structures present include planar relatively clean, structureless sandstone with low mud content.
lamination, wavy lamination, current-ripple lamination and climbing- The upper division comprises poorly sorted mica-rich argillaceous
ripple lamination (Fig. 3B). Climbing-ripple lamination can be observed sandstone that contains sand grains that are coarser than in the lower
with supercritical angles of climb whereby stoss sides are preserved. division, and varied proportions of subangular to subrounded mudstone
The majority of beds contain two or more of these sedimentary struc- clasts (mm to cm sized), mudstone chips and carbonaceous material
tures. A common pattern is the vertical repetition of climbing-ripple (plant fragments) (Fig. 3D). Mudstone clasts show no preferred
 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81 71

A B

C D

E F
Fig. 3. Representative photographs of sedimentary facies observed in the Zoutkloof area. (A) Thick-bedded amalgamated sandstones of the lobe axis (FA 1). Geologist for scale (1.6 m).
(B) Climbing ripple-laminated, medium bedded, fine-grained sandstones, with some stoss-side preservation, in lobe off-axis (FA 2). Camera lens cover for scale. (C) Heterolithic packages
of thin-bedded sandstones and siltstones in the lobe fringe (FA 3). Logging pole (0.5 m) with 10 cm gradations as scale. (D) Hybrid bed (FA 4). Camera lens cover as scale. (E) Siltstone
package with intercalated sandstones (FA 5). Logging pole (2 m) with 10 cm gradations as scale. (F) Silty claystones (FA 6). Geologist for scale (1.6 m).

orientation. Typically, the boundary between the lower and upper isolated starved ripple forms at their base. Thin-bedded siltstones can
divisions is gradational. Bed bases are sharp, whereas bed tops can be show minor bioturbation.
undulose.

4.4.2. Interpretation 4.5.2. Interpretation

Bipartite beds are interpreted to be the result of a juxtaposition of a Siltstone deposits are interpreted as the preserved products of dilute
high-density turbidity current and a genetically linked cohesive debris turbidity currents in distal lobe-fringe settings. Structureless beds
flow — a type of hybrid bed (Haughton et al., 2009). Several authors are attributed to direct suspension fallout (Bouma, 1962), whereas
have identified an increase in the number of turbidites with linked planar laminated beds are produced by traction (Stow and Piper,
debrites in distal parts of basin floor lobes (e.g., Ito, 2008; Hodgson, 1984; Mutti, 1992; Talling et al., 2012).
2009; Talling et al., 2012; Grundvåg et al., 2014). Therefore, bipartite
beds are interpreted to be deposited in lobe-fringe settings.
4.6. FA 6: regional claystone
4.5. FA 5: thin-bedded siltstone
4.6.1. Observations
4.5.1. Observations Homogenous intervals of (silty) claystone (Fig. 3F) are up to 22 m
Thin-bedded (sandy), fine- to coarse-grained siltstones (0.05 to thick. Layers of concretions are common and tend to be associated
0.1 m) form metre-scale packages with rare thin (N 0.05 m), very fine- with distinct horizons in the deposits. Claystone intervals are laterally
grained sandstones that are well sorted (Fig. 3E). Typically, beds are extensive for tens of kilometres, except where eroded by channelised
structureless or planar laminated and some incorporate mudstone flows. Thin (b0.1 m) ash layers and thin-bedded (mm-scale) graded
chips (up to 20% of the bulk volume). Some sandy siltstone beds show siltstone units are locally intercalated with the claystones.
72 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

4.6.2. Interpretation 5.1. Zoutkloof area

Claystones are interpreted as hemipelagic background deposits.
Where mapped over large areas, they mark episodes of sediment 5.1.1. Unit D/E
starvation to the deep basin, and are interpreted to contain the deep- Unit D/E is a tabular sandstone package, informally referred to as an
water expression of maximum flooding surfaces (e.g., Flint et al., interfan (Flint et al., 2011), with a basal interval of interbedded silt-
2011). Such packages therefore serve as useful correlation intervals. stones and very fine-grained sandstones and a sharp top (Fig. 4A). The
spatial extent of Unit D/E is limited to the Zoutkloof and Roggekraal
study area (81 km2; Figueiredo et al., 2010). Overall, palaeocurrent
5. Architecture direction is to the ENE, but climbing- ripple laminated sandstones at
Zoutkloof S show some readings to the west (Figs. 5, 6). Unit D/E
Unit D/E and Subunits E1 and E2 of the Fort Brown Formation have is thickest (10 m) in the Zoutkloof N and Roggekraal areas where it
been recognized as tabular, sand-prone units within the submarine comprises amalgamated thick-bedded structureless sandstones
slope succession (Grecula et al., 2003b; Figueiredo et al., 2010). Flint (FA 1) (Fig. 5). Across strike to the south (Zoutkloof S), a 6 m heterolithic
et al. (2011) placed these packages into the overall sequence package (FA 3) sharply overlies very fine- and fine-grained structured
stratigraphic framework and van der Merwe et al. (2014) confirmed sandstones (FA 2). Unit D/E is not observed 6 km along strike to the
their palaeogeographic position on the slope. For the first time, the south, which constrains the southward (lateral) pinch-out (Fig. 6).
distribution of architectural elements and facies associations of these Across strike to the north (Roggekraal North; Fig. 4B), a 7 m-thick
units are presented and discussed. succession of structured sandstone (FA 2) is sharply overlain by
The identification of architectural elements is based on cross- structureless sandstones (FA 1).
sectional geometry, spatial extent, distribution of sedimentary facies
and bounding surfaces marked by abrupt changes in facies (Fig. 4). 5.1.2. Interpretation
Interpreted architectural elements include lobe deposits, channelfills Overall, the axis of Unit D/E is in the Zoutkloof N and Roggekraal
and drapes (Fig. 4). areas, with more off-axis and fringe deposits in the south and north.

