RIFT VALLEY LAKES BASIN DEVELOPMENT OFFICE

STRATEGIC BASIN PLAN

DRAFT DOCUMENT

March/2020

HAWASSA, ETHIOPIA
 TABLE OF CONTENT

ACRONYMS VI

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. Concept of River Basin 1

1.2. Importance of Basin planning 1

1.3. Conceptual Differences between River Basin and Regional Planning 2

1.4. Ethiopian water resources information 3

1.5. Rift valley Lakes basin planning 4

1.6. Geographic Location and water resource of RVLB 7

1.7. Scope of the Plan 8

2. BASIN DESCRIPTION 9

2.1. Socio economic description of the basin 9

2.2. Physical description 18

2.2.1. General description, Location and area of the basin. 18
2.2.2. Climate 19
2.2.3. Topography, [Link] and Soil characteristics of the sub Basin 20
2.2.4. Water Resources 24
2.2.5. Physical Infrastructures (Road, Health service, Power supply, Tourism) 26

2.3. Biological description. 30

2.3.1. Vegetation 30
2.3.2. Wildlife and Biodiversity 32
2.3.3. Fishes 34

3. LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL SITUATION ASSESSMENT 36

3.1. Legal frame work Assessment 36

3.2. Development strategies 39

3.3. Institutional Framework 40

3.3.1. River Basin Councils and Authorities Proclamation (Proclamation No. 534/2007) 40

4. BASIN SITUATION ASSESSMENT 44

4.1. ZIWAY SHALLA SUB BASIN 44

4.1.1. Assessment of Water resource in the sub-basin (trends and current situation) 44
[Link]. Surface water resources potential assessment 44
[Link]. Spatial and temporal rainfall distribution analysis 50
[Link]. Ground water resource potential assessment 51
[Link]. Assessment of total water resources 53
[Link]. Lakes Buffer zone situation assessment 54
[Link]. Wetland situation assessment 55
[Link]. Analysis of climate change impact on current and future water availability 55
[Link]. Water demand assessment 56
[Link].1. Domestic demands 58
[Link].2. Agricultural or Irrigation demand 60
[Link].2.1. Current and planned irrigation of Ziway shalla Sub Basin 63
[Link].2.2. Assessment of current water use trend 66
[Link].3. Water Demand management options of Ziway-Shall Sub Basin. 67

4.1.2. Assessment of water quality in the basin (trends and current) 69

[Link]. Lakes Water Quality Status 69
[Link]. Rivers water quality status in Ziway Catchments 76
4.2.3 Water Quality and Environmental flows of Rivers 77
4.2.4 Ground Water quality status 77
[Link]. The Impact of improper irrigation on Water quality 79
[Link].The relationship of watershed, water quantity and quality 79
[Link]. Current situation of the Water quality in Ziway-shalla sub Basin 80
[Link].1. Major water pollution contributing sources in Ziway Shalla sub-basin 80

4.1.3. Catchment /watershed situation assessment 86

 [Link]. Assessment of land use land cover 86
[Link] .Assessment of soil type and distribution 90
[Link].1. Soil Physical Characteristics 90
[Link].2 Soil Chemical Characteristics 91
[Link] Assessment of Existing Forest cover 93
[Link] Assessment of sub-basin ecosystem service 95
[Link] Assessment of existing agricultural practices 96
[Link] Assessment of Livestock population 97
[Link] Assessment of Erosion, Sedimentation and siltation load of Lakes & Rivers 98
[Link]. Assessment of existing watershed management practices 102
[Link].1 National Experiences 102
[Link].2. Activities and Experiences in the RVLB 104

[Link]. Risk assessment and uncertainties 106

[Link].1. Assessment of climate change and variability Error! Bookmark not defined.
[Link].2. Assessment of water use conflict Error! Bookmark not defined.
[Link].3. Geological hazard Error! Bookmark not defined.
[Link].4. Assessment of Risks related to industries Error! Bookmark not defined.
[Link].5. Major Risks related to industries Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.2. HAWASSA SUB BASIN 106

4.2.1. Assessment of Trends and Current Water resource situation in the sub Basin 114
[Link]. Surface water resources potential assessment 114
[Link]. Water Balance of Hawassa Lake catchment 117
[Link]. Spatial and temporal rainfall distribution analysis 118
[Link]. Ground water resource potential assessment 120
[Link]. Lakes Buffer zone situation assessment 123
[Link]. Wetland situation assessment 124
[Link]. Water demand assessment 125
[Link].1. Domestic water demand 125
[Link].2. Industrial water demand 126
[Link].3. Irrigation water demand 126
[Link].4. Livestock Water Supplies 127

4.2.2. Assessement of Water Quality in the Hawassa sub basin (trend and current) 129
 [Link]. General water quality assessment of Lake Hawassa 132
[Link]. Hawassa Catchment Major Industries 132
[Link].1. Hawassa Industrial Park 132
[Link].2. HawassaTextileFactory (HTF) 135
[Link].3. Moha Hawassa Soft Drinks Factory (MHSDF) 137
[Link].4. BGI Hawassa Brewery Factory (BGI-BF) 138
[Link].5. Tabor Ceramics Factory (TCF) 139
[Link].6. Etab Soap Factory (ETAB-SF) 140
[Link].7. Hawassa University Referral Hospital (HURH) 140
[Link]. Non-point sources of pollution 141
[Link].1. Run-off from urban settings 142
[Link].2. Runoff from rural areas 143
[Link]. Pollutants in Lake Hawassa 144
[Link].1. Pollutants in the lake water 144
[Link].2. Pollutants in the sediment 146
[Link].3. Pollutants in fish 146
[Link]. Possible Adverse Effects of Pollution 147
[Link].1. Effects of pollution on water quality 147
[Link].2. Effects on aquatic life 148
[Link].3. Effect on domestic and wild life 149
[Link].4. Effects on humans 150
[Link].5. Human health risk 150
[Link].6. Effects on livelihoods 152

4.2.3. Catchment/Watershed Situation Assessent of Hawassa Sub Basin 153

[Link]. Topography 156
[Link].1. Elevation 156
[Link].2. Slope 157
[Link]. Soil Assessement 159
[Link]. Land Use /Land Cover 161

4.2.4. Risk Assessement and Uncertanities of Hawassa Sub Basin 163

[Link]. Assessment of Climate change and Variability 163
[Link]. Assessment of water use conflict 166
[Link]. Geological hazards 166
[Link]. Assessment of Risks related to industries 168
 [Link].1. Major Risks related to industries 170

4.3. ABAYA CHAMO SUB BASINS 170

4.3. 1. Assessment of Water resource in the sub-basin trends and current situation 170
[Link]. Surface water resources assessment 170
[Link]. Rainfall Distribution 174
[Link]. Ground Water 179
[Link]. Water demand assessment 181
[Link]. Potential for Irrigation Development by Sub-basin 187
[Link]. Water Demand Management 188

4.3.2. Water Quality Assessment 189

[Link]. Lakes Water Quality 189
[Link]. Rivers Water Quality 190
[Link]. Ground Water Quality 193

4.3.3. Catchment /Watershed/ Situation Assessment 195

[Link]. Land Cover and Land Use 195
[Link]. Ecosystem Service 197
[Link]. Livelihood 198
[Link]. Land Degradation 200
[Link]. Buffer Zone Protection 201
[Link]. Wetlands 201
[Link]. Invasive Species 203
[Link]. Existing Watershed Management Practices and experiences 206
[Link].1. Soil and Water Conservation Activities and Experiences in the Abaya Chamo 206
[Link].2. Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation Practices in the Basin 208
[Link].[Link] Sequestration 208

4.3.4. Risk Assessment and Uncertainties 209

[Link]. Data issue: 209
[Link]. Sedimentation: 209
[Link]. Agricultural land expansion and land degradation: 209
[Link]. Lake water level increase: 210
[Link]. Water hyacinth: 210
 [Link]. Blue and green algae existence: 210
[Link]. Climate Change and Variability 211
[Link]. Water Use Conflict 212
[Link]. Geological Hazard 213
[Link]. Flood Risk 214
[Link]. Drought Risk 215

4.4. CHEW BAHIR SUB BASINS 217

4.4. 1. Assessment of Water resource in the sub-basin trends and current situation 217
[Link]. Surface water resources potential assessment 217
[Link]. Ground water resource potential assessment 220
[Link]. Surface Water quality Assessment in the sub basin 222

4.4.2. Water demand assessment 223

[Link]. Agricultural or Irrigation demand 227
[Link].1. Current Irrigation status in Chew Bahir Sub basin 228
[Link]. Livestock water demand 231
[Link]. Ecological water demand/environmental flow 232

4.4.3. Catchment /watershed situation assessment 234

[Link]. Assessment of existing watershed management practices 234
[Link].1. National Experiences 234
[Link].2. Activities and Experiences of Watershed in the Chew bahir sub basin 236
[Link]. Major Watershed in the Chew bahir Sub-basin 238
[Link]. Assessment of land use land cover 243
[Link]. Assessment of Soil Type and Distribution 248
[Link].1. Soil Physical Characteristics 248
[Link].2. Soil Chemical Characteristics 249
[Link]. Assessment of Existing Forest cover and wildlife Forest 249
[Link]. Assessment of sub-basin ecosystem service 251
[Link]. Assessment of Livestock population and range land situation 252
[Link]. Rangelands situation in the sub basin 253
[Link]. Assessment of soil erosion and River siltation in the sub basin 254

4.4. Assessment of Natural disasters 255

 4.4.1. Climate change and water resources management 255
4.4.2. Gender issues and Climate change 256
4.4.3. Some evidences of Gender issues and Climate change from Southern Ethiopia 257
4.4.4. Flood 259
4.4.5. Drought 260

5. BASIN ISSUE IDENTIFICATION, ANALYSIS AND PRIORITIZATION 262

5.1. Issue identification 262

5.1.1. Water quantity 262
5.1.2. Water Quality 268
5.1.3. Watershed 273
5.1.4. Climate Hazards and Risk Management 278
5.1.5. Stakeholder Engagement 282

[Link]. Stakeholder mapping and engagements 286

6. MONITORING AND EVALUATION PROCEDURE 345

I. REFERENCES 357
 List of Tables Pages

Table 1: Population of Hawassa sub basin.................................................................................................... 9

Table 2: Abaya-Chamo Sub-basin population figure.................................................................................. 11
Table 3: Weito-Bezo catchment .................................................................................................................. 14
Table 4: Segan catchment ........................................................................................................................... 15
Table 5: Konso Localized catchment .......................................................................................................... 16
Table 6: Topographic and Hydrographic Nature of Sub-Basin .................................................................. 23
Table 7 List of key institutions in the water sector in Ethiopia ................................................................. 42
Table 8: Surface water resources of Ziway-Shalla sub-basin ..................................................................... 44
Table 9: morphological characterstics of Ziway-Shalla sub basin Lakes ................................................... 45
Table 10: Estimated direct GW recharge and GW resource availability of ZiwayShalla sub-basin by .......
development zone ....................................................................................................................................... 52
Table 11: Urban water use (excluding hydropower, irrigation and coffee) ................................................ 59
Table 12: Rural water use (excluding hydropower, irrigation and coffee) ................................................. 59
Table 13: Predicted total urban population ................................................................................................. 59
Table 14: Total urban water demands in Mm3/Year ................................................................................... 59
Table 15: Summary of Monthly Water Requirements for Diversified cropping (l/s/ha) ............................ 64
Table 16: Existing irrigation land and water demand ................................................................................. 65
Table 17: Future irrigation plan and water demand .................................................................................... 65
Table 18: Chemical composition and changing trends of the water quality parameters of Lakes Ziway and
Abijata ......................................................................................................................................................... 71
Table 19: Chemical Composition of Water in the Lakes of Ziway-shalla sub basin ................................. 73
Table 20: Selected water quality parameters of the lakes, ( RVLB Master plan study, 2007) ................... 74
Table 21: Major Cation and Anion Concentration of Tributaries to Lake Ziway....................................... 76
Table 22: Representative Groundwater Chemistries in ziway- shalla basin (mg/l) ................................... 78
Table 23: Profiles of main industries expected to be source of water pollution in the sub-basin ............... 83
Table 24: Concentration and level of risks of pesticide use to water bodies in the sub-basin .................... 86
Table 25: Major land use land cover of Ziway Shalla sub basin ................................................................ 87
Table 26: Major Soils in the Sub Basin....................................................................................................... 92
Table 27: Livestock Population (Numbers) in the sub-basin ...................................................................... 97
Table 28: Estimates of Sediment Yield in Lakes and Rivers in Ethiopia ................................................. 101
Table 29: Discharge Rates of Tributaries of Tikur Wuha River (April, 1999) ......................................... 115

