GRID COMPUTATIONS

HANDOUT 205
Grid computations are converting angular and distance measurements gathered
in the field from the spheroid to the plane (grid).

- Geodetic station of known position

- Geodetic station of unknown position (or approximately known)

OBJECTIVES:
1. Define geodesic, azimuth, direction, angle, natural scale:
 Geodesic. The shortest distance between two points on a spheroid.
 Direction. A direction is an angular value applied to a line of sight measured from
a sighting to a reference object. The line of sight is a geodesic.
 Azimuth. An angular value applied to a geodesic measured clockwise from true
north.
 Angles. Angles are the differences between directions. Directions are actually
measured relative to the geoid. This will produce slight differences due to the
deviation of the vertical. However, since the deviation of the vertical is usually
very small, the difference between a direction and a geodesic between two stations
is insignificant for lines less than 150km in length and can be discounted.
 Distances. Distances measured in the field are slope distances. They must be
reduced to the spheroid. Four geometrical corrections are applied to obtain a
spheroidal distance (d4). See figure 10.

d1 = EDM/EODM wavepath length

d2 = wavepath chord
d3 = spheroidal chord
d4 = spheroidal arc
Figure 10. The relationship between measured distance and spheroidal distance

 Natural Scale. The natural scale is the relationship between a distance on the
Earth's surface and its representation on a chart or map. A chart that depicts a
large area (for example, 1:10 000 000 INT Chart) is termed small scale; whereas a
chart that shows a harbour, for example, is large scale.
 Natural Scale =

2. Calculate line scale factor, mean radius of curvature and grid distance:
Projection Scale Factor. At any point on the projection the relationship between a
distance on the spheroid and a corresponding distance on the projection is called the
Projection Scale Factor. At the point of origin of the projection the projection scale
factor is 1, that is a measured distance on the spheroid will appear the same distance
on the projection. In an orthomorphic projection the projection scale factor increases
away from this point equally in all directions.

PROJECTION SCALE FACTOR

1 1.4
A’ B’

PROJECTION
A

SPHEROID

Figure 11. Increasing Projection Scale Factor away from the origin

As can be seen in figure 11, the distance AB on the spheroid increases to A’B’ on the
projection.

Grid Scale Constant. To reduce the rate of increase of the projection scale factor
away from the origin and to minimise overall distortion, a grid scale constant (GSC)
is introduced. GSC is usually designated ko in computations and will be less than one.
This effectively reduces the size of all distances on the grid, or, in other words, makes
the projection plane effectively cut through the spheroid. For UTM grids, the GSC is
0.9996.

Scale Factor. Scale Factor (or point scale factor) is the combination of the Grid
Scale Constant and the Projection Scale Factor. It is the factor required to reduce a
spheroidal distance measurement to a distance on the chosen grid.
 Point Scale Factor = Projection Scale Factor x Grid Scale

SCALE FACTOR

Constant
Figure 12. Scale factor for a UTM grid showing how it increases with distance from
the CM

Scale factor can be computed from geographical or grid coordinates. Computation

from grid coordinates is generally simpler.

Line Scale Factor

Each point on a line will have a slightly different scale factor, so we need to
determine an overall Line Scale Factor (LSF). The LSF will therefore be the
relationship for a particular line between its spheroidal distance and the corresponding
distance on the grid. For a TM projection the following simplified formula can be
used:

where, k = LSF
ko = GSC
E'1 = true Eastings of point 1
E'2 = true Eastings of point 2
rm 2 = rmnmko2 (rm is the mean radius of curvature along
the line)

The mid-latitude of a line fm, is used to determine a value for rm and nm and hence
the mean radius of curvature (rm). It can be deduced by converting True Northings (in
metres) into minutes of latitude (1852m per minute), in other words divide by 1852,
then dividing by 60 to get degrees.
Mean radius of curvature: The mid latitude of a line m is used to determine a
value for the mean radius of curvature (r m), and can be deduced by converting True
Mean Northings into degrees of latitude:

Using this mean latitude

GRID DISTANCE = SPHEROID DISTANCE X LINE SCALE FACTOR

(for third order work grid distance ~ plane distance)

3. Calculate and apply arc to chord correction:

A line of sight between two points on the spheroid is a geodesic. When it is
represented on a TM projection it will plot as a curved line, which appears to bend
away from the CM. In order to perform calculations in grid terms, a geodesic must be
represented as a straight line joining two points.
Azimuths and directions observed in the field must be adjusted to convert the ‘curved’
geodesic into a straight line (ie go from an arc to a chord).