Roggekraal N
A W 40
E B
40
40

40

40
40

40
40
Lobe 3
30
30

Lobe 2
30

30

30
30

30
30
Lobe 1
E1
20
20
20

20

20
20

20
20

10 m
10
10
10

10

10
10

10
10

Lobe 2
FA1: thick-bedded sandstones
FA5:thin-bedded siltstones
FA2: medium-bedded
structured sandstones FA6:hemipelagic claystones
Lobe 1 D/E
FA3: heterolithic package
0

Mud
F.Silt

LF.Sand
UF.Sand
M.Sand
C.Silt
VF.Sand
0

Mud
F.Silt

LF.Sand
UF.Sand
M.Sand
C.Silt
VF.Sand
0

0
0

0
0
Mud
F.Silt

LF.Sand
UF.Sand
M.Sand

Mud
F.Silt

UF.Sand

Mud
LF.Sand

M.Sand

F.Silt

UF.Sand
M.Sand
LF.Sand
C.Silt
VF.Sand

C.Silt
VF.Sand

C.Silt
VF.Sand
Mud
F.Silt

LF.Sand
UF.Sand
M.Sand
C.Silt
VF.Sand

Mud
F.Silt

LF.Sand
UF.Sand
M.Sand
C.Silt
VF.Sand
Mud
F.Silt

LF.Sand
UF.Sand
M.Sand
C.Silt
VF.Sand

1.9 km

C
Unit E1

11 m

Unit D/E

E W
350 m

D
Unit E1
11 m
Unit D/E

E W
650 m

Fig. 4. Representative photographs and correlation panel of the intraslope lobe complexes of Unit D/E and E1 in the Zoutkloof area and correlation panel for the Roggekraal N area.
(A) Coarsening- and thickening-upward at the base of the intraslope lobe deposits in Unit D/E. Logging pole with 10 cm gradations as scale. (B) Roggekraal N correlation panel showing
siltstone intervals that separate individual lobes in Subunit E1 and the two lobes of Unit D/E. Dashed red line represents erosion surface. (C) Tabular geometries of Unit D/E and Subunit E1
in the Zoutkloof N area. The sand-prone units are separated by a ~11 m thick claystone. (D) E1 channels cut down through E1 lobes and into the underlying claystone (Zoutkloof N).
 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81 73

Roggekraal N
E1
FA1: thick-bedded sandstones FA5: thin-bedded siltstones
FA2: medium-bedded FA6: hemipelagic claystones
structured sandstones
FA3: heterolithic package younger channel fills D/E
1.9 km

l
aa
ekr
Zoutkloof N

gg
Ro N

km
6
4.
5 km
Zoutkloof S

main
palae
ocurr
ent

km
6
E1 Roggekraal N

5.
3.6
km
Roggekraal
D/E Zoutkloof N
N
Zoutkloof S

Fig. 5. Correlation panels for Unit D/E and Subunit E1 in the Zoutkloof area. Overall axis of the lobe complexes of Unit D/E and Subunit E1 is located in the Roggekraal and Zoutkloof N areas.
Towards the north and south lateral facies transitions can be observed and correspond to lobe off-axis and lobe fringe deposits. Note incision of Subunit E1 by younger channel-fills.