I
Table 30: Mean Monthly Rainfall at Hawassa (1973 – 2000) .................................................................. 119
Table 31: Groundwater Recharge Amount in Lake Hawassa ................................................................... 122
Table 32: GW recharge and GW resource availability of Hawassa sub-basin by development zone ...... 123
Table 33: Irrigation water consumption summery .................................................................................... 126
Table 34: Lake Hawassa level and area decline in relation to planned irrigation (Kc crops) ................... 126
Table 35: Livestock population in Lake Hawassa Sub-basin (TLU) ........................................................ 127
Table 36: Administrative structure of Lake Hawassa watershed .............................................................. 153
Table 37: 12 Slope class of Lake Hawassa Watershed ............................................................................ 158
Table 38: 13 Major soil types in the Hawassa watershed. ........................................................................ 160
Table 39: Major land use land cover of Hawassa watershed .................................................................... 162
Table 40: Surface water resources of Abaya-Chamo Sub-basin ............................................................... 171
Table 41: Basic bathymetry of Abaya and Chamo Lakes ......................................................................... 171
Table 42: Summary of Precipitation in Abaya-Chamo sub basin ............................................................. 174
Table 43: Groundwater Recharge Amount in Lake Abaya and Chamo ................................................... 180
Table 46: Irrigation Potential Identified in the 1992 Reconnaissance Master Plan Study and in Earlier
Basin Studies of the Abaya Chamo Lake system ..................................................................................... 183
Table 47: Distribution of Existing Schemes by Sub-basin or River System ............................................ 186
Table 48: Estimated Yields for Rivers Identified in the RVLB ................................................................ 186
Table 49: Potential Command Areas and Water Requirements................................................................ 187
Table 44: Average chemical parameters of the Lake waters .................................................................... 190
Table 45: Major Cation and Anion Concentration of tributary Rivers to Lake Abaya and Chamo ......... 193
Table 50: LULC changes of Abaya-Chamo sub basin in 1985, 1995, and 2010 ...................................... 196
Table 51: DZs with their main farming system and Development Strategies .......................................... 200
Table 52: Degraded mountains areas in Abaya- Chamo sub basin ........................................................... 200
Table 53: Lakes, some major Rivers and watershed location to demacarate buffur zones ....................... 201
Table 54: Lake level at the end of year 2034 in response to climate change ............................................ 212
Table 55: LTA Lake level response to climate change ............................................................................. 212
Table 56: Mean Monthly Flow of the Major Rivers (Dry and Wet Season) ............................................ 217
Table 57: Estimated direct GW recharge and GW resource availability of Chew bahir sub- basin
by development zone 221
Table 58: Water Quality of Major Rivers (Major parameters only) ......................................................... 222
Table 59: Guidelines of Major Substances and Parameters (Ethiopia 2002, WHO) ................................ 223

II
Table 60: Projected populations for different woreda administrations ..................................................... 224
Table 61: Woreda-level human water supply requirements in the Weito watershed................................ 226
Table 62: Changes in total annual flow for Chew Bahir and upstream wetland....................................... 227
Table 63: Existing irrigation status in the chew bahir............................................................................... 229
Table 64: Irrigation water requirements of various schemes around the Weito below the bridge............ 230
Table 65: Woreda level population sizes of livestock species in numbers and in TLU (2008 E.C.) ....... 231
Table 66: Summary of water demand in the sub basin by water use ........................................................ 233
Table 67: percentage of land use land cover of Chew Bahir sub basin in the year 2007......................... 245
Table 68: Land Use Land Cover of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin in the year 2013 .......................................... 246
Table 69: SWOT analysis of stakeholder engagement ............................................................................ 283
Table 70: - Stakeholder involvement flow chart ....................................................................................... 287
Table 71: Logical Framework .................................................................................................................. 291
Table 72: Strategic goals, Objectives and Detailed activities of Water Resources Allocation and
Managemen ............................................................................................................................................... 299
Table 73: Strategic Objectives, Major activities and Budget estimation for Rift Valley Lakes Basin ..... 324
Table 74: Budget summary ....................................................................................................................... 343
Table 75: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-1 ........................................................................... 347
Table 76: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-2 ........................................................................... 350
Table 77: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-3 ........................................................................... 351
Table 78: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-4 ........................................................................... 353
Table 79: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-5 ........................................................................... 356

III
 List of Figures Pages

Figure 1Map of sub basins and watersheds in RVLB ................................................................................... 7

Figure 2Mean Monthly Meki River Discharge adopted from (Lemma, 2016) ............................................ 47
Figure 3 Comparison of Mean monthly Katar river discharge at Abura and Sagure adopted
from (Lemma, 2016) 48
Figure 4Mean Monthly Bulbula River Discharge at Kakarsitu and Bulbula town. .................................... 49
Figure 5Fluoride Distribution Around Lake Ziway .................................................................................... 76
Figure 6numbers of ditection over the years of sampling at different sampling locations ......................... 86
Figure 7land use map of Ziway-Shalla sub-basin ....................................................................................... 88
Figure 8land cover map of Ziway-Shalla sub-basin ................................................................................... 90
Figure 9Model of Periodic Oscillation and Trend of Awassa Lake Level (1969-1999)........................... 116
Figure 10Model of Periodic Oscillation and Trend of Awassa Lake Level (1969-1999)......................... 117
Figure 11Hydrograph of monthly maximum lake level ( source mulugeta dadi, etal 2017) .................... 117
Figure 12ten year moving average of ranfall amounts at different stations .............................................. 120
Figure 13Double Mass Curve for the Stations of Hawassa watershed ..................................................... 120
Figure 14: The interaction of various components that maight positively or negatively affect water quality
of Lakes (Ndungu, 2014) .......................................................................................................................... 131
Figure 15: Recent physical water quality of Lake Hawassa (2016/17)..................................................... 132
Figure 16: Administrative map of Lake Hawassa watershed.................................................................... 155
Figure 17: Location map of Lake Hawassa Watershed ............................................................................ 156
Figure 18: Elevation class of Lake Hawassa Watershed .......................................................................... 157
Figure 19: 13 Slope class of Lake Hawassa Watershed............................................................................ 158
Figure 20: 14 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Hawassa watershed. ............................................. 159
Figure 21: 15 Major type of soil in Hawassa watershed ........................................................................... 161
Figure 22: Major Land use land cover in the Hawassa catchment ........................................................... 162
Figure 23:1A, 1B, 1C and 1D: Trends in mean monthly flow of major rivers of Abaya-Chamo basin ... 173
Figure 24: shows trends in the Lake Abaya mean monthly water level ................................................... 174
Figure 25:Spatial distribution of annual rainfall amount in the sub basin ................................................ 175
Figure 26spring rainfall distribution (A) and summer rainfall (B) distribution ........................................ 176
Figure 27The proportion of seasonal variability of rainfall in stations of sub basin ................................ 177
Figure 28Average concentrations of ions in Lakes Abaya and Chamo .................................................... 190
Figure 29Chemical composition and water types of River waters............................................................ 192

IV
Figure 30Variations in the chemistry of representative Rivers samples ................................................... 193
Figure 31Groundwater sampling sites ...................................................................................................... 195
Figure 32Electrical conductivity and Alkalinity maps of ground water in Abaya Chamo sub Basin. ..... 195
Figure 33Land use map of Abaya-Chamo sub basinSource: RVLB Master Plan .................................... 197
Figure 34Generated daily and mean monthly flows from 1990 to 2007 .................................................. 218
Figure 35Groundwater Potential Map (Bezabih Bereket, 2017). ............................................................. 220
Figure 36: Digital Elevation Model of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin. ............................................................... 239
Figure 37: Traditional Konso conservation practice ................................................................................. 241
Figure 38: have a look at architectural buildings by erosion at konso ...................................................... 242
Figure 39: Land Use Land Cover of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin in the year 2007 ......................................... 245
Figure 40: Land Use Land Cover Map of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin in the year 2013. ............................... 246
Figure 41: Location Map of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin Soil. ........................................................................ 248
Figure 42: Analysis of water quantity decline by DPSIR ........................................................................ 265
Figure 43: problem tree for cause and effect relationship of River Valley Basin water availability decline
.................................................................................................................................................................. 266
Figure 44: Objective Tree to Improve Water Quantity in Rift Valley Lakes Basin ................................. 267
Figure 45: DPSIR Framework for analysis of water quality affecting issues ........................................... 270
Figure 46:Problem tree analysis for water quality .................................................................................... 271
Figure 47: Problem Tree analysis on issues affecting watersheds in the basin ......................................... 276
Figure 48: objective tree analysis of issues affecting watersheds in the basin .......................................... 277
Figure 49: Identification, analysis and prioritization of Climate Hazard and Risk Management related
issues ......................................................................................................................................................... 281
Figure 50: Problem tree for cause and effect relationship of Natural Hazard in Rift Valley Lakes Basin 282
Figure 51: Stakeholder engagement framework........................................................................................ 290

V
ACRONYMS
ACSB Abaya Chamo Sub-Basin

ASLNP Abiyata Shala Lakes National Park

BDA Basin Development Authority

BHC Basin High Council

BMPs Best Management practices

CFSCD Community Forest and Soil Conservation Development

CRGE Climate Risiliant Green Economy

CSA Central Statistical Agency

DPSIR Driver Pressure State Impact Response

DWD Domestic Water Demand

DZs Development Zones

DRR Disaster and Risk Response

EPE Ethiopia Policy of Environment

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

EMA Ethiopia Mapping Agency

FAO Food and agriculture organization

FDC Flow Duration Curve

FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GIS Geographical Information System

GLCN Global Land Cover Network

GCM Global Climatic Model

GWP Global Water Partnership

GTP Growth and Transformation Plan

IWMI International water management institute

VI
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management

ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

LCCS Land Cover Classification System

LULC Land Use Land Cover

LTA Long Term Average

LZ Livelihood Zone

MoANR Ministry of Agriculture and natural resources

MoWIE Ministry of water irrigation and electricity

NGOs Non Government Organization

NSNP Nech Sar National Park

ONRS Oromiya National Rigional State

PS Private sector

RANRB Regional agriculture and natural resource bureaus

RBOs River Basin Organizations
RFECCA Regional Forest Environment and Climate Change Authority

RIA Regional Irrigation agency/authority

RVLB Rift Valley Lakes Basin

RVLBA Rift Valley Lakes Basin Authority

RVLBDO Rift Valley Lakes Basin Development Office

RVLBMP Rift Valley Lakes Basin Master Plan

RWB Regional water bureaus
RWH Rain water Harvesting
SDG Sustainable Development Goal

SNNPRS Southern Nation Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional State

SSHBS Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary

VII
SWC Soil and Water Conservation
SWOT Strength Weakness Opportunity Threat

SWWCE South Water Works Construction Enterprise

TLU Total Livestock Unit

WEAP Water Resource Model

WHO World Health Organization

WRUA’s Water resources users association

WFP World Food Program

WRMP Water Resource Management Policy

ZSsB Ziway Shalla sub basin

VIII
IX
 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Concept of River Basin

River basin is defined as the area of land drained by a river and its branches, or tributaries, and
traces its usage in English back to the last quarter of the 19th Century. There is only one
characteristic distinguishing a river basin from other natural areas of the earth's surface and that
is drainage. The waters within the basin tend to flow toward a single outlet and form an
interconnected system. A basin is usually delimited on the surface by a natural boundary called
the watershed or drainage divide. Climate, geology, topography, soils, flora and fauna all interact
with the basin's waters, and if there is a change in any of these factors, either naturally or by
human intervention through waterworks and land use, the entire watercourse system reacts
through adjustments in volume, rate of flow, discharge, sediment load and quality of water
(Ludwik A, 1996).

The river basin's physical unity rarely corresponds with that of other natural regions, such as
climate or vegetation zones. Rarely, too have its land boundaries ever coincided with those of
human political, social or economic units. The very great number of international rivers and river
basins on today's maps of the world proves to the fact that watercourses have more often been
regarded throughout history as convenient and well-delineated political frontiers than as part of a
natural resource common to many users, human and non-human. Nevertheless, the functional
unity of the river basin found expression in human institutions long before it was fully
understood (Ludwik A, 1996).

1.2. Importance of Basin planning

Water resources provide so many functions that planning for their use is so complex.
Reconcilingand coordinating the competing demands rely on appropriate planning mechanisms,
and basin planning can now be seen as the starting point of sustainable management of
River/Lake basins and the associated social and economic systems. Basin planning is the process
of identifying the way in which a River/Lake and its limited natural resources may be used to
meet competing demands, while maintaining its health.

A basin plan has a high level statement of the goals, target and priorities that the basin plan is
attempting to promote and improve

1
 It addresses the main concerns /issues within a given basin at a particular point in time,
including the broader social, economic and environmental development concerns relevant to
water use

Creates a coordinated development between water management and society. Water management
should provide support and security for the overall coordinated and sustainable development of society
and the economy.

 The basin vision gives an indication of priorities in the context of the trade -offs and
conflicts that will need to be addressed in the basin plan, for example by indicating by
economic priorities that need to be satisfied or environmental limits that need to be respected or
restored .
 Allow the concept of cooperation and sectoral alignment to ensure an integrated water
resources management and the planning provide a balanced use of water for multitude
demands and purposes.
 Address catchment and land management issues that are beyond the mandate of water
managers in general and the basin organizations in particular.
 Helps to implement strict water use controls. Control the quantities of total water use and
pollutants discharging into the river, and improve water use efficiency.

1.3. Conceptual Differences between River Basin and Regional Planning

River basin planning focuses on the development of water, land and associated resources
within the hydrological boundaries of the Basin. In comparison, region planning is geared
towards the broader development of all physical and human resources within a specific area
or region. For regional planning, hydrologic boundaries are not meaningful as they have no
administrative status and do not properly reflect the areas of economic growth and diversity
needed for spatial planning.

The rationale for choosing a river basin as the unit for planning is primarily: -
 To optimize the use of the water resources within the basin where water is regarded as a major
factor limiting development, as it is in the RVLB.
 River basin planning therefore focused on water resources development, i.e. irrigation, and
industrial/domestic water supply.

2
 Water use and allocation thus provides the basis of a river basin plan, but aspects of overall
regional development are included where relevant economic sectors are direct linked to water
resource development, e.g. agriculture, natural resources and energy.
 River basin plans are usually long term because the major investments often require long
implementation period [Rift Valley Lakes Basin, Master Plan Study Project, 2009.]