Figure 13. Observed directions (arcs) and their corresponding chords

The small angle, d, is the correction required to convert the bearing of the arc to the
chord. The correction is known as arc to chord or (t - T)” correction, and is in
seconds. The correction will usually be different at each end of the line due to scale
factor changing over the area of the projection. Note that measured theodolite angles
will be the difference between two directions, and so there will be two (t – T)”
corrections applied. See Annex B for an example.
A simplified formula suitable for use on TM projections to determine (t-T)” from
Point A to Point B is:
N'
t  T" = A

where: (t – T)” = arc to chord correction (in seconds)

E’A = true Eastings of Point A
N’A = true or map Northings of Point A
E’B = true Eastings of Point B
N'B = true or map Northings of Point B
 rm2 = rmnmko2 (rm is the mean radius of curvature along
the line)
or alternatively,

where: EA and EB are grid Eastings, and

NA and NB are grid Northings

These formulae yield a result correct to 0.01” for a line 30km long.

For third order work a further approximation can be made.

where: N = Difference of Northings (in km)

MTE = Mean True Eastings (in km)

This formula is accurate to 0.25”, provided the observed ray is less than 25km in
length.

Whichever formula is used, a simple diagram should always be drawn to ensure that
the correction is applied correctly. Directions are all measured clockwise. Therefore,
looking at figure 14, a direction from A to B must be corrected anticlockwise to rotate
from the direction to the chord, and so the correction is negative (ie subtracted from
the original value). Similarly, a direction from B to A must be rotated clockwise, and
so the correction is positive
CM (ie added to the original value)
B

+ve (t-T)”
CHORD

OBSERVED
DIRECTION

-ve (t-T)”
A

Figure 14. Sign of arc to chord correction

4. Define grid bearings and plane bearings, and calculate one from the
other:
Grid Convergence is the angle at any point between the meridian (effectively true
north) and the grid north line. It is often denoted by gamma (g), and is the angular
quantity to be added algebraically to an azimuth, , to obtain a grid bearing, b. such
that:

b=a+g
 Figure 15. Comparison of geographical and grid coordinates on a projection

As shown in figure 16, this grid bearing will still be an arc, and will need to be
corrected by (t – T)” to obtain a plane bearing.

CM
GRID TRUE
NORTH NORTH
OBSERVED
BEARING

γ
β
α

Figure 16. Relationship between azimuth (α) and grid bearing (β)

Convergence is most easily determined from geographical coordinates, such that:

1
 ""sin   "3 sin  cos2 2   
3206265
2

For third order work this formula can be simplified to:

where f = latitude (negative for south latitudes)

l = longitude
lo = longitude of central meridian

 = l - lo = longitude measured from the

CM

Y = r/n
An approximate value for Grid Convergence can also be obtained from the largest
scale topographic map.
COORDINATE CONVERSION

Coordinates can be converted from geographical (latitude and longitude) to grid terms
(eastings and northings) and vice versa using Redfern’s Formula (AGD Technical
Manual). Numerous computer programs and software packages, as approved by the
Hydrographic Office, are available to compute the various geodetic values.