The stratigraphic changes in facies in the Zoutkloof S and Roggekraal The westward palaeocurrents in deposits in Zoutkloof S are
N areas suggest that Unit D/E comprises at least two lobes, and there- interpreted to indicate rapid deposition of turbidity currents deflected
fore represents a lobe complex (sensu Prélat et al., 2009). The lower and reflected off seabed topography at the fringes of the intraslope
lobe extends further south than the upper lobe, with lobe off-axis lobe (Fig. 6). There is no evidence of incision into the Unit D/E deposits
deposits (FA 2) overlain by lobe-fringe deposits (FA 3) in Zoutkloof and no deposit of this age directly down-dip has been recognized
S and lobe off-axis deposits (FA 2) overlain by lobe-axis deposits (van der Merwe et al., 2014). The abandonment of Unit D/E suggests
(FA 1) in Roggekraal N (Fig. 5) suggesting a minor compensational that either the sediment routing system avulsed outside of the study
stacking pattern. The lobe axes are amalgamated in the central part area or sand-grade sediment supply ceased prior to the complete infill
of the study area. of the slope accommodation.

1. 2.

E1
30 km

D/E D/E
N N

15 km

hemipelagic palaeocurrent
background lobe deposits channel fills study area
measurements
sedimentation

Fig. 6. Simplified palaeogeographic reconstruction of (1) Unit D/E and (2) overlying Subunit E1 in the Zoutkloof area. Flows show evidence for deflection and reflection.
74 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

5.1.3. Subunit E1 off seabed topography. Erosion surfaces overlain by sandstones are
E1 is separated from Unit D/E by a 10 m thick claystone, and has a interpreted as W–E and NW–SE oriented channel fills.
basal ~ 0.5 m-thick interval of interbedded mudstone, siltstone and
very fine-grained sandstone. The dominant palaeoflow is to the E, 5.2. Geelbek area
which is consistent with regional trends, whereas some deposits show
palaeoflow to the W in the Zoutkloof S area (Figs. 5, 6). Where thickest 5.2.1. Subunit E2
(14 m), E1 is characterised by structureless amalgamated sandstones Subunit E2 comprises three packages based on thickness trends, fa-
(FA 1) and structured sandstones (FA 2). In Roggekraal N, to the north cies distribution, bounding surfaces and palaeocurrents measurements
where E1 is 8 m-thick, 3 packages are identified by sharp contacts (Figs. 7A–D, 8). The mean palaeocurrent direction is to the E, but with
with thin-bedded siltstones (FA 5) units. The lowermost unit is domi- local variations (Fig. 8). The base of the lower package, E2A, consists of
nated by heterolithic deposits (FA 3), the middle is dominated by FA heterolithic deposits (FA 3) overlain by FA 1 and FA 2 beds with abun-
1, and the upper is dominated by FA 2 (Fig. 4B). In contrast, to the dant dm-scale erosion surfaces (Fig. 9A). Commonly, medium-bedded,
south at Zoutkloof S, E1 is thinner (5 m) and comprises heterolithic structured sandstones (FA 2) display more than one sedimentary struc-
packages (FA 3) and thin-bedded siltstones (FA 5). E1 is not observed ture vertically and laterally (planar lamination, ripple lamination and
6 km along strike to the south, which constrains the southward (lateral) climbing-ripple lamination). Lateral facies transitions in individual
pinch-out (Fig. 6). Locally, E1 is truncated by erosion surfaces from mul- beds include ripple-, through wavy-, to planar-lamination, which
tiple stratigraphic levels (Figueiredo et al., 2010, 2013) (E1, E2, E3 and occur over tens of metres lateral extent.
Unit F; Fig. 6). Erosion surfaces within E1 cut down up to 10 m and In some beds, palaeocurrent measurements from stoss-side pre-
are overlain by thick-bedded sandstones that have low aspect ratios served climbing ripple-lamination can display ENE palaeocurrents in
(10:1 to 15:1; Fig. 4). Younger erosion surface commonly have higher the lower section whereas the upper section preserves palaeocurrents
aspect ratios (20:1 to 35:1; Fig. 5) and are overlain by thin bedded, to the WSW (e.g., Marker bed 1 (Mb1), see Figs. 7–9A). Typically,
and locally tightly folded, sandstones and siltstones (Figueiredo et al., these beds are thickest in the east and thin westward in an up-dip
2010, 2013), but sand-filled younger channel fills are also observed. direction. Sedimentary structures change in the direction of thinning
from stoss-side preserved climbing-ripple lamination, through planar
5.1.4. Interpretation lamination with isolated current-ripple forms, to planar laminated
In Roggekraal N, thin siltstone packages that abruptly separate three sandstones. The bases of some beds with bi-directional palaeocurrents
axis and off-axis packages indicate the existence of three lobes in the (e.g., Marker bed 2 (Mb2), see Fig. 9A) truncate underlying bedding
lobe complex (Fig. 4, 6). The distribution of the lobe axis and off-axis de- with siltstones that display soft-sediment deformation structures
posits, and the lobe fringe and distal fringe deposits of the individual (Fig. 7B).
lobes, suggest an aggradational to slightly compensational stacking The middle package, E2B, is defined by a stepped basal erosion sur-
pattern. Deviation from the regional palaeocurrent trend in Zoutkloof face that incises 6 m into E2A (Fig. 8). The overlying sediments comprise
S is interpreted to indicate deflection and reflection of turbidity currents highly amalgamated thick-bedded sandstones (FA 1) with rare planar