Regional planning is usually based on administrative areas as it takes into account the
political and administrative structures required for project implementation. Region plans are a
key element of the national planning hierarchy which comprises macroeconomic planning,
sectorial and regional planning. Regional planning does not necessarily consider water, or any
other resource, as the major limiting factor for development. Its primary aim is to integrate all
the economic and social sectors which are relevant to a particular region into a coherent
spatial development framework.

1.4. Ethiopian water resources information

Ethiopia has a generous endowment of water resources. The country has adequate average
annual rainfall, several major rivers and lakes, and significant groundwater resources. The
total renewable surface water resources are estimated at 122 billion cubic meters per year
from 12 major river basins. Renewable groundwater resources are estimated to be about 2.6
billion cubic meters. Although less than 2 percent of these resources are diverted for use, per
capita renewable freshwater resource is estimated as 1,900 cubic meters indicating abundance
of water (MoWR, 2002). However, the development and management of Ethiopia’s water
resources faces significant challenges by high hydrological variability. Rainfall across much
of the country is exceptionally variable and unpredictable, both in time (within and between
years) and space. With highly vulnerable watersheds and almost no investment in water
storage, a consequence of this hydrological variability is endemic and unpredictable drought
and flood (World Bank, 2006).

Ethiopia’s hydrology is greatly influenced by its highly varied topography. The heart of the
country is a vast highland plateau, lying at an elevation of 1,500–3,000 meters with some
peaks rising to more than 4,500 meters. This central massif is divided by the deep Rift Valley,
which runs from northeast to southwest (World Bank, 2006).

3
 There is limited information on Ethiopia’s renewable groundwater resources, which are
estimated at about 2.6 billion cubic meters. Groundwater is an important source of raw water
for urban and rural drinking supplies, and, although the country’s complex geology does not
lend itself to major groundwater developments, there does appear to be potential to develop
smaller aquifers for irrigation and water supply and to explore opportunities for artificial
recharge. Ethiopia’s rainfall shows high spatial and temporal variability. The highest mean
annual rainfall (more than 2,700 millimeters) occurs in the southwestern highlands, and then it
gradually decreases in the north (to less than 200 millimeters), northeast (to less than 100
millimeters), and southeast (to less than 200 millimeters).Ninety percent of the country’s
water resources occur in four river basins that host only 40 percent of the population. Sixty
percent of the population lives in the higher lands of the eastern and central river basins and
depends on less than 20 percent of the country’s water resources (MoWR, 2001).

1.5. Rift valley Lakes basin planning

The Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes basin is facing a growing number of challenges related to the
water resources available in the area. The fresh water resource in the basin is under increasing
pressure due to:

 Growth in population;
 Increased economic activity ;
 Overuse of water resources
 Impacts of pollution
 Watersheds degradation
 Climate change impacts
 Limited nature of the fresh water resources ( water resources scarcity, etc

As a result of these pressures the water quantity has diminished, its quality has been
compromised, levels of lakes are falling, agricultural productivity is declined, and deterioration of
the surrounding ecosystems is increasing. Therefore, immediate actions need to be taken that
enable to minimize these challenges. At basin level planning strategically to implement Integrated
Water Resource Management is mandatory.

This plan is about the pressures facing on the water environment in the RVLB and the actions
that will address them. It has been prepared based on the principles of the water policy and

4
under the directives of the high basin council and aimed to improve the existing problems
observed in water resource management. The basin plan addresses major water resources
management functions like: - water resources allocation and management, catchment/watershed
management, water quality management, pollution control, stakeholder engagement, financial
resources management, basin information management and communication strategies. It also
goes through the establishment of monitoring and evaluation strategies of basin plan
development and implementation.

1.6. Approach and methodology

The basic approach employed in the development of the Basin plan for Integrated Water
Resources Management for RVLB was participatory, consultative with consensus building and
based on the understanding of the key water issues having impact on integrated water resources
management. Consultations and dialogue between the key national and regional stakeholders
involved in water resources management, development and use and appreciating and using the
findings of the previous work accomplished by Water Resources Department especially by
identifying the gaps were bases for the development of the action plan.

All efforts were made for a genuine and unfailing involvement of the interested groups and
beneficiaries right from the outset of the action plan formulation process. This will ensure the
success during the implementation of the action plans by clarifying the role and responsibilities
of water sector institutions, addressing the gaps in the legal and institutional frameworks,
institutional and human resource capacity and water management instruments.

Identification of ministries, departments, institutions and water supply services, creating dialogue
between stakeholder and institutions having conflicting interests was employed as an approach as
a means of clarifying issues relevant to integrated water resources management and developing
strategy to be followed in the action plan development process.\
Methodology

Using the approach stated above the following basic methodologies were applied to develop
strategy and Basin plan that facilitate the planning and implementation of Integrated Water
Resources Management. This document was used the following methodologies this are
secondary data reviews, discussions and consultations.

5
 Literature review

At the initial stage of the development of strategy and Basin plan, all relevant documents were
identified, collected and reviewed. Special emphasis was given to the draft documents entitled as
Country Strategy for WRM, Situation Analysis Report, Ethiopian Water Resources Policy,
Ethiopian Water Resources Proclamation and Institutional Framework for the Water Sector. By
reviewing the existing documents (Master Plan) and summarizing the findings and drawbacks of
these documents, it was possible to clearly analyze and present the gaps and their relevance in
the preparation of the Basin plan.

In addition, all documents relevant to the situation of the resources base, national and sectoral
policy documents, strategy papers, Basin plans, regional development plans and other relevant
documents were reviewed and used in the preparation of this Basin plan.

Discussions and consultations with relevant stakeholders in regional administrative centers

and at national level

Once gaps are identified from review of documents and focus area for proposed Basin plans
were developed, key stakeholders and Basin areas presented in the inception report was agreed
and the development of Basin plans [Link] Basin plans were initial discussion with
WRM core Working group and regional stakeholder to validate the proposed Basins and
strategies. In the regional validation workshop (two regions) all Basins/programs were reviewed
and gaps and Basins relevant to the region were identified, time frame for each Basin were
estimated, regional prioritization criteria were developed and lead and support institution to
implement the Basins/programs were identified.

Consideration in preparing the Basin plan

The process of Basin plan preparation for WRM in Basin wide considers the need to produce a
Basin plan which is operationally realistic in the present Ethiopian context and that is sustainable
in the [Link] functions, structures, procedures and proposed Basins are designed to be
pragmatic and take into account the resources constraints existing in Basin in particular in water
resources management, development and use, existing institutional structures and the
management capacity available for implementation. The Basins will also be flexible as much as

6
possible to meet the immediate needs and leave the possibility open for further improvement
whenever deemed necessary and appropriate.

Regarding institutional and capacity building, the Basin plan considers the proposed institutional
reform and corresponding capacity needs as a long term process which require, more discussion,
revision and reaching consensus with key stakeholders. Moreover, basic but necessary sequences
need to be followed prior to developing any Basin plan to facilitate its implementation.

However, Basin plans necessary to improving the existing institutional and human capacity
which are supportive for the planning and implementation of WRM and act as a spring board for
any eventual institutional reform are developed.

1.7. Geographic Location and water resource of RVLB

Figure 1Map of sub basins and watersheds in RVLB

The General contents framed in this basin plan are :- description of each sub- sin, institutional
and sectorial assessment, assessment of surface as well as ground water resources situation (like
potential, quality, demand ) and catchment or watershed situation assessment (like existing
watershed management practice, erosion, sedimentation, deforestation, overgrazing, flood,
drought) issue identification, strategy development and many others.

7
The Rift Valley Lakes Basin is located in the South Western part of Ethiopia between 40 21’
54’’N and 80 28’ 9’’N latitude, and 360 45 ’4’’E and 390 22’ 8.6’’E longitude. The basin has
53,000 km2 area coverage (20,624 km2 (39%) is in Oromia and 32,557 km2 (61%) is in
SNNPRS) and has the potential of 5.6 BM3 annual water resource. The basin is sub divided into
4 sub basins which endowed with the major seven lakes (hence it is called the Lakes basin).
Central Ethiopian Rift (CER) valley with the lakes Ziway, Langano, Abijata andShalla is most
important one and theSouthern basin with the lakes Hawassa, Abaya, Chamo and Chew-Bahir
are included in this basin. Also the basin encompasses 14 watersheds and major rivers feeding
the lakes.

1.8. Scope of the Plan

The Rift Valley Lakes Basin is located in the South Western part of Ethiopia between 40 21’
54’’N and 80 28’ 9’’N latitude, and 360 45 ’4’’E and 390 22’ 8.6’’E longitude. The basin has
53,000 km2 area coverage (20,624 km2 (39%) is in Oromia and 32,557 km2 (61%) is in
SNNPRS) and has the potential of 5.6 BM3 annual water resource. The basin is sub divided into
4 sub basins which endowed with the major seven lakes (hence it is called the Lakes basin).
Central Ethiopian Rift (CER) valley with the lakes Ziway, Langano, Abijata andShalla is most
important one and theSouthern basin with the lakes Hawassa, Abaya, Chamo and Chew-Bahir
are included in this basin. Also the basin encompasses 14 watersheds and major rivers feeding
the lakes.

To implement the principle of an integrated water resources management, this basin plan shows
the direction and implementation framework for the basin to achieve the goals of sustainable
development through fulfilling the protection of water resources and the environment. The plan
is prepared to be implemented within the four sub basins of the Rift valley lakes Basin. The plan
will be executed for next 15 years (2019-2034) and the planning process and its implementation
must ensure active participation of all the relevant sectors.

The General contents framed in this basin plan are :- Description of each sub-basin, institutional
and sectorial assessment, assessment of surface as well as ground water resources situation (like
potential, quality, demand ) and catchment or watershed situation assessment (like existing

8
watershed management practice, erosion, sedimentation, deforestation, overgrazing, flood,
drought) issue identification, strategy development and many others.

2. BASIN DESCRIPTION
The RVLB is considered a high priority because it is an area of significant ecological and
environmental interest, with the system of lakes and wildlife parks and reserves, has substantial
areas of productive rain fed agricultural land and good rangelands, but also because of the great
need in the basin for economic and social development.

Most basins are defined by their main river, but the RVLB is a series of lakes, some of which are
connected and all of the connected systems are [Link] means that the RVLB is
hydrologically sensitive and fragile, so that water becomes a primary constraint to development
as well as being a primary resource. The terminal lakes are also sensitive to pollution in that they
are pollutant sinks, constantly taking them in and never releasing [Link] makes
environmental and water quality management highly important, crucial to the lakes’ existence as
a resource and as wildlife [Link] prepare well structured and problem solving strategic basin
management plan, understanding the whole basin with its potential of various resources is
crucial. Under this section, characterization and description of all sub basins are presented
shortly.

2.1. Socio economic description of the basin

The socio economic features of RVLB are complex and interesting. The Basin Plan must take
account of certain socio-economic characteristics that will have a strongly negative influence on
development opportunities and economic growth in the short and medium term.

The Master Plan study has indicated that the negative socio-economic characteristics strongly
outweigh the positive ones in the RVLB. For more explanation, the negative socio economic
characteristics include:

 population growth driven by high but reducing fertility and declining mortality
 high dependency ratio

 As a result of the population increase and traditional rivalries, increasing competition,

usually between ethnic groups, for scarce land and water resources

9
  As a result of inadequate education services, very low skill level and productivity of the
labor force
 Under-employment
 Land sub-division and increased family size, leading to unviable farm sizes
 Inadequate water supply and sanitation
 Very low present manufacturing base, employing only a fraction of the available work
force and etc

The positive socio economic characteristics include:

 A gradual decline in fertility is expected to lower the dependency ratio

 Improving social status and productivity of women with increased school enrolment

 Quite large under-populated areas in the sub basin which can be developed given more
productive land.
 Benefits of increasing urbanization
 A strong sense of co-operation in society embedded in cultural values

Hawassa Sub basin:

Demographic Characteristics

Population: The ever increasing population of the country thought to have a potential threat to
development. Demographers, planners and economists have urged the government to look for
ways and means to slow the pace of population growth so that the economy and the society can
more easily grow and flourish. In response to this, the government of Ethiopia promulgated the
first population policy in 1993. The rationale for the 1993 National Population Policy was to
address the imbalances between population growth and Ethiopia’s natural resource base, given
the limited progress in productivity. In hawassa sub basinthe current (2009/2010) socio –
economic profile total population of the sub-basin is estimated at 3,374,341( Male 2,027,239 and
female 1,397,760) from these urban population 519,390 (male 286,263 and female 233,127 )
and rural population 2,798,998 (male 1,687,063 and female 1,111,935 ) as indicated an
urbanization rate of about 17% and the rural population is distributed 83% this means uneven
Population distribution and The growth of population is dependent on fertility, mortality and
migration with urban centers growing more rapidly than rural areas.

10
According master plan Volume one Population density (urban and rural) for the whole sub-basin
is very high at 624 people per km2 (total RVLB average = 167 people/km2). The rural population
density is 3.65 per ha in the west and 5.17 ha in the east. The current situation of population
density 587.8 km2 in the sub basin.