SUMMARY OF GRID CORRECTIONS

The following diagram shows the corrections required to convert observations at

Point A to plane bearings and distances:

L = plane distance
S = grid distance
b = grid bearing clockwise
from grid north
a = azimuth measured
clockwise from true
north
g = grid convergence
q = plane bearing from
grid north
d = arc to chord correction
b=a+g
q=b-d

Some older texts may refer to any bearing on the grid as a grid bearing. By definition
a grid bearing (b) is the bearing of the tangent to the arc formed by projecting a
geodesic onto the grid. A plane bearing (q) is the bearing of the straight line on the
grid joining the two end points of the arc. The difference between a plane bearing and
a grid bearing is the arc to chord (see diagram). Hence before any plane trigonometry
can be used grid bearings must be corrected for arc to chord (t-T)” to obtain a plane
bearing.

SUMMARY OF GREEK SYMBOLS AND GEODETIC FORMULAE

a alpha azimuth
b beta grid bearing
g gamma grid convergence
d delta arc to chord correction
h eta deviation of the vertical in the prime vertical
l lambda geodetic longitude measured from Greenwich
n nu radius of spheroidal curvature in the prime vertical
x xi deviation of the vertical in the meridian plane
r rho radius of spheroidal curvature in the meridian
q theta plane bearing measured from grid north
f phi geodetic latitude
y psi r/n
w omega geodetic longitude measured from a central meridian

The following is a summary of formulae suitable for reducing third order

geodetic observations:

a. Spheroids:

Compression (or flatness) of the ellipse, f =

where,a = semi-major axis
b = semi-minor axis
2 a 2  b2
Eccentricity, e = 2
a


a 1  e2 
Radii of curvature,
1  e sin 
2 2 3/2

a

1  e 
1/ 2
2
sin 2 
where, f = geodetic latitude
b. Line Scale Factor: For a TM projection the following simplified formula
can be used:

where, k = LSF
ko = GSC
E'1 = true Eastings of point 1
E'2 = true Eastings of point 2
rm2 = rmnmko2 (rm is the mean radius of curvature along
the line)

Note:

The mid latitude of a line, fm, is used to determine a value for the mean
radius of curvature, rm, and can be deduced by converting True Northings
(in metres) into minutes of latitude (1852m).
c. Arc to Chord Correction: A simplified formula suitable for use on TM
projections to determine (t-T)” from Point A to Point B is:
 where: N = Difference of Northings (in km)
MTE = Mean True Eastings (in km)

(ii) This formula yields a result correct to 0.01” for a line 30 km long.
d. Grid Convergence: For third order work:

f = latitude (negative for south latitudes)

where:
l = longitude
lo = longitude of central meridian
 = l - lo = longitude measured from the
CM
APPLICATION OF (t-T)” TO OBSERVED DIRECTIONS

Observations Computations and reductions

At To Observed HCR t-T" RO Corr'n Total Corr'n Corrected HCR

A B 000° 00' 00" –1.16" +1.16" +0.00" 000° 00' 00.00"

C 093° 28' 06" +1.35" +1.16" +2.51" 093° 28' 08.51"

D 152° 42' 01" +1.79" +1.16" +2.95" 152° 42' 03.95"

GRID COMPUTATIONS
WORKED EXAMPLES:
 1. Calculate the mid latitude of the line between the points in Zone 54S
UTM(WGS84)
A 342 645mE B 348
725mE
6 264 365mN 6 267
926mN

2. Calculate rm2 for this line. WGS84 a=6

378 137.0m

e2=0.00669438

ko=0.9996
3. Calculate the line scale factor along this line.

4. If the measured spheroidal distance is 1200m, calculate the grid distance.

Grid distance = spheroidal distance x line scale factor

 Grid distance = 1199.872m

5. Calculate the (t-T)” correction for the direction A to B.

A 342 645mE B 348 725mE
6 264 356mN 6 267 926mN

 correction to be aplied positively IAW diagram.