A B

E2C
E2B E2B
E2A

C D

Fig. 7. Representative photographs of the intraslope complex in the Geelbek area. (A) Bed showing climbing-ripple lamination with opposing flow direction patterns. Camera lens cover as
scale. (B) Deformed mudstone interlayer with flames. Camera lens cover as scale. (C) E2B overlies E2A outside of the basal scour surface. Camera lens cover as scale. (D) E2B and E2C are
separated by a thin (0.1 to 0.2 m thick; indicated by orange overlay) siltstone interval. Geologist (1.6 m) as scale.
 10 m Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
0 10 20

LF.Sand

Gb45
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

W
0 10

Mud
F . S ilt

Gb44
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand

Gb43
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

Gb42

partially fill a slide scar.

0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand

Gb41
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

2 km
0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

Gb40
0 10 20 25

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d

Gb39
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d

Gb38
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d

Gb1
M .S a n d

B+C
0 10 20

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand
U F .S a n d

GB 2
M .S a n d

0 10

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d

Gb3
LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d

Gb5
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d

Gb6
LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
Gb7

LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
Gb8

LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

slide scar
0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d

Gb9
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d

Gb10
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d

Gb11
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F . S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
Gb12

U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
A

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F . S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d

Gb13
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
Gb14

L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Gb15

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F . S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
Gb16

M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
Gb17

U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
GEELBEK

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
Gb18

U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
Gb19

M .S a n d
Unit D

30 4 0

20
10
0

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand
Gb20

U F .S a n d
M.Sand

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F . S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
Gb21

M .S a n d

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
Gb22

M .S a n d
Gb27

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Gb23

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Gb24

0 10 20 30 40

Mud
F . S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Gb25

0 10 20 30

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Gb26

0 10 20 25

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20 25

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Gb28

Marker bed 1

0 10 20 25

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
FA2: medium-bedded
Gb29

structured sandstones
FA3: heterolithic package

0 10 20 25

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
Gb30

U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F .S ilt
FA1: thick-bedded sandstones

C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Gb31

0 10 20

Mud
F .S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
Gb32

U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C . S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand
Gb33

U F .S a n d
M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
LF.Sand
Gb34

U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Erosion surface

0 10 20

Mud
F . S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
L F .S a n d
U F .S a n d
Gb35

M .S a n d

0 10 20

Mud
F .S ilt
C .S ilt
V F .S a n d
Gb36

LF.Sand
U F .S a n d
M .S a n d
Gb37
E

Thrust
undifferentiated lobe
E2 to E3

FA5: thin-bedded siltstones

mudstone

FA6: hemipelagic claystones

Fig. 8. Correlation of Subunit E2 in the Geelbek area. Panel is hung from hemipelagic claystone between E2 and E3. Black boxes (A–D) indicate areas shown in detail in Fig. 9. Note siltstone wedge within the claystone interval which is interpreted to

75 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

76 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

WSW ENE
4
D

3
E2B a

2
Mb1 a
a a
E
a
1 Mb2
E a

E2A
[m]

130 m
A

E2C 10
B
E2B

W
4
E
E3
a
3
E2C a

2 a a
onlap

onlap
1 onlap
E

[m]
0

onlap + injection
UF.Sand
Mud
F.Silt

M.Sand
LF.Sand
C.Silt
VF.Sand

80 metres

C
Fig. 9. Details of the Geelbek correlation panel. (A) Detailed correlation panel of E2A. (B) Injected mudstone below E2A with geologist as scale. (C) Detailed correlation panel of the E2C
onlap zone. ‘a’ marks amalgamation surfaces, ‘E’ erosion surfaces. (D) Example graphic log through high-amalgamation zone of E2B overlain by well bedded, structured sandstone beds of
E2C.

lamination on bed tops (Fig. 8). These pass into more clearly stratified (Fig. 7C). Palaeocurrents from grooves indicate an overall ENE–WSW
but internally structureless fine-grained sandstones close to the flow direction (Fig. 8).
(oblique) margin of the cut and can be traced out for over a km away be- The upper E2C division is the most laterally extensive of Subunit E2
yond the basal scour surface, where E2B overlies E2A concordantly and the boundary with E2B is marked by a thin siltstone horizon
 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81 77