11
 Table 1: Population of Hawassa sub basin
No Hawassa Sub Area Total Population by sex Urban Population by sex Rural Population by sex
Basib Km2 M F Total M F Total M F Total
5740.24 2,027,239 1,397,760 3,374,341 286,263 233,127 519,390 1,687,063 1,111,935 2,798,998
1 Hawassa city 157.2 207,416 195,609 403,025 137316 129015 266331 70100 66594 136694
Hawassa 341.14
2 Zuria 164,060 82,739 246,799 - - 164,060 82,739 246,799
3 Borocha 603.45 332,768 166,978 499,746 16,624 8,739 25,363 316,144 158,240 474,384

4 Gorchie 180.98 139,853 70,947 210,800 4,772 2,579 7,351 135,081 68,367 203,448
5 Malega 206.88 145,838 73,976 219,814 6,420 3,380 9,800 139,418 70,596 210,014

Wenedo 230.03
6 Genet 168,485 86,515 255,000 36,957 19,868 56,825 131,528 66,647 198,175
7 Shebedino 259.30 279,748 140,865 420,613 - - 279,748 140,865 420,613
Leku city
8 Adm. 32,139 16,588 48,727 32,139 16,588 48,727 - - --
Wondo 160.73 52754 52,754 6036 6283 12319 44649 46472 91121
9 worede 50,658
Siraro 719 91,659 95,369 187,028 4,129 4,219 8,348 87,530 91,150 178,680
10 Woreda
Shashemene 759.53 80,997 81,130 162,127 - - - -
11 /City/-
Shashemene
12 Zuria- 157,692 159,663 317,355 8,302 8,147 16,449 149,390 151,516 300,906
13 Shala-Wereda 1420 96,321 96,834 193,155 6,511 5,878 12,389 89,810 90,956 180,766
14 Kofale 702 79,605 77,793 157,398 27,057 28,431 55,488 79,605 77,793 157,398

9
Service sector
Health Service:According to (RVLB Master Plan, 2009), there was poor coverage of modern health care
facilities and those available were poorly staffed and poorly equipped with diagnostic facilities. The
health care facilities could not handle the case loads imposed by the large population of the basin at the
time. Hospitals were very few and so often far away from needs, especially as the transport network was
also poor, particularly in the more remote areas. But now, the situation is highly changed and almost all
Woredas in the sub basin has one hospital with more number of professionals.
Education: The education and literacy levels in the sub-basin, as elsewhere in the country, are
very low, even by the standards of other sub-Saharan countries and other developing countries.
Economic development demands an educated population, especially for development of a solid
industrial base. There is a general lack of awareness on the importance of educating children,
especially in rural areas. This is an area of great importance as parents need to be made aware of
the value of education, for their children and themselves, and the impact it will have on future
earning power. Education in the basin suffers from difficulties in maintaining teachers. There is
teacher turn over, mainly due the poor incentives, especially pay, for school teachers. Most
schools are poorly equipped with educational materials and school services/facilities (books,
chairs, desks, classrooms, water supply, toilets), the quality of education is poor, food insecure
areas experience high dropout rates, teachers are poorly trained and scarce, and family
participation in the management and operation of education is weak. There is gender imbalance
between boys and girls enrolment and high illiteracy rates, especially in rural areas and amongst
women.

Abaya Chamo sub basin: The FDRE constitution specifically states the right of all people to
development, that is, the right to improved living standards and sustainable development.
Relevant to the Master Plan itself, the Constitution contains provisions that deal with the right of
people to development, environmental protection and rehabilitation. Basically, the analysis of
socioeconomic framework implies the estimation of the economic growth rates during the
anticipated basin plan implementation period and the effect of economic growth on the
increasing water demand.

Demographic Characteristics

Population: In Ethiopia where technology has not kept pace with the demands for greater productivity,
environmentally harmful and economically counter-productive methods of exploiting land and associated

10
resources (forests, animal resources, etc.) are used to be a practical experience in order to meet immediate
needs. Demographers, planners and economists have urged the government to look for ways and means to
slow the pace of population growth so that the economy can more easily grow and social progress could
flourish. The rationale for the 1993 National Population Policy was to address the imbalances between
population growth and Ethiopia’s natural resource base, given the limited progress in productivity.

Though Population growth raises the productive labor force, it has its own demerits on the fact that as
population increases, the demand for food, agricultural land, Fire wood, settlement, dependency, etc.
increases. This in turn leads to decrease in productivity and aggravates environmental degradation and
overutilization of resources.

Development of a River basin requires an intensive study of the spatial distribution and dynamics of the
population as a component of planning. So data on population are very indispensable. Thus the population
conditions of the zones/districts of Abaya-Chamo sub-basin is briefly registered below.

Table 2: Abaya-Chamo Sub-basin population figure

Abaya Chamo Sub basin

Year Rural/Urban Male Female Total

2006 Total population 3076593 3107243 6183836
2013/14
Urban population 529044 533770 1062814

Rural population 2547549 2573472 5121021

Total population 3154664 3187255 6341919

2007
Urban population 558051 562969 1121020
1014/15
Rural population 2596613 262486 2859099

Total population 3233810 3268378 6502188

2008
Urban population 6502188 589230 7091418
2015/16
Rural population 1183929 2644580 3828509

Total population 3314163 3350692 6664855

2009
Urban population 620197 626215 1246412
2016/17
Rural population 2693966 2724477 5418443

2010 Total population 3362334 1835553 5197887

2017/18 Urban population 465141 224588 689729

11
 Rural population 2897193 1610965 4508158
Source: CSA forecast 2014-2017

Livelihoods of the basin

Agriculture:Thesound performance of agriculture warrants the availability of food [Link]

accomplishment in agriculture does not only signify the adequate acquisition of food crops to
attain food security, but also herald’s appositive aspect of the national economy.

Crop Production:The agro-ecological zone of the sub-basin paves conducive environment to

produce different types of crops which suits to different Agro -ecological Zones. The major types
of food crops that grow in the region are root crops, cereal crops (Maize, Teff, Wheat, and
Barely), Pulses, oil seeds, Vegetables, Fruits, Spices, Coffee, and Tea. As the data collected from
regional Bureau and Zone and Special woredas of Agriculture and Natural Resource reveals that
there is a remarkable variation of production of major food crops among Zones and Special
woredas.

Livestock Rearing: The Abaya-Chamo sub-basin has different Agro- ecological zone that
creates favourable condition for animal husbandry which includes cattle, Sheep, Goats, Poultry
and draught animals despite prevalence of diseases. The livestock sector is central to the
economies of the sub-basin population. Therefore more importantly unreserved efforts should be
extended to develop and promote this sector in the growth of the national economy.

Industry: The development of the industrial sector can play a great contribution in creating job
opportunity, income generation, utilizing the locally available raw materials and improving the
technological inputs and import substitution for the economic sector. Industries can be grouped
under large, medium, and small-scale. There is a medium scale industry which is operating on
Agro- Processing and other kinds of small-scale industries such as grain mills, metal work, wood
work, hand crafts, flour manufacturing, and hollow concrete block manufacturing, furniture and
equipment, coffee purple machine etc. These indicate that industrial development is at its infant
stage in the sub-basin.

Investment is the most essential macroeconomic variable in the process of economic growth and
development of the sub-basin. Investment paves the way for medium and large scale production,

12
technical progress, increases specialization, market efficiency or efficient market allocation,
creates employment opportunity with new skills for the society, capital formation or
accumulation [Link] could facilitate or accelerates further economic and social development.

The existing investment planning, policies and strategy in the sub-basin was favorable in
promoting or encouraging the participation of private and public investor both foreign and
domestic in all sectors of the economy and for this sound environment participation rate
increases in the [Link] is increased from time to time with tradable items of cash crop
production. They engaged on the sale of agricultural products (cereal, pulses, oil seeds,
vegetables etc) and services by providing to the local markets and sending to the central markets.

Chew Bahir Sub basin:

Demographic Characteristics

The demographic characteristics of the sub basin are described by the data collected from
relevant Offices of Woredas in the sub basin. The major parameters of description are
population growth, migration, age structure, ethnic diversification and livelihood of the
community.

The Sub basin is an ethnically diverse area. These include Oyeda, Tsemay, Zeysie, Gewada,
Burji, Hamer, Gidole, Gofa, Gamo and Mali. There are no specific issues identified with one or
another ethnic group, but a diverse ethnic makeup can present a challenge to development
projects and programmes if one group feels another is being favoured by a particular intervention
or [Link] the Master plan study period, the corresponding average growth rate is
3.15%. This is a very high growth rate and is an obstacle to the economic development of the sub
basin. A large group of young people will be soon coming into working age and will require
employment, most of which will not be coming from agriculture. A priority for government must
be to determine ways to limit population growth.
According to master plan study of RVLB, there has not been a specific migration survey in
the basin. But there is information on Oromiya and SNNPR. The survey results show that in
Oromiya, in-migration and out-migration are almost balanced, whether looking at rural-rural or
[Link] is quite different in SNNPRS, where out-migrants significantly exceed in-

13
migrants in all cases except for rural-to-urban migrants. The implication here is that there is
significantly more movement in SNNPRS than in Oromiya.

Table 3: Weito-Bezo catchment

No Zone Woreda Total population

1 Segen Area People Konso 11 kebeles in B-W 306,000

Zone

2 Segen Area People Burji (out of the range of B-W) 85,102

Zone
3 Segen Area People Derashe 11 kebeles in B-W 192,723
Zone
4 South Omo Zone Benatsemay 20 kebeles in B-W 72,527

5 South Omo Zone Hamer 13 kebeles in the sub 31,231

basin
6 South Omo Zone Male 13 kebeles in the sub basin 115,239

7 Gofa Zone Ubadebratsehay 20 kebeles in 100,772

the sub basin
8 Gamo Zone Kemba 34 kebeles in the sub 232,249
basin
9 Gamo Zone Bonke 24 kebeles in the sub 210,611
basin
10 South Omo Zone South Ari 14 kebeles in the sub
basin
11 South Omo Zone North Ari 5 kebeles in the sub
basin
12 Gofa Zala 21 kebeles in the sub basin

13 Gamo Demba Gofa 5 kebeles in the sub

basin
14 Gofa Arba Minch Zuriya 1 Kebele in
the sub basin
15 Gofa Deramalo 1 Kebele in the sub
basin
16 Gamo Bonke 24 kebeles in the sub

14
 basin

17 Gofa Oyida 9 kebeles in the sub basin

18 Borena Teletele 12 kebeles in the sub

basin
Total sum

Source: socio economic assessment report on Weito-Bezo Catchment (RVLBA, 2010 E.C)

Table 4: Segan catchment

No. Zone Woreda Total Population

1 Segen Area People Burji 18 kebeles in the sub

basin

2 Segen Area People Amaro 19 kebeles in the sub

basin

3 Segen Area People Konso 15 kebeles in the sub

basin

4 Borena Teltele 14 kebeles in the

sub basin

5 Borena Bule hora 2 kebeles in the

sub basin

6 Borena Yabelo 5 kebeles in the sub

basin

7 Borena Dugda dawa 3 kebeles in

the sub basin

8 Borena Gelana 1 kebele in the sub

basin

15
No. Zone Woreda Total Population

Total sum

Source: socio economic assessment report on Weito-Bezo Catchment (RVLBA, 2010 E.C)

Table 5: Konso Localized catchment

No. Zone Woreda Total Population

1 Segen Area People Konso 42 kebeles in the sub

basin

2 Segen Area People Derashe 16 kebeles in the

sub basin

3 Segen Area People Burji 1 Kebele in the sub

basin

Total sum

Source: socio economic assessment report on Weito-Bezo Catchment (RVLBA, 2010 E.C)

In the above table 3, the population data of some Woredas are missing for the time being. It
is also known that some Woredas are partially included in the sub basin. These missed data
are expected to be filled at mid time of this document preparation.

Livelihoods of the basin

Chew Bahir sub basin: The vast majority of the population in Chew Bahir sub basin are
dependent on agricultural production and pastoral related activities mainly livestock production
as their main source of livelihood. The situation with regard to access to alternative income
opportunities is worse for pastoralists and, by virtue of their remoteness and physical isolation,
most pastoralists have little, if any, access to non-farm sources of income. Livestock trading and
petty trade in consumer goods are the most common alternative sources of income.

16
Poverty in the Sub basin is widespread and multi-dimensional (low income, poor education and
inadequate health services are typical). Poverty is prevalent in both rural and urban areas but it is
primarily a rural problem. The causes of poverty are varied and complex, but the following
interrelated factors contribute to the persistent poverty clearly evident in the sub basin:
 Traditional livestock systems and livestock husbandry practices;
 Overabundance of livestock creating a conflict between food and feed;
 Lack of alternative income and employment opportunities in the non-farm sector;
 Small farm size, land tenure insecurity, fragmentation of holdings and landlessness;
 Overexploitation of forest resources and land degradation in the highlands;
 Unsustainable population growth rate leading to land degradation, reduction in farm size,
underemployment, urban migration, and increasing pressure on government’s capacity to
provide adequate education and health services;
 Inadequate health facilities/services and poor health status;
 Inadequate education and vocational training – both coverage and quality;
 inadequate road network and poor marketing facilities in the rural areas;
 lack of financial resources and access to micro-credit;
In the sub basin of pastoral area, food insecurity is a major problem and a significant proportion
of the population relies on relief assistance from external agencies. However, poverty in these
areas is more than just food insecurity; the population also suffers from poor access to health and
education facilities and has few opportunities to engage in income generating activities.

Socio-economic information is vital to get clear understanding on major potentials and

problems related to social and economic aspects and to put appropriate watershed
management options. Socio-economic information helps to prioritize the main problems of
the community in proposing acceptable and technically sound watershed management
interventions. Sometimes the top priority of the community may be beyond the objectives of
the project. In such cases, integrated and multi-disciplinary approach would be a good
solution.