6. Convert spheroid values to plane values, and use to find known positions:

USING MEASURED VALUES ON THE GRID - WORKED EXAMPLE

The following observations were conducted between known stations A and B, and the
unknown station C. Using it, we can deduce the coordinates of the unknown station.
Coordinates (UTM Grid; WGS 84; Zone 56 South)
Station A 499 782.641 mE
6 926 365.286 mN

Station B 498 963.296 mE

6 928 829.482 mN
Theodolite Observations

At To HCR
A B 000° 00’ 00”
A C 083° 51’ 26”.7
Spheroidal Distance (See Handout 405 – Reduction of measured distances for how
this is obtained)

A to C = 3056.388m
In order to solve this problem, we will need to convert our angular measurements into
a plane bearing, and convert the spheroidal distance into a grid distance. Then the
position can be found by trigonometry. The first step is to draw a diagram. Noting that
both A and B have eastings <500 000, they are to the left of the CM. As yet we don’t
know where C is, but the angle BAC will be about 84
B

Next, we need to calculate E and N from A to B so that we can work out the plane bearing

E
B
ΔE(A-B) = 499 782.641 – 498 963.296 = 819.345m
ΔN(A-B) = 6 928 829.482 – 6 926 365.286 = 2464.196m

N

A
Therefore the plane bearing is 360 - 18.391... =
341.608037308

Now we need to find the grid bearing, hence we need the arc to chord correction.

We know N = 2.464196km, from above. To calculate MTE,

True Eastings (A) = 499 782.641 – 500 000 = –217.359 mE = -0.217359 kmE
True Eastings (B) = 498 963.296 – 500 000 = -1036.724 mE = -1.036724 kmE
So
 kmE
a Now

From the first diagram we see that we must subtract the value to go from the plane
B
bearing (chord) to the grid bearing (arc).

PLANE BEARING
GRID BEARING A

Grid Bearing (A-B) = 341.608037308 - 0.00393169” = 341 36’ 28.93038”

(be careful with units)

Now we can add the observed angle of A to C (with B as RO), to find the grid bearing
of A-C.

Grid Bearing (A-C) = 341 36’ 28.93038” + 083° 51’ 26”.7 = 065 27’ 55.63038”

Ideally we would now apply a (t – T)” correction to get this to a plane bearing, but we
need to find MTE and N. To get these, we calculate provisional coordinates for C,
using the grid bearing and spheroidal distance.

So
b = 65 27’ 55.63038”
E C d = 3056.388 m

N
d
b

work out Eastings and Northings

Hence prov. True Eastings (C) = True Eastings (A) + E
= –217.359 + 2780.430 = 2563.071 mE

Now, MTE will be True Eastings (A) + ½ E (in km)

E
So now the arc to chord A-C:

Again referring to the first diagram, we need to add this value to go from the grid
bearing (arc) to the plane bearing (chord).
B

PLANE BEARING

GRID BEARING
A

So plane bearing = 065 27’ 55.63038” + 0.00378758” = 065 27’ 56.009138”

The other piece of information we need for C is the grid distance. We know the
spheroidal distance, so we need to calculate the Line Scale Factor

So let LSF = k, and

First we need to calculate rm2.

Now, rm2 = rmnmko2 and , so

So we need to find the mean latitude fm, from the Mean True Northing (MTN), noting that:
MTN = True Northing (A) + ½ N
= (6 926 365.286 – 10 000 000) + ½(1269.140)
= -3 073 000.144 mN

For WGS84: a = 6378137.0m

e2 = 0.00669438
k0 = 0.9996
So
Now we can work out the Line Scale Factor k
From above True Eastings (A) = -217.359 mE = E’A
Prov. True Eastings (C) = 2563.071 mE = E’C

Now, Grid distance = spheroidal distance x LSF

= 3056.388 x 0.99960002497
= 3055.166m
Now we have a plane bearing and grid distance from A to C. There are various ways
of obtaining the coordinates of C from here. We will use basic trigonometry to find
the actual E and N, and hence the coordinates.
E C

N

GRID DISTANCE d
PLANE BEARING b
So
A

Eastings (C) = Eastings (A) + E

= 499 782.641 + 2779.320
= 502 561.961 mE

Northings (C) = Northings (A) + N

= 6 926 365.286 + 1268.628
= 6 927 633.914 mN
Hence the station C is in position 502 561.961 mE
6 927 633.914