W (~ 10 cm; FA 5; Fig. 7D). It comprises basal bipartite beds (FA 4) in

its proximal (westerly) section and is largely made up of medium-
bedded, structured sandstones (FA 2) that overlie the highly amalgam-
ated sandstones of E2B (FA 1). Thin-bedded deposits (FA 3 and FA 5) are
Evacuation of E rare. Palaeocurrents measured from current- and climbing-ripple
claystones and MB 3 lamination indicates an easterly flow direction (Fig. 8). In the west,
Hy farther downdip beds are structureless (FA 1), with rare ripple lamination showing
bri
1. dm
ark easterly palaeocurrents. Structureless sandstone beds onlap westward
er
be onto the underlying claystone, overstepping the E2A and B deposits
d
(Fig. 8). Commonly, the onlapping beds show pinching and swelling
close to the onlap surface as well as evidence of erosion (rip-up clasts,
truncation). Clastic injectites are abundant in the mudstone that under-
lies the sandstone onlap (Fig. 9B).
Unit D
In the underlying claystone that separates Units D and E, a distinctive
0.4 m-thick intraformational clast-rich bed is used as a local marker bed.
The sandstone bed and bounding claystones are present in western part
Mud-drape over residual relief of the outcrop. However, they terminate abruptly eastward against a
Hy steep surface overlain by a thin-bedded coarse siltstone and silty
bri
dm
2. ark claystone succession below where the overlying E2 attains its maxi-
er
be mum thickness (Fig. 8). The thin-bedded siltstone unit forms a discrete
d
~30 m-thick unit that thins out over ~700 m to the east; by contrast, the
western edge is steep and abrupt (Fig. 8).
Partial filling by a wedge
of thin-bedded silty claystone Unit D
and coarse siltstone 5.2.2. Interpretation
The high sand-content and tabular geometry, the underlying and
overlying channel-levee systems (e.g., Brunt et al, 2013b), and the
downdip change to thin-bedded turbidites led van der Merwe et al.
E2A deposited in a highly (2014) to interpret E2 as an intraslope lobe in the Geelbek area. The
confined environment three divisions of E2 in Geelbek are interpreted here as lobe deposits
Hy lobe axis that stack to form a lobe complex. In E2A, sandstones beds with bidirec-
bri
3. dm
ark tional palaeocurrents and up-dip thinning are interpreted to indicate
er
be deflection of the flow column (Edwards et al., 1994). Soft-sediment de-
d
formation was triggered either through instability on the open erosional
slope or through dewatering due to deposition of overlying strata. This
Bidirectional range of features is consistent with a confined setting at the onset of
palaeoflows
Unit D the filling of slope accommodation. The amalgamated deposits of E2B
are interpreted to be deposited in a scoured lobe-axis setting. The
E2B stacks in an scour-fill interpretation is preferred to a channel-fill interpretation be-
aggradational manner cause no mudstone clast conglomerate facies is observed, the geome-
but rotated main tries of the structureless sandstone beds are tabular and can be
Hy palaeocurrents
bri walked out for ~1.5 km away, and the erosion surface shallows in the di-
dm
4. ark rection of main palaeocurrent direction. E2C is the most laterally exten-
er
be sive of the subunits. Lack of bidirectional palaeocurrent indicators and
d
dominance of climbing-ripple laminated, medium-bedded sandstones
indicates a relatively unconfined phase of deposition. Overall, the
HAZ depocentre of successive E2 lobe deposits shifts slightly to the W
(erosive base)
Unit D (up slope; Fig. 9). These findings conform to subsurface observations
made in the Gulf of Mexico indicating temporal evolution of the locus
of sedimentation (Prather et al., 2012b).
E2C deposited under
relative unconfined
conditions 6. Discussion
Hy
bri
dm
5. ark 6.1. Mechanisms of slope accommodation
er
be
d
Onlap onto slope Typically, submarine slope systems are dominated by sediment
bypass (e.g., Beaubouef et al., 1999; Gardner et al., 2003; Romans
et al., 2009; Hodgson et al., 2011). For lobate bodies to deposit on the
Unit D submarine slope, low gradient areas of high accommodation must be
present. Here, the origin of this accommodation is discussed.
lobe axis hemipelagic mudstone
Fig. 10. Simplified palaeogeographic reconstruction of Subunit E2 in the Geelbek area.
lobe off-axis siltstones (1) Slide removes hemipelagic claystone and marker bed 3 (MB3). Surface is steep in
the west and shallows to the east. (2) Thin-bedded siltstone beds partially infill scar,
undifferentiated deposits which is also draped by hemipelagic mudstone. (3) Deposition of confined sediments of
E2A. (4) E2B locally scours into E2A. (5) Onlap of E2C deposits to the west. Slope feeder
channels are not exposed in the field and therefore not displayed.
78 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