17
2.2. Physical description

2.2.1. General description, Location and area of the basin.

Ziway-Shalla sub-basin: is one of the major sub basins in Rift valley lakes Basin and it is
geographically located between 7o–8º30’N latitude; 38º07’–39º30’E longitude. The sub-basin is
shared administratively between two Regional States, Oromia National Regional State and
Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional [Link]-Shalla sub-basinconsists of
major lakes and their tributary rivers. It covers an area of 14,477 km2.

The sub basin consists of major Rift valley lakes (Ziway, Shalla, Abijata and Langano) and their
tributary rivers (Meki, Katar, Bulbula, Horakelo, Huluka, Lepis, Gedemso, Kersa, Jirma, etc).
The presence of these lakes suggests a sub basin with plentiful water resources, but this is not the
case. All these lake systems are hydro logically closed, meaning there is no surface water outlet
from the lakes except for evaporation.

Lake Hawassa sub basin is essentially describes the Hawassa caldera with Lake Hawassa itself
at the centre located in the central north east of the Rift Valley Lakes Basin with an area of
1,432km2 or 143,[Link] the sub-basin is divided between SNNPRS in the south
and Oromia in the north with SNNPRS making up about 75% of the area and Oromia 25%. The
geographical location of the sub basin in UTM coordinates is 420,000 E and 760,000 N; 470,000
E and 800,000N.

The sub-basin is connected to the rest of the RVLB by the main Addis Ababa-Moyale road that
runs to the east of Lake Hawassa and through Hawassa town. There are also access roads within
the sub-basin like an eastern loop road connecting the main road to towns such as Meribo, Basha
Teferi and Wondo Genet with tracks into the eastern hills and escarpment. Further south a road
links the main road to Wojigra and Hogiso on the eastern escarpment. In the west a road runs
from Hawassa through Dore Bafano and up the western escarpment. The main urban areas in the
sub-basin are Hawassa itself, Dore Bafano and Konsore Chefa in the west and Wojigra, Meribo,
Basha Teferi and Wendo Genet in the east.

Abaya- Chamo sub basin is one of the four major sub-basins in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin and
located between 5◦24'47'' to 8◦7'47''N and 37◦ 17'27'' to 38◦38'47''E. It covers an area of about
18,023.25 km2and it also divided in to six watersheds namely Bilate, Gidabo, Gelana, Hamessa-

18
Guracha, Sille-Chamo, and Kulfo-Gina. The sub-basin comprises two big Lakes: Abaya and
Chamo. Lake Abaya is the largest Lake in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin, while Chamo is the third
largest Lake next to Lakes Abaya and Zeway. It consists of major Rivers such as Bilate, Gidabo,
Gelana, Hare, Baso, and Hamessa that flow into Lake Abaya and Kulfo, Sile, Metenafesha and
Sego Rivers flow to Lake Chamo. The flow of these Rivers and other seasonal streams
contributes significantly to the water levels of Lake Abaya and Chamo. But they bring a large
amount of sediments particularly to Lake Abaya.

Chew Bahir sub basin is located at the lower end of Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes Basin,
between 36.6oE–38.1oE longitudes and 4.9oN - 6.3oN latitudes, Weito River is one of the main
rivers in Chew Bahir sub-basin system. It rises in the Guge Mountains, flowing south into Lake
Chew Bahir. Chew Bahir sub-basin (19,029 km2) is the catchment of the dry lake, Chew Bahir,
mostly comprising the Weito and Segen River catchments. For the southern sub-basins of Segen
and Weito Rivers, which join and flow into the wetlands.

2.2.2. Climate
The climate Ziway Shalla sub basin is humid to sub-humid in the highlands and semi-arid in the
rift valley. The modern climate of the Ziway–Shalla region varies markedly over quite short
distances. It is mainly characterized by alternating wet and dry seasons following the annual
movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which separates the air streams of the
northeast and southeast monsoons (Nicholson, 1996). The mean annual rainfall is no more than
600 mm in the vicinity of lake Ziway, and rises to a maximum of 1200 mm at the high margins
(3000m contour) of the MER. Mean annual temperature is less than 15ºC in the highlands and
more than 20ºC in the lowlands. Evaporation ranges from more than 2500mm on the rift floor to
less than 1000mm in the highlands (Caroline Le Turdu [Link]., 1998).

The mean annual rainfall in the Hawassa sub-basin ranges between 950 and 1400 mm with that
for Hawassa town being 959mm. There are marked inter and intra-annual variations in rainfall.
The mean annual temperature in the Hawassa sub-basin lies between 15-20°C. The highest
temperatures are found in the lowlands and increase with altitude. The hottest months are in the
spring before the rains start in March and April, with mean monthlytemperatures in the lowlands
around Lake Hawassa lying in the range 20-25°C and falling to 15-20°C in the highlands.
Temperatures are lowered during the rainy season and are coldest in July and again in December,

19
with temperatures in the range 15-20°C in the lowlands and 10-15°C in the highest parts of the
sub-basin.

Abaya-Chamo sub basinis mainly dominated by a hot semi-arid tropical climate with mean
annual rainfall and temperature ranging from 665 mm to 1240 mm and 8.8◦C to 31.2◦C,
respectively. The climate of Abaya-Chamo sub basin is annually characterized by a typical
bimodal (two types) rainfall pattern with high peaks in kremit (August to September) and short
rains in belg (April to May).Its spatial variation indicated that summer rainfall from Atlantic
Ocean is stronger along western highlands and northern portion of the sub basin whereas spring
season rainfall is strong around eastern and western highlands of the southern part of the basin
(Abrham A., 2018). A high rate of evaporation in this sub basin is about 2300 mm per year on
average and dominated by warm temperature throughout the year.

Chew bahir sub basin is also classified under bimodal rainfall region with two main rainy
seasons, the main rainy season (MAM) which contributes more than 40% of the annual total and
the short rainy season (SON). As shown in Figure 1-2, the annual rainfall ranges from 400mm in
the dry lowlands to 2000mm in the mountain regions, with annual average of about 500mm. The
mean annual temperature varies between 220C and 240C. Weito watershed falls under semi-arid
tropical lowland climate.

2.2.3. Topography, [Link] and Soil characteristics of the sub Basin

Ziway-Shall sub basin is at an altitude of about 1,700 to 1,750 m separating RVLB from the
Awash River Basin. Main parts of the Sub Basin were previously occupied by one large lake
which Lakes Ziway, Abijata and Langano are remnants, occurring at altitudes of around 1,640 m
for Ziway and 1,580 m for the other lakes. This broad flat plain is cut by the Mareko Ridge
running from Koshe to Aje to the west of the [Link] of the ZSsB is comprised of Pliocene
ignimbrites interbedded with tuff and pumice. The only extensive basalt is at the area's margins,
around Butajira and Asella. Numerous recent (Pliocene to Holocene) volcanoes occur in this
northern area with resultant layers of lava, ash and pumice. Around the northern lakes these
volcanic are interbedded with lacustrine siltstones and sandstones.

Ziway-shalla sub basin soils are largely Eutric and Chromic Cambisols (young soils with
poorly developed horizons but well drained and relatively fertile) and Haplic and Chromic

20
Luvisols (soils showing evidence of clay translocation, well drained, relatively fertile, deep and
fine to medium textured) in the hills and foot slopes with Eutric Vertisols (Dark cracking clays,
poorly drained but fertile) on the flatter plains between Butajira and Mareko. Between Mareko
and just to the west of Lake Ziway the soils are again Luvisols with patches of Leptosols (very
shallow soils) associated with the incised Meki River.

Around Lake Ziway the soils are Vitric Andosols (derived from volcanic materials, generally
well drained, deep and medium to coarse textured) with Calcaric and Eutric Fluvisols (developed
from recent alluvial deposits, imperfectly drained, deep and fine to medium textured) associated
with the Meki delta. on the Arsi plateau, the soils are again primarily Luvisols but with
appreciable areas of Rhodic Nitisols (soils with a uniform clay distribution and a nuggety
structure, well drained, fertile, deep and fine to medium textured) and some areas of Vertisols.
Around the lake Shalla, Abijata and Langano the soils are Haplic Solonetz (Sodic soils) with a
small area of Cambisols between lakes Abijata and Shalla.

Topographically, the majority of Hawassa sub-basin is flat to gently undulating but bounded by
steep escarpments with more hilly areas confined to the Wendo Kosha hills to the north west of
the lake and the eastern escarpment and hills. In addition there is a steep escarpment to the west
of the lake and a further one immediately north of LakeCheleleka with a number of small
volcanic plugs in the flat plain. The altitude ranges from 1,680m at Lake Hawassa to 2,700m on
the eastern escarpment. Most slopes (60%) are flat to gentle (0-8%) with a further 35%
moderately sloping (8-30%) and only 6% steep to very steep (>30%)(RVLB Master Plan, 2009).

The Hawassa lake sub basin lies in the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER). The Main Ethiopian Rift is
divided based on structural features into three geographic areas; represented by the northern
(Fentale-Nazeret) Central (Nazareth-Hawassa) and southern (Hawassa-Konso) sectors. The
central sector, where the Hawassa lake sub basin belongs to is a symmetric rift basin where both
sides of the rift margins are fully defined except in the region between Gurage and Sodo of the
western escarpment and in the Shashemene area of the eastern margin (Giday Wolde Gabriel
[Link] in press). There are a number of rift system faults with north and northeast trend along
which the length of Lake Hawassa is oriented. The volcanic collapse structure (caldera) forms
nearly circular structure around Lake Hawassa basin. In the Hawassa caldera a line of young

21
faults affect the rift floor. These faults, the Wonji fault Belt shattered the rift floor into several
relatively small horst and graben. Lakes or swamps occupy the more depressed areas. Recent
lacustrine and alluvial deposits, scoria cones, rhyolitic lava flows and associated ignimbrites,
tuffs and volcanic ash form the Hawassa lake basin(RVLB Master Plan, 2009).

According to the soil map produced by Southern Water Works Design and Supervision
Enterprise, the soil of Hawassa sub basin is classified based on its physical and chemical
characteristics. The soil types found in the sub basin are Eutric Vertisols, Chromic Vertisols,
Eutric Fluvisols, Vitric Andosols, Mollic Andosols, Humic Glyesol, Pellic Vertisols, Chromic
Luvisols and Orthic [Link] based on their dominant characteristics these soils of the
sub basin are classified in to four groups as clay loam, fine sand, fine sandy loam and salty loam.

The land feature of Abaya-Chamo sub basin shows a remarkable topographic variation over a
short distance elevation ranges between 1089m.a.s.l. near the Lake shore in the rift floor to above
3547m.a.s.l. in the Gughe mountain range in the highlands. Surface elevation of Lake Abaya and
Chamo is 1,180m a.s.l. and 1110m.a.s.l. respectively. They differ approximately by 70m (JICA,
2010).

Alluvial deposits comprising gravels, sands and silts form alluvial fans where rivers enter Lake
Abaya. A large delta of the Bilate River is located on the northern shore of Lake Boyo and a
large alluvial plain can be found on its western shores to the north of Arba Minch. The area of
Hamessa River near Humbo Volcanic Field (between Lake Abaya and Dimtu town) comprises
the sediments of Quaternary [Link] non-welded pumice and tuff deposits which produced
by voluminous rhyolitic eruptions of the Late Pleistocene to Holocene central volcanoes are
found around Morocho and Yirga Alem. Rhyolite lavas are distributed over an area of 265 km2
on the northern and north eastern shores of Lake Abaya, comprising also Damota Mountain. The
obsidians of the Korke Seluwa Volcano are rich in crystals dominated by plagioclase with less
abundant Fe-clino pyroxene and Fayalite(Czech Geological Survey, 2014).

According to the soil map provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, Nitisols, Acrisols, Luvisols,
and Vertisols are the dominant soil types in the mid to highland areas of the sub basin, while
Fluvisols are predominant in the rift floor and areas around the [Link] the west the Bilate
watershed is characterized by Cambisols, Fluvisols and Leptosols while the western hills are also

22
largely Nitisols from about Shone in the north to Kemba and Bonke in Gamo Gofa in the south.
There are small patches of Fluvisols and Vertisols associated with alluvial fans around Lakes
Abaya and Chamo in the south. The majority of the southern uplands, including the Gamo Gofa
hills Cambisols with small patches.

Chew Bahir sub basinIn the east the dissected mountains peter out south of Agere Mariam
while the Amaro Mountains reach a height of 3,200 m. West of Lake Chamo the mountains and
hills of Gamo Gofa form a basin and range topography being cut by infilled alluvial valleys of
the Bezo and Weito rivers. South of the confluence of the Weito and Segen rivers the topography
flattens appreciably although the steep-sided escarpments with alluvial fans create a more well-
defined rift valley again. The lower Weito river flood plain is an area of active sedimentation
with alluvial fans on the valley sides and fluviatile and lacustrine sediments in the main valley.
Chew Bahir itself (at an altitude of 490m) is now a large salt flat with an area of marshland and
wetland associated with the Weito river delta to the north of it.

Table 6: Topographic and Hydrographic Nature of Sub-Basin

Sub Water- Topography Major stream system Area(Km2)

basin shed

Chew Bezo- Tectonic line Major river is Weyto 12,143

Bahir Weito developed in NS river, and it is more
direction. than 200 Km in
Predominant of fault length. Flows toward
cliff at east and west the south.
of the area

Konso Massive mountain Short stream network 1,685

localized range developed. developed & join
Hilly terrain. Segen river.
Segen Mountain range Segen is the major 5,230
along the tectonic river which flows in
line is abundant. an EW direction.
Steep valleys exist
along the range.

23
The soil type of Chew Bahir sub basin is categorized into two major soils namely Fluvisols and
Cambisols. The Fluvisols of the sub basin are developed from recent fluvial deposits on a
periodically flooded alluvial plain. The profiles are highly stratified characterized by very deep;
dark brown, brown or dark yellowish brown; fine to coarse texture; weakly to moderate fine and
medium sub-angular blocky and on some layers massive structure; loose or very friable moist;
non-sticky to sticky and non-plastic to plastic wet; dominantly well to moderately well drained
and poorly to very poorly drained caused by flooding. On the other hand, the Cambisols are
characterized by well to moderately drained; deep to very deep; dark brown; clay or silty clay
texture; weak to moderate medium and coarse sub-angular blocky structure; friable moist; very
sticky to sticky and very plastic to plastic wet (GIRDC, 2010).

2.2.4. Water Resources

Ziway-Shalla sub basin:The ZSsB is a closed sub basin, with a series of terminal lakes, which
are those with no surface water outlet. As such, the Sub basin is very sensitive to changes in the
water resources regime as the lakes respond quickly. The lakes themselves can therefore act as a
good recorder of climatic, environmental or human induced changes within their individual
catchments and also in the basin as a whole.

The sub-basin comprises catchments of Eastern Ziway, Western Ziway, Langano and Shalla.
Lake Ziway and Langano are interconnected with Lake Abijata through Bulbula and Horakelo
[Link] Shalla is generally separate but under high flow conditions some water will transfer
to Lake Abijata. Ziway-Shalla sub Basin has 1553 Mm3/year which is 29% of the total surface
water potential of RVLB.

The water resources of the Ziway-Shalla Sub basin are already overused and the situation is
unsustainable. Any further abstractions from Lake Ziway or its feeding rivers will likely be
disastrous. This is mainly shown in the fact that, since the mid-1980s, Lake Abijata water levels
(fed from Lake Ziway through the Bulbula River) have been in steady decline. The magnitude of
the decline is not explainable through the rainfall record, which indicates that water abstractions
are the main cause of the decline. Such abstractions are principally associated with irrigation.

Groundwater is recharged by direct rainfall to permeable ground, generally greatest in the sub
basin margins where rainfall is relatively high via river systems and lakes and from overlying or

24
adjacent groundwater bodies. Groundwater discharge is from springs, either into surface waters
(supporting base flow), directly into lakes, to the surface (e.g. wetlands, where evapo-
transpirative losses may be high) and into adjacent (or overlying) groundwater bodies.

The movement between points of recharge and discharge, typically dominated by fractures and
fissures, is often limited in geographical extent. Groundwater movement through shallow
groundwater systems may be relatively rapid, as there is little groundwater storage available.
In general terms, the groundwater flow system is in parallel with the surface water flow - from
valley sides to valley floor. Within the valley itself, groundwater flow is also dictated by the
relative elevations between the individual sub-basins.

The ground water resource differ from area to area in ZSsB the eastern high land of Arsi and
adjacent mountains areas comprises annual direct ground water recharge of 146 Mm3/year and
ground water resource availability of 7 Mm3/year and the central low land parts of the sub basin
comprises 119 Mm3/year of direct ground water recharge and 6Mm3/year of ground water
resource availability as well as western parts of the sub basin has 286 and 14 Mm3/year of direct
ground water recharge and ground water resource availability respectively.

The Lake Hawassa sub-basin drains an area of about 1,400km2 mostly from the Eastern
Escarpment and Highlands. Several streams drain the hills to the east of Hawassa and flow into
Cheleleka wetland, which in turn is drained by the Tikur Wuha River to Lake Hawassa. The
mean monthly flows of the Wesha and Butara Rivers near Wendo Genet which drain into
Cheleleka are about 0.5 and 0.2m3/s respectively, while the mean monthly flow for the Tikur
Wuha which flows from the Cheleleka to Lake Hawassa is about 6-7m3/s, with only slight
seasonal variation in flows.

Abaya-Chamo sub basin has total amount of surface water resource around 3,018Mm3/year
which is 57% of the total RVLB surface water resource and ground water resource. The sub
basin has two big lakes (Abaya and Chamo), major rivers and a number of small andephemeral
rivers (Awulachew, 2007). Lake Abaya is the largest Lake (having approximately 1094 km2 in
area) in the Ethiopian rift valley Lakes. Its water gains are dominated by surface water inflow
and water losses by surface water outflow and evaporation. This Lake is supplied by a major
drainage system; the tributaries are the Bilate River from the north, the Gidabo and Gelana

25
Rivers from the east, and the Hare, Hamessa and Basso Rivers from the west. Also Lake Chamo
is fed by several small rivers. The rivers Kulfo, Sile, Sego, Argoba and Wezeka are in the
western and north-eastern part drain into Lake Chamo. Most Rivers in the sub-basin are
categorized as non-perennial Rivers. Even though some large Rivers can be classified as
perennial Rivers, the amount of discharge in the dry season is quite limited. Except the Bilate,
Kuflo and Gidabo Rivers, most of the flow rates are less than 2m3/s in the dry season. The Bilate
River flows from the Gurage Mountains to the south, draining the western escarpment and its
catchment area is the biggest of all Abaya's tributaries with 5224 km2 (Awulachew, 2007). The
Gidabo drains a large area of the eastern highlands south of the Hawassa sub-basin; while the
Galana drains the area between the Amaro Mountains and the eastern highlands.

Chew Bahir is a seasonal lake, which is assumed to vary in size considerably, depending on
rainfall. In the spring of 2007, much of the lake area comprised salt flats, with a small remnant of
the lake which reportedly supported fish. The lake is fed by the Rivers Weito (which is
perennial) and Segen, which is partly fed by Lake Chamo, if Lake Chamo levels reach a
sufficient height, and numerous smaller ephemeral channels. There are also a number of
freshwater springs.

In the southern most part of the RVLB, the main perennial rivers are the Weito and Segen, with a
combined annual flow of about 700 Mm3/yr, which flow into the salt flats, wetlands, and open
water of Chew Bahir. Chew Bahir often dries out, but the lowest point in the northeast is
reportedly always moist. Over the past century, Chew Bahir has varied from swamp to shallow
open water with a maximum recorded depth of 7.5m and a surface area of up to 2,000 km2
('Important Bird Areas of Ethiopia, EWNHS 1996).

2.2.5. Physical Infrastructures (Road, Health service, Power supply, Tourism)

According to (RVLB Master plan, 2009), in Ziway Shalla sub basin, there are asphalt and all
weathered roads. The sub-basin is crossed by two trans-regional asphalt roads. One is the main
Addis Ababa-Moyale road which passes through the sub-basin in the east connecting Modjo,
Meki, Ziway and Adami Tulu continuing south to Hawassa and beyond. The other, in the west of
the sub-basin connects Addis Ababa to Hosaina, Sodo and Arba Minch passing through Tiya,
Bui and Butajira within the sub-basin (Western Ziway feasibility study).There are also roads
from Ziway-Butajira, Shashemene-Halaba-Hulbareg, Adama-Asella-Bokoji-Asasa-Shashemene.

26
Public Health Service is one of the essential components of basic social services that have a
direct effect on the growth and development of a country in general and the Ziway-Shalla Sub-
basin in particular. The sub-basin has relatively better access to electricity infrastructure. All
towns in the sub-basin are either already connected to the power grid or are viable for grid
connection.

According to (RVLB Master Plan, 2009), the only asphalt road in Lake Hawassa sub-basin is
the main Addis Ababa-Moyale road that runs north-south through the sub-basin. In the east there
was an all-weather gravel road which is currently upgraded to asphalt from Shashemene to south
of Hawassa town via Wondo Genet and Meribo and another road links the main road with
Wojigra and Hogiso on the eastern boundary. There are also roads and tracks into the eastern
hills from these roads whose access somewhat improved by now. In the west an all weather road
links Hawassa town with Dore Bafano, the capital of Hawassa Zuria wereda where the road
splits and provides a link to Konsore Chefa and further south and Siraro wereda to the west. At
the time of Master plan studied, there were also plans to upgrade the road linking Leku and Sodo
which passes through the south of the sub-basin. Most of such roads are upgraded to asphalt
now.

According to (RVLB Master Plan, 2009), there was poor coverage of modern health care
facilities and those available were poorly staffed and poorly equipped with diagnostic facilities.
The health care facilities could not handle the case loads imposed by the large population of the
basin at the time. Hospitals were very few and so often far away from needs, especially as the
transport network was also poor, particularly in the more remote areas. But now, the situation is
highly changed and almost all woredas in the sub basin has one hospital with more number of
professionals.

Regarding the electricity supply in Abaya Chamo sub basin, there is good access for providing
power lines both within and to the basin. Solar power also has good potential for household use,
generating small amounts of electricity sufficient for lighting and other small electric needs. This
is also practical in the sub basin. A potential 30 MW geothermal site has been identified in the
Corbetti caldera, in the Wendo Kosha hills to the north west of Lake Hawassa although

27
exploration and studies will be needed to determine their value for direct geothermal uses such as
heating and refrigeration (RVLB Master Plan, 2009).

The tourism infrastructure of the Lake Hawassa sub-basin is moderately well developed but there
are some opportunities for further development. Hawassa, the capital city of SNNPRS, is one of
the most promising tourist centres in the RVLB, particularly for domestic tourists and given its
proximity to Wondo Genet hot springs and natural forest and Yirga Alem town. The tourist
attractions of Hawassa and its environs include bird watching, boating, the hot springs of Wondo
Genet and Hawassa town and its lakeside location itself, Abaro Mountain forest and a reserved
grassland area in the far northwest corner in Siraro wereda (RVLB Master Plan, 2009).

Over all phsical infrastractures of the Abaya Chamo sub basin have been improved in the past
10 year from the RVLB master plan(2009) was studied. The dry weather road during the master
plan study was now upgraded to all weather roads which connect zone to zone and city like Tula
- Hantate - Lower Bilate - Hamessa road is 101 km (65.3 km on Sidama side and about 36 km on
Wolaita side). The gravel road connecting Hawassa - Moyale corridor with the Sodo - Arba
Minch paved road at Gelcha (near HamessaRiver). This road has deteriorated and the bridge on
the Bilate River was not functioning during the master plan study time but now it is finished and
become functional.

At the time of the master plan study, Less than 7% of Abaya Chamo sub Basin’s population has
access to electricity while the rest of the population relies on fuel wood, charcoal, agricultural
residues and animal dung to meet their household energy needs (for cooking, heating and
lighting). But now this situation is improved due to the power supply from Gilgel Gibe 2 and 3
hydro powers but still there is lack of electricity in rural areas that causes deforestation, soil
erosion and declining soil fertility, depletion of water resources, increasing flood hazard and
serious ecological imbalances. With regard to health coverage in SNNPRS, it is estimated the
85% of children in SNNPRS are fully immunized, which is much higher than the national
average of 54%. Family planning coverage is reported to be 55%, as compared with the national
average of 36%. Adult HIV prevalence in 2006 was estimated at 10% for urban and 1.5% for
rural areas with only 28% of the health facilities providing ART. Selected ratios of health
professionals to population in SNNPRS indicated that there were 45,852 people per doctor, 4,796

28
people per nurse and 6,777 people per health extension worker. (RVLBA 2009 master plan) but
it is also shown in improving trend due to double digit economic growth of past 10 year and
government attention and high investment to health sector.

The range of altitude in the sub-basin permits varied climatic types and agro ecological zones
that support immense varieties of fauna and flora having great potential for tourism expansion.
There are extremely attractive natural features in the region such as mountains, valleys, Rivers,
Lakes and forests. The mountains are the sources of many Rivers and springs as well as the
home for many different floras & faunas. Several hot and cold springs and mineral waters exist
and besides to their recreational purpose, people use them as curative medicines. Nechsar
national Park which is found in Gamo Gofa zone with an Altitude ranges between 1108-
1650m.a.s.l. and its area 514 km2 has 84 Mammals and 332 Birds as wildlife species. It is a
remarkable for its Swaynes Harte Best and Zebra population. Loka Abaya is the other newly
established parks after 2010 E.C. Azo Gebeya, Ajora fall (Twins Fall) B/n Wolayita, &
Kambata Tembaro, Arto Hot Spring in alaba are the Tourist Attraction Sites in the abaya chamo
sub [Link] addition to this recent years tourism has begun to grow with the development of
a few new hotels and lodges at Arba Minch, Konso, Chencha, and the national parks and
in other ‘protected areas’in the abaya chamo sub basin.

In Chew Bahir sub basin, there is a road Konso - Tedesa - Yabelo (103 km) which is all
weather road linking the Hawassa - Moyale trunk road with the Arba Minch - Jinka trunk road.
Currently, the road is in good condition; The Hagere Mariam - Soyama - Konso 128 km all
weather road linking Hawassa - Moyale trunk road with Arba Minch - Jinka trunk road at Karat,
the capital town of Konso Special Wereda. It passes through Soyama and other small rural
towns. The bridge on Segen River requires rebuilding and thorny bushes on both sides of the
road need clearing; Fiseha Genet - Cheleklektu - Kele - Soyama (120 km) is an all weather road
which joins Soyama and Kele. The distribution of electricity supply in the northern part of the
Basin is better than the southern part.

In Chew Bahir sub basin, there are some interesting tourist attractions for those less interested
in wildlife. Karat, the centre of Konso Wereda, is a gateway to the Lower Omo, Arba Minch and
Yabelo. The attractions of Konso include landscapes with traditional terracing, the Gesergio

29
canyon, the walled village including a community house, hot springs, the clan leader’s palace
and the living culture.