A onlap and injection constructional fringe

deflected palaeocurrents
lobe axis highly amalgamated
zones
lobe off-axis

lobe fringe

channel fill
aggradational to slightly
compensational stacking

incision by low aspect

ratio channels
bidirectional flows
erosional based beds
facies changes

2) 3) 4)
1)
further lobe deposits
climbing-ripple dominated farther down-dip
lobe off-axis

B 6
1) 2) 3) 4)
5
4
3
2
1
[m]
m si vfs lfs m si vfs lfs m si vfs lfs m si vfs lfs

<50% sand percentage >90%

fringe axis

Fig. 11. (A) Block diagram showing the key recognition criteria of intraslope lobes. Aggradational to slightly compensational stacking patterns; onlap combined with injection onto mud-
prone slope; highly amalgamated zones in the lobe complex axis; subtle confinement leads to fringes that show aggradational stacking; high degree of confinement leads to preservation
of beds with evidence of flow deflection, erosional based beds and abrupt facies changes; climbing-ripple lamination is the dominant facies of the lobe-off axis; incision by low-aspect-ratio
channels that originate in the same unit as the intraslope lobes; more lobe deposits can be found down-dip on the basin-floor or on steps basinward on the slope. (B) Simplified logs of
typical thicknesses and stacking patterns from lobe axis to lobe fringe (downdip and laterally) in intraslope lobes that are observed over a few kilometres. Note position of the schematic
logs from fringe (1) to axis (4) in A.

The formation of the intraslope lobe complexes of Unit D/E and However, in the underlying successions (Units A–D) the Zoutkloof
Subunit E1 in a similar location, albeit slightly offset, demonstrates the area represents an overall off-axis position with abundant silt-prone
presence of accommodation on Zoutkloof part of the palaeoslope deposits (levees and lobe fringes), and the main slope channel-levee
through multiple depositional sequences. In the Zoutkloof area, there systems to the south (e.g., Grecula et al., 2003a; Sixsmith et al., 2004;
is no evidence of slide scars, syn-sedimentary tectonic or diapiric defor- Figueiredo et al., 2010) feeding sand-prone basin-floor lobe complexes
mation of the seabed, or underlying mass transport complexes that to the east and north east (Di Celma et al., 2011; van der Merwe et al.,
could form an area of high accommodation (Figueiredo et al., 2010). 2014). Therefore, slope accommodation at Zoutkloof is interpreted to

Table 1
Comparison of general lobe characteristics.

Intraslope lobes Basin-floor lobes

Depositional setting Slope Basin floor/terminal end of system

Degree of confinement Weak to high Unconfined to weak
Stacking patterns Aggradational to slightly compensational Compensational
Aspect ratio Low High
Sand percentage Average: 70% (N90% lobe axis; 50% lobe fringe) Average: 60% (N80% lobe axis; b40% lobe fringe)
Sediment features Immature sandstones, moderate sorting, micas and mud chips abundant, Relative mature sandstones, fair to good sorting, abundance of hybrid beds
sediment features reflect highly variable flow patterns, paucity of hybrid in lobe fringe positions, fines concentrated in lobe fringe deposits, rich on
beds, depleted of fine grained sediments mud clast and carbonaceous material in banded facies
 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81 79

be the result of differential compaction of the underlying fine grained intraslope lobe axis and lobe off-axis deposits than in basin floor lobe
stratigraphy relative to the more sand-rich underlying stratigraphy to systems because proximity to channels and flow confinement leads to
the south (Figueiredo et al., 2010) and east (van der Merwe et al., 2014). more entrainment of fine-grained substrate. Basin floor lobes also
The geometries of architectural elements, palaeocurrent measure- display erosion surfaces in the lobe axis, leading to amalgamation
ments, and facies distributions in Subunit E2 indicate a depositional set- of thick-bedded sandstones by removal of intervening thin beds
ting that evolved from highly- to weakly-confined. E2A deposited on (Stephen et al., 2001; Prélat et al., 2009). However, erosion surfaces in
the partially healed accommodation (Fig. 10) and beds show evidence basin floor lobes are more subtle than in the intraslope lobes. In basin
for flow deflection and reflection. E2B deposits show a slightly different floor lobe systems, facies transitions occur over several kilometres,
main palaeocurrent direction and formed above an erosion surface that both frontally and laterally (e.g., Prélat et al., 2009; Groenenberg et al.,
cuts into E2A and shallows downdip (Fig. 10). E2C shows onlap against 2010), whereas in intraslope lobe systems, facies transitions occur
the open slope when the accommodation was infilled (Fig. 10). over shorter distances (typically over 10+ m), as observed in Unit E2
At the regional-scale, sedimentary features in the Geelbek area have in the Geelbek area (Fig. 9).
been shown to form part of a step in a stepped slope profile with a ramp
and sediment bypass ~ 2 km basinward of this area (van der Merwe 6.2.4. Sand percentage
et al., 2014). A large slide scar has been interpreted at the top of the un- Overall, intraslope lobe deposits are characterised by a higher
derlying Unit D in this locality (Brunt et al., 2013b). In this study, an percentage of sandstone than basin floor lobe deposits because
abrupt lateral facies change from claystones with a clast-rich sandstone sand becomes trapped preferentially in areas where available
marker bed to a 30 m-thick asymmetric wedge of thin-bedded siltstone accommodation is limited compared to flow depth (Brunt et al.,
(Fig. 8) in strata underlying Subunit E2 has been identified. This is 2004). If the flow height is greater than the relief of the confinement
interpreted to indicate the presence of a W–E oriented slide scar that then the upper fine-grained part of the flow can be stripped, which
formed near the step-to-ramp transition area prior to the initiation of will increase the proportion of sand that is accumulated (Sinclair
Unit E, but was only partially healed, and could have modified and am- and Tomasso, 2002; Prather et al., 2012b). Basin floor lobes of Unit
plified the accommodation for the E2 intraslope lobe complex (Fig. 10). A have an average sandstone percentage of 60%, with N 80% in lobe
axes and b 40% in distal lobe fringe settings (Prélat et al., 2009);
6.2. Diagnostic criteria for intraslope lobe deposits intraslope lobes of Unit D/E and E show an average of 75% sandstone,
with N90% in lobe axes and b50% sandstone in lobe fringes (Table 1,
The identification of key characteristics of intraslope lobes compared Fig. 11B).
to basin floor lobes can aid their identification in less well constrained
subsurface and outcrop datasets (Fig. 11A). Geometries and architecture
have been compared using published data from basin floor lobes in the 6.2.5. Incision of intraslope lobes by channels
Karoo Basin (Fan 3, Tanqua depocentre, Prélat et al., 2009; Unit A, Commonly, intraslope lobes are incised by channels (e.g., Adeogba
Laingsburg depocentre, Prélat and Hodgson, 2013) with intraslope et al., 2005). Incision of the E1 lobe complex by low-aspect-ratio chan-
lobes of Units D/E and E (Table 1). nel systems of different ages, including E1-aged channels, indicates
that when the accommodation had been filled, slope channel systems
6.2.1. Dimensions could develop in response to a lower base level. This indicates that
The lobe complexes are 6 to 10 km wide, 15 to 25 km long and 10 to slope accommodation in this area was transient. This is supported
15 m thick. In volume, they are an order of magnitude smaller than by the identification of thick basin floor lobe complexes of Unit E age
dimensions of basin floor lobe complexes quoted in Prélat et al. farther into the basin by van der Merwe et al. (2014).
(2010), which are 10 to 30 km wide and 30 to 100 m thick.
7. Conclusions
6.2.2. Lobe stacking patterns
Lobes stack to form lobe complexes (Deptuck et al., 2008; Prélat Three exhumed intraslope lobe complexes, constrained by
et al., 2009), and the patterns of stacking of lobes within such complexes stratigraphic and geographic position based on extensive and detailed
provide an insight into the degree of confinement (Deptuck et al., 2008; correlation and mapping in the Laingsburg depocentre, Karoo Basin,
Straub et al., 2009). Generally, an aggradational to slightly compensa- were studied to establish their sedimentological and stratigraphic
tional style of stacking is observed within intraslope lobes of the Fort characteristics.
Brown Formation (Fig. 11). This characteristic is also identified from In the study area, intraslope lobe complexes are 6 to 10 km wide and
subsurface studies of recent deepwater systems (Ferry et al., 2005; extend 15 to 25 km in down-dip directions; areal extent is controlled by
Barton, 2012). In contrast, basin floor lobes exhibit markedly compensa- the area over which slope accommodation was generated. The deposits
tional styles of stacking, indicative of relatively unconfined settings are sandstone-rich and lack significant siltstone. Stacking patterns are
(Prélat et al., 2009; Straub et al., 2009; Groenenberg et al., 2010). aggradational to slightly compensational depending on the amount of
confinement. The lobe axis is dominated by thick-bedded, amalgamated
6.2.3. Sedimentary facies and features sandstones. The lobe off-axis mainly comprises medium-bedded,
Intraslope lobe-axis deposits share similar facies associations with climbing-ripple laminated sandstones. The lobe fringe is characterised
basin floor lobes (e.g., Prélat et al., 2009). Off-axis deposits of intraslope by ripple and climbing-ripplelaminated sandstones that can show
lobes are characterised by an abundance of medium bedded ripple- flow deflection and reflection, and are interbedded with siltstones. Lat-
and climbing ripple-laminated sandstones (Fig. 11). Successions of eral and vertical facies changes occur over tens of metres and demon-
climbing-wavy-climbing lamination or ripple-wavy-ripple lamination strate highly variable, unsteady depositional flows that interacted
are indicative of highly unsteady flows with high rates of sediment with, and were governed by, underlying seabed topography and sur-
fallout. Individual beds can preserve ripple forms and climbing ripple- rounding confinement. Two mechanisms are identified for the develop-
lamination that yield palaeoflow directions oriented at a high angle or ment of accommodation on the Karoo slope: differential compaction
even opposite to each other (Fig. 11), indicating deflection and reflec- and scars formed by mass wasting processes. The presence of intraslope
tion of the turbidity current during sedimentation. Commonly, basin lobe complexes supports regional interpretations that the slope of the
floor, lobe fringe deposits contain numerous bipartite beds (Hodgson, Laingsburg depocentre developed a series of steps. These sub-seismic-
2009), and these are relatively rare in intraslope lobe fringe deposits. scale observations and interpretations provide possible analogues to
Erosion surfaces mantled with mudclasts are more common in sub-surface examples identified on geophysical data for which
80 Y.T. Spychala et al. / Sedimentary Geology 322 (2015) 67–81