2.3. Biological description.

2.3.1. Vegetation

The forest resources of Ziway Shalla sub basin occur as natural forest, industrial plantations,
woodland and shrub land, communal and conservation plantations and agro-forestry. The natural
forest vegetation of the sub-basin varies distinctively with the altitude. Above 3,000m the
dominant forest vegetation type is Afro-alpine and sub-afro-alpine ericaceous shrub land and
dispersed clumps of highland bamboo (Arundinariaalpina) around valley bottoms and springs. In
the upper sub-basin (2,400-3,000m) there are few remnant patches of disturbed mixed natural
high forest characterized by dispersed trees of Hagenia abyssinica, Podocarpus falcatu,
Podocarpus gracilio and Juniperu sprocera around home steads and church yards. But Most of
the vegetation characteristic of the sub-basin is categorized as woodland and savannas dominated
with acacia-euphorbia woodland, riverine vegetation, Balanties, Croton,bush land,shrub and
herbaceous species(including grassland). Acacia tree species are dominant in the sub-basin and
important means of livelihood for the local people.

The natural vegetation in Hawassa sub-basin can be divided into two categories. One is the
disturbed natural high forest occurring in the highlands in the eastern and north eastern parts of
the sub-basin largely in Wendo Genet wereda and some in Malga wereda which covers 3,600
hectares of land in the north eastern part of the sub-basin. There are dispersed clumps of
highland Bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) on hill slopes and around homesteads. The second type of
natural vegetation is the lowland acacia woodlands and bush lands occurring in the western parts
of the sub-basin mainly in Siraro, Shalla, Hawassa Zuria and Boricha weredas.

There are very few large scale industrial plantations in the sub-basin largely in Wendo Genet
wereda that covers about 328 hectares. The plantations in and around the Wendo Genet Forestry
College are for teaching and training and production of lumber in the small sawmills established
in the college. The other plantations are established for the production of poles and construction
wood. They are state owned and managed by the wereda agriculture office. The grasslands occur

30
in both the eastern and western parts of the sub-basin. The woodlands, shrub lands and the
grasslands altogether cover 30,482 hectare or about 19 % of the total area of the sub-basin.

The lowland acacia woodlands and the shrub lands are found in the western parts of the sub-
basin largely in the Siraro and Shalla weredas. There are conservation plantations in Hawassa
Zuria and Wendo Genet, Shebedino weredas and Hawela Tula Sub City, at Chuko, Finchawa,
Baja, Edo, Bura, and Tulo. In Shashemene, community plantations are available in Shire Borera
and Gonde Kerso. Agro-forestry systems differ between the eastern and western parts of the sub-
basin, but common in most parts is the infield system in which naturally grown multipurpose tree
species are integrated in the farming system (RVLB Master Plan Study, 2009 Volume 1)

In Abaya Chamo sub basin, the vegetation type of the sub-basin is characterized as Dry
Evergreen Mountain Forest Vegetation (High Forest Vegetation), Evergreen Scrub (Shrub/Bush
Land) and Acacia-Commiphora-Boswellia (Small-Leaved Deciduous) Woodland. Juniperus
procera and Podocarpus falcatus Forest Vegetation is dominantly found in Aleta wondo and in
the mountains of Bule Hora weredas. Other species such as Celtis africana, Croton
macrostachyus, Calpurnia subdecandra, Olea Africana, Maytenus undatus and Maytenus
senegalensis are also abundant in this woreda's.

In Kemba, Yayebel forest in Derashe (Gidole) and Shaga forest area of Konso special weredas
Humid Broadleaved Aningeria (Aningeria adolfifridericii) Vegetation species are found. Other
species also found like Syzygium guineense, Ficus sycamorus, Akocanthera schimperi, Trichilia
volkensii and Climatis longicauda. In Nech Sar National Park near Arba Minch and Gelana
River Mixed Riverine Forest is found. The dominant species are Trifolium compestre, Prunus
africana, Euclea schimperi, Canaria abyssinica, Ficus sycamorus, Vepris dainellii, Teclea nobilis,
and Dovialis abyssinica with other common trees including Cordia Africana and Diospyros spp.

Acacia-Comiphora-Boswellia Woodland association is found in konso, Amaro, Bule Hora and

Burji. This woodland is dominated by Acacia sp., including A. tortilis, A. albida, A. mellifera, A.
abyssinica and A. senegal. Other species include Boswellia papyrifera, Comiphora africana, C.
Boiviniana and C. erythraea, Acallypha sp, Barleria sp and Aerva sp. This woodland includes
species of trees that produce resins and gums. Shrub/Bush land is found in Arba Minch, Kemba,

31
Gidole, Amaro and Burji areas. The woody vegetation consists of species such as Dodonia
angustifolia, Dodonia viscosa, Carissa edulis, Rhamnus staddo and Pterolobium stellatumm.

Most parts of Abaya Chamo sub basinarea are used for agriculture, but also wide spread
pasturelands can be found as well as scattered deciduous trees in forms of woodlands
andgrasslands close to the [Link] crops cultivated predominantly within thecatchment
are barley, enset, sorghum as well as certain vegetables.

The forest resources of Chew Bahir sub-basin occur as natural forest, industrial plantations,
woodland and shrub land, communal and conservation plantations and agro-forestry. The natural
forest vegetation of the sub-basin varies distinctively with the altitude. Above 3,000m the
dominant forest vegetation type is Afro-alpine and sub-afro-alpine ericaceous shrub land and
dispersed clumps of highland bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) around valley bottoms and springs.

The vegetation characteristic of the sub-basin is categorized as woodland and savannas

dominated with acacia-euphorbia woodland, riverine vegetation, Balanties, Croton, bush land,
shrub and herbaceous species (including grassland). Different types of crops are being grown in
the sub basin including cereals, root crops as well as vegetables and pulses. However, cereals
such as maize, sorghum, haricot bean, tef and barely were reported to be the main and commonly
grown cereals.

2.3.2. Wildlife and Biodiversity

The Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS) has identified areas where birds
exist and designated them as Important Bird Areas (IBA) and four of these are located in the
Ziway-Shalla sub-basin. The IBA list of the sub-basin includes: Lakes Abijata, Lake Shalla,
Lake Langano and Lake Ziway. The sub-basin is the most well-known tourist attraction sites of
the country due to its high diversity of water birds species. The bird species in the sub-basin
includes Great White Pelican, Cormorants, Lesser Flamingos, Greater Flamingos, Yellow
Fronted Parrot, Abyssinian Catbird, Abyssinian Wood pecker and many migratory species.

Lake Hawassa sub basin is a sanctuary for some Palaearctic birds during the northern winter
and has a rich and diverse bird population with large populations of white-breasted cormorants,
white-faced whistling ducks, spur-winged goose, red-knobbed coot, pygmy goose, saddle-billed

32
storks, brown snake eagles, grey kestrels, honey-guides, coucals and finches (African fire). The
endemic yellow-fronted parrot, and the restricted highland biome species - Abyssinian black-
headed oriole and black-winged love bird are very common around the lake. Out of 76 birds
identified around the Lake 24 are Palaearctic migrants with breeding proof around the lake (or in
Ethiopia in general) and few are migrants with no breeding proof. Twenty six are residents with
breeding proof and 15 are residents with no breeding proof.

Large mammals are scarce around or in Lake Hawassa sub basin although there are some
hippopotami in the lake and Vervet and Colobus monkeys, Anubis baboons and squirrels around
the lake, including the hotel resorts. The Abaro-Gulbicha range of mountains east of the Wondo
Genet area harbours a number of larger mammals including Mountain Nyala, Menilik’s
Bushbuck and Colobus monkey.

In Abaya Chamo sub basin, Nechisar Park, Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary, Boyo
Swamp Controlled Hunting Area and Arba Minch Crocodile Ranchand its adjacent lakes are
important biodiversity hotspots for terrestrial and aquatic birds, besides wildlife. Nech Sar
National Park has the richest biodiversity base. NSNP is home to 87 mammal species, 320 bird
species, reptiles, amphibians and fish species. The Park is also home to six endemic species such
as Scott’s Hairy Bat (Myotis scotti), Musk Shrew (Crocidura phaeura), White-Footed Rat
(Praomys albipes), Ethiopian Grass Rat (Arvicanthis abyssinicus), Swayne’s Hartebeest
(Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei) and Nech Sar Night jar. it support a variety of mammals such
as the Burchell’s Zebra, Grant’s Gazelle, Anubis Baboon, Common Bushbuck, Greater Kudu,
Rock Hyrax, Vervet Monkey, Mountain Reedbuck, Black and White Colobus Monkey,
Gunther’s Dikdik. And also it is the best location for two bird species: the Star-spotted Nightjar
(Caprimulgus stellatus) and the only known Ethiopian population of the White-tailed Bush Lark
Mirafra albicauda. Park management states that there are several threats like land invasion by
agro-pastoralist communities, overgrazing by livestock within the park, Habitat destruction and
forest fires.

Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary is located west of Lake Hawassa in West Aris Zone of
the Oromia Regional State The vegetation of the sanctuary includes Acacia wood land, savannah
grassland and bush land. Wildlife occupies all the vegetation types in the sanctuary. It is home to
37 mammal species and many bird species. The wildlife of SSHBS includes the endemic

33
subspecies Swayne’s Hartebeest, the Oribi, and the Klipspringer. Swayne’s Hartebeest as an
endangered subspecies due to the local extinction of the population in many original habitats
(IUCN).This makes the Sanctuary extremely important as a protected area for the continued
survival of the subspecies. The major threats that the sanctuary faced are settlement, fire,
overgrazing, wood collection, and other typical human activities. The local people have a
significant impact on the area.

Arbaminch Crocodile Ranch established with the objectives of earning foreign currency from the
sales of crocodile skins and to conserve the wild crocodile population through releasing the
captive crocodiles into the wild habitats. The wild crocodiles of Lake Chamo are said to be the
largest in Africa. The main constraining factor for the ranch is the extremely high mortality rate
of the crocodiles due to poor husbandry, nutrition, hygiene, inadequate budgets and the lack of
skilled human resources.

In the Chew bahir sub basin, wet land is the habitat of terrestrial and aquatic migratory birds.
The bird species in the sub-basin includes Great White Pelican, Cormorants, Lesser Flamingos,
Greater Flamingos, Yellow Fronted Parrot, Abyssinian Catbird, Abyssinian Wood pecker and
many migratory species.

2.3.3. Fishes

In Ziway-Shalla sub-basinthere are over one hundred fish species occurring in the combined
water bodies (lakes and rivers) of the country (Golubtsov and Mina, 2003; JERBE 1998). The
Ziway-Shalla sub-basin consist several lakes and rivers which supports various aquatic habitat.

There are around eight to ten fish species found in the four lakes; Lakes Abijata, Lake Shalla,
Lake Langano and Lake Ziway. The main fish species includes Oreochromisniloticus,
Tilapiazilli, Clariasgariepinus, Barbusethiopicus, Cyprinuscarpio, Carassiusauratus and
Garramakiensis. The lakes in the sub-basin could have an estimated annual sustainable yield of
up to 6,910tonnes of fish. From this Lake Ziway which is one of the most intensively fished
lakes in the sub-basin with an estimated sustainable annual production of 3000 t and fishery
mainly consists of Oreochromisniloticus (Nile tilapia), which represents 90% of the landings in
Lake Ziway as in many other Ethiopian [Link] Abijata and Shalla, are enclosed totally
within the Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park and Wildlife Reserve and are therefore officially

34
closed for fishing activities, although some fishing activity is evident in Lake Abijata in which an
estimated sustainable annual production of 1000 t.

Lake Hawassa is a productive lake that contains six fish species like tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, the
African catfish Clarias gariepinus, the large barbs Barbus amphigramma, Garra spp. and
Aplocheilichthyes sp. (Elias Dadebo, 2000). The breeding size, spawning season and area of these
important fish species have been studied (Elias Dadebo, 2000; LFDP Report 1998) and could be used for
the formulation of specific management regulations for the different fish stocks.

Abaya and Chamo Lakes are different from the others in their fish species diversity. Fish
faunas of the Abaya and Chamo (21 species) are diverse than in other basins of the Ethiopian
Rift Valley. The vast majority of fish species inhabiting the Abaya-chamo Sub basins are of
Nilo-Sudan origin; however, some elements of the East-African ichthyofauna (Barbus kerstenii
and Labeo cylindricus) are present. Lake Abaya, the largest, is reportedly less productive due to
the high turbidity caused by the presence of a colloidal suspension of ferric oxide particles. The
fishery in both lakes is based on mainly gill net and long line fishing for tilapia and the large
predatory fish species. Simple rafts made from Sokke are the main fishing craft. The lack of
conventional wastewater treatment plants makes Chamo, Abaya terminal sinks of pollutants of
various origins (agriculture, domestic and industrial) that threatens fish stocks. In terms of
fisheries, lakes Chamo and Abaya are among the commercially most important lakes in the
Ethiopian Rift Valley. At the present time, overfishing is a real danger in lakes Abaya and
Chamo, where local faunas include commercially valuable fish species and intensive fisheries
exist (Reyntjens and Tesfay Wudneh, 1998). Moreover, intensive fishing already resulted in
substantial changes in the species composition of the commercial catches from lakes Abaya and
Chamo.