information relating to detailed internal sedimentary architecture is not Deptuck, M.E., Piper, D.J.W., Savoye, B., Gervais, A., 2008. Dimensions and architecture of
late Pleistocene submarine lobes off the northern margin of East Corsica. Sedimentol-
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criteria for identification of intraslope lobes will permit improved temporal evolution of a Permian submarine slope channel-levee system, Karoo
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However, the depositional architecture will vary across systems currents and the interpretation of certain turbidites. Sedimentology 41, 437–461.
depending on the mechanism responsible for slope accommodation, Eschard, R., Albouy, E., Gaumet, F., Ayub, A., 2004. Comparing the depositional architec-
ture of basin floor fans and slope fans in the Pab Sandstone, Maastrichtian,
the areal extent of the accommodation, and the ratio of flow size and Pakistan. In: Lomas, S.A. (Ed.), Confined Turbidite Systems. Geological Society of
the degree of confinement. London, Special Publications 222, pp. 159–185.
Etienne, S., Mulder, T., Bez, M., Desaubliaux, G., Kwasniewski, A., Parize, O., Dujoncquoy, E.,
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Acknowledgements ability: examples from the Annot Sandstones Formation, Eocene–Oligocene, SE
France. Sedimentary Geology 273–274, 1–18.
Ferry, J.N., Mulder, T., Parize, O., Raillard, S., 2005. Concept of equilibrium profile in deep-
The authors thank the local farmers of the Laingsburg region water turbidite system: effects of local physiographic changes on the nature of
for permission to undertake field studies on their land. We thank sedimentary process and the geometries of deposits. In: Hodgson, D.M., Flint, S.S.
(Eds.), Submarine Slope Systems: Processes and Products. Geological Society of
Riccardo Teloni, Menno Hofstra, and Mariana Gomez O'Connell for London, Special Publications 244, pp. 181–193.
field assistance. Christopher Stevenson is acknowledged for construc- Fiduk, J.C., Weimer, P., Trudgill, B.D., Rowan, M.G., Gale, P.E., Phair, R.L., Korn, B.E., Roberts,
tive discussion of the manuscript. The LOBE 2 project is funded by an in- G.R., Gafford, W.T., Lowe, R.S., 1999. The Perdido fold belt, northwestern deep Gulf of
Mexico, part 2: seismic stratigraphy and petroleum systems. AAPG Bulletin 83,
dustry consortium (Anadarko, BayernGas Norge, BG Group, BHPBilliton, 578–612.
BP, Chevron, DONG Energy, E.ON UK, Gaz de France-Suez, Maersk, Mar- Figueiredo, J.J.P., Hodgson, D.M., Flint, S.S., Kavanagh, J.P., 2010. Depositional environ-
athon, Shell, Statoil, Total, VNG Norge, and Woodside). Reviews by the ments and sequence stratigraphy of an exhumed Permian mudstone-dominated
submarine slope succession, Karoo Basin, South Africa. Journal of Sedimentary
Sedimentary Geology Editor-in-Chief Jasper Knight and the reviewers Research 80, 97–118.
Fabiano Gamberi and Marzia Rovere have greatly improved the Figueiredo, J.J.P., Hodgson, D.M., Flint, S.S., Kavanagh, J.P., 2013. Architecture of a channel
manuscript. complex formed and filled during long-term degradation and entrenchment on the
upper submarine slope, Unit F, Fort Brown Fm., SW Karoo Basin, South Africa. Marine
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Flint, S.S., Hodgson, D.M., Sprague, A.R., Brunt, R.L., van der Merwe, W.C., Figueiredo, J.,
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