Chew bahir sub basin has three cat fish species (Bagrus docmak, Schilbeintermedius and
Clariasgariepi- nus) are widely distributed in both Nilo-Sudan and East Coast ichthyofaunal
provinces, and their faunal affinities remain obscure. The Nilotic origin of many fish taxa
inhabiting the southern basins of the Ethiopian Rift Valley is apparently determined by the late
Holocene history of the hydro graphic network of the region. Many investigators (Roberts,1975;
Beadle, 1981;Grove, 1983) noted that water courses connecting the Chamo-Abaya, Chew Bahir,
Turkana and White Nile systems during this period should be a route for the distribution of
Nilotic fishes eastwards.

35
Livestock in Chaw Bahir sub basin: Rearing livestock is the most important and dominant
agricultural activity in the study area and hence there are numerous livestock as a resource by
variety such as Cattle, Goat, Camel, Donkey and Poultry. Livestock is the farmers' important
source of income, food and draft or traction power for cultivation of land in the study area.
Hence, households with larger livestock holding have better access to draft power than those
with less. For the study area population rearing livestock has various values such as economic
value, food value, transportation and social value. As economic value livestock will be sold
when money is required and food value except equine the rest will be used as a source of food.
Livestock holding is also one of the main cash sources to purchase agricultural inputs. The
equine will serve as means of transportation for human and materials. As a social value, the
peasant who has a large number of livestock will be respected among their respective
community.

3. Legal and Institutional Situation Assessment

3.1. Legal frame work Assessment

Strong institutional and legal framework is critical for strategic basin planning and management.
Such situations guiding, directing and enforcing the basin plan to be implemented are referred to
as enabling environment. A basin Plan is multi-phase and multi-owner activity and its
development process has to be in accordance with policies, proclamations, regulations and
institutional arrangements developed in the country. Therefore, in developing this sub-basin plan,
sustainable development goal/SDG/, FDRE Constitution (1995), Water Resources Management
Policy (WRMP), Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPE), Water Resources Management
Proclamation (Proclamation No.197/2000), Water Resources Management Regulations
(Regulation No. 115/2005), River Basin High Councils and Authorities Proclamation
(Proclamation No. 534/2007), and other related policies, strategic documents and mandated
institutional setups were assessed and reviewed. In order to strengthen the institutional
framework, appropriate linkage mechanisms like basin plan has to be planned and implemented
to secure co-ordination of WRD&M activities between federal and regional governments, Zone,
Woreda, Kebele, NGOs, CBOs.

36
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) Constitution states that all national
policies, laws and institutional arrangements of the country, including those related to the
management and administration of water resources and other natural resources must be in line
with constitutional provisions. Among these provisions the utilization of rivers and lakes linking
two or more regional states or crossing the boundaries of the national territorial jurisdiction
[Article 51(11),]. This provision gives the Federal Government the mandate to manage and
administer such rivers and lakes determining of the use, allocation and protection of water
resources.

The Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy (1999) (‘WRMP/the 1999 Policy’)set out
the basis for contemporary IWRM in Ethiopia, Recognizing that Ethiopia’s water resources are
unevenly distributed in both space and time. The overall goal of the Policy is to enhance and
promote all national efforts towards the efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of the
available Water Resources of Ethiopia for significant socioeconomic development on sustainable
basis. The issue of basin planning and water resource sustainable use is directly addressed in the
objective of WRMP of the country which states “…to enhance and promote all national efforts
towards the efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of the available water resources of the
country for significant socio-economic development on a sustainable basis”.

Ethiopian Water Resources Management Proclamation (Proclamation No.197/2000) is

currently the basic legal instrument governing the management, planning, utilization and
protection of water resources in Ethiopia.

Water Resources Management Regulations (Regulation No. 115/2005) was issued by the
Council of Ministers; and its objective is to provide detailed provisions for the effective
implementation of the Proclamation (Proclamation No.197/2000). It provides in detail the main
requirements for the issuance of permits for different uses of water; construction works; waste
water discharge, the conditions for the issuance, renewal, revocation etc. of such permits, and
fees for application for permits as well as the requirements of water charges to be paid for
different uses of water. To this effect, basin plan is prepared in a way that all concepts of this
regulation are taken into consideration.

The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia [EPE], was approved in April 1997. Its overall goal is
“to improve and enhance the health and quality of life of all Ethiopians, and to promote

37
sustainable social and economic development through the sound management and use of natural,
human-made and cultural resources and the environment as a whole, so as to meet the needs of
the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”. In bold it incorporated sector specific environmental policy provisions for water
resources and related sectors. Among others, the specific policy guideline aims to subject all
major water conservation, development and management projects to the environmental impact
assessment process, protection of the interface between water bodies and land, and integrate the
rehabilitation and protection of wetlands and upstream forests into conservation, development
and management of water resources.

The Food Security Strategy (FSS, 2002), is basically derived from the country’s rural
development policy. It aims at increasing domestic food production; ensuring access to food for
food deficit households; and strengthening emergency response capabilities. It is recognized that
soil, water, and vegetation are the main asset base of both the farming community and economy
of the country, without which the achievement of food security is unlikely.

The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia(CSE, 1997) sets out detailed strategies and action
plans as well as the institutional arrangements required for the implementation of sectorial as
well as cross-sectorial interventions for the management of Ethiopia’s natural, man-made and
cultural resources. The CSE provides a strategic framework detailing principles, guidelines and
strategies for the effective management of the environment. Each of the regions has similarly
prepared a Regional Conservation Strategy.

The then Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture currently ministry of Agriculture and Natural
resources in collaboration with donors designed an Investment Framework for Sustainable
Land Management (ESIF/SLM) (MoA, 2010). The Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework
for Sustainable Land Management (ESIF/SLM) developed to improve the coordination between
donor’s support and government’s development effort in land administration and sustainable
land management. The ESIF/SLM provides a holistic and integrated strategic planning
framework under which government, development partners and civil society stakeholders can
work together to remove the barriers, and overcome the bottlenecks, to promote and scale-up
sustainable land management in Ethiopia.

38
 3.2. Development strategies
The sustainable development goal/SDG/ set seventeen Goals to be achieved by 2030. Goal 6
states that ‘Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’. The
Government of The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is also committed and working to
achieve SDG goals. Accordingly, The Rift valley lakes basin authority took responsibility to
prepare the basin plan which is the tool to achieve Goal 6 of the SDG.

Water Sector Strategy (2001): The overall goal of the Water Resources Strategy is to enhance
and promote all national efforts towards the efficient, equitable and optimum utilisation of the
available water resources of the country for significant socio-economic development on a
sustainable basis. Towards this aim out of strategic directions adapted Water Resources
Management is the main one. In this strategy, the water allocation plans will be developed taking
into consideration basin, sub-basin and other hydrological boundaries, with due consideration to
the needs of drought prone areas. To this effect, appropriate watershed management practices
will be used to maximise water yields and quality. Protection of water quality will be secured. To
realize this strategy, basin plan is the appropriate tool.

Growth and Transformation plan (GTP II): Out of Pillars of GTP II Building climate
resilient green economy is the core one. GTP II focuses on ensuring fair and equitable
development and utilization of the country’s water resources for sustained socioeconomic
development. In the period of five years, water resource development interventions will include,
water supply, irrigation and drainage development, hydropower study and design, surface and
ground water study and integrated master plan study and watershed management.
With regard to meteorological contribution to socioeconomic development endeavors, priorities
will be given to agro-meteorological (for agriculture) hydro-meteorological (for water and
energy) and bio-meteorological (for health and disease control) forecasting and early warning
services.

Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE): Ethiopian government has given major emphasis
to build a climate resilient green economy in the context of sustainable development and
realizing the vision of becoming a lower middle-income country by 2025. In this regard, Ethiopia
is pioneer in formulating and implementing the climate resilient green economy strategy.
Accordingly, enhanced efforts will be made in areas of improving crop and livestock

39
productivity to ensure food security through reducing emissions; protecting forests and
afforestation including carbon stocks; expanding electricity generation from renewable sources
of energy; and leap-fogging to energy efficient technologies in transport, industry and
construction during GTP II period.
The CRGE understands water management as key to achieving a green economy because of the
role of water for developing hydropower and agriculture. Therefore, the Ministry of Water,
Irrigation and Energy (MoWIE) is listed as one of the actors with a role in encouraging the
formulation and implementation of green economy.

The CRGE strategy has four pillars. These are: Agriculture, Forestry, Energy and
Industry/transport/urban building with the objective of Fostering economic development and
growth, improving resilience to climate change and Ensuring abatement and avoidance of future
emissions, i.e. transition to a green economy.

3.3. Institutional Framework

3.3.1. River Basin Councils and Authorities Proclamation (Proclamation No.

534/2007)

River Basin High council and River/Lakes Basin Authorities were formerly established by the
(Proclamation No. 534/2007). The aim of this proclamation was to decentralize water resources
planning and management functions to River Basin Organizations (RBOs) at the basin level so
that most of the functions of the Federal government delegated to such a two-tier organizational
set-up of River Basin Organizations (RBO), Basin High Councils (BHC) and River (Lakes)
Basin Authorities (R/LBA). Following this proclamation, the Council of Ministers has
established by regulations Abay, Awash and Rift valley lakes basin authority and Basin High
Council. But now structural change was undertaken and the former three river Basin Authorities
were merged into one federal Authority which named Basins Development Authority (BDA) by
the new (proclamation No. 1097/2010). The MoWIE delegated a substantial portion of its
administrative power to the BDA. The main responsibilities of Basin Council and BDA include:-

Knowledge-building to allow informed decision-making;

Information exchange and networking with stakeholders to build a shared vision;
Coordination of planning to ensure a framework for IWRM;
Regulation and enforcement of water use for sustainable and equitable development.

40
The BHC is the highest policy and strategic decision-making body, whereas R (L) BDO is the
administrative/technical arm of the respective Basin High Councils. As to Article 6 of the
Proclamation, powers and responsibilities of Basin High Councils pertinent to basin Plan are:
To examine and decide on water allocation rules and principles in normal times and in times of
water shortage as well as in times of drought or flooding,
To ensure high level coordination among stakeholders for the implementation of Integrated
Water Resources Management (IWRM) in the basin, and
To propose to the Government the rate of water charges to be paid by water users in the basin.
Provide policy guidance and planning oversight to ensure high level of coordination among,
stakeholders for the implementation of integrated water resources management in the basin;
 Direct the preparation of the river basin plan and submit same for approval by the
Government;
 Examine and decide on the appropriateness and prioritization of constructing major water
works in the basin;
 Manage water use disputes between Regional States in the basin;
 provide information and advisory support to the body in charge of negotiating with
neighboring countries with respect to the basin where the basin is part of a trans boundary
basin;
 Establish standing or ad-hoc committees necessary for discharging specific activities.

Accordingly, the then Rift Valley Lakes Basin Authority currently Rift Valley Lakes Basin
Development Office has been established by [Link].253/2011 with the objectives of promoting
and monitoring of the implementation of IWRM in an equitable and participatory manner in the
basin.

In summary, policies, strategies and institutional set up reviewed above are enabling
environments for IWRM implementation. However, the roles they play in water resources
management differ in accordance with their level of influence; the following Federal,
regional/zonal & woreda/ institutions are involved in IWRM and are key stakeholders in both
development and implementation of the basin plan.

41
 Table 7 List of key institutions in the water sector in Ethiopia

Institution Role
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Develops overarching policies and laws; is responsible for overall planning and coordination as well as
Electricity (MoWIE) monitoring the implementation of WRM and development programmes within the sector. Issues licenses
for large and medium-scale irrigation schemes.
Ministry of Finance and Economic Responsible for all spending with regard to WRM and WRD, including investments under the Water
Cooperation (MoFEC) Master Plan/Strategy. MoFECC also sets development priorities and strategies in cooperation with the
other ministries, formulates strategies for managing foreign aid and loans, negotiates and signs aid and
loan agreements and monitors their implementation
Ministry of Environment and The MEFCC is in charge of EIAs at the federal level and decides on EIAs for projects that are likely to
Forestry and Climate produce trans-regional impacts. Regionally, EIAs are a competence of the regional state environmental
Change(MEFCC) – formerly the agencies. The monitoring and evaluation of EIAs is delegated to different sector institutions like Ministry
Environmental Protection Authority of Mines and Energy; Ministry of Health; Ministry of Transport; Ministry of Water, Irrigation and
Electricity; Ministry Industry; and Ministry of Agriculture and Natural resources. MEFCC (together with
MoFEC) is also a Coordinating Entity for the CRGE; in this role, it has focused on putting in place the
overall technical approach and system for coordination for CRGE implementation and the monitoring of
progress.
Ministry of Industry Issues licenses and permits to industrial development projects.
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Responsibility for watershed management, water harvesting and small-scale irrigation schemes.
Resources (MoANR)

National Meteorological Agency Establishes and operates a national network of meteorological stations.

Water Resources Development Fund The WRDF was established by MoWIE in January 2002 through Proclamation 268/2002 as a semi-
(WRDF) autonomous loan-granting body. The Fund provides small-scale financing to water supply, sanitation and
irrigation development initiatives. Loans are granted for extended periods of up to 30 years, to be repaid
through the collection of tariffs with fixed interest rates of 3%.
The Ethiopian Electric Power EEPCo is a government-owned utility responsible for the generation, transmission, distribution and sale of

42
Corporation (EEPCo) electric energy throughout Ethiopia ‘in accordance with economic and social development policies’
(EEPCo, 2014). The main energy source of the national grid (‘Interconnected System’) is hydropower
plants, as well as some mini-hydro and diesel power generators allocated in various areas of the country
Regional Bureaus/ Authorities, According to the Ethiopian Constitution (art. 52 c), states have the power to administer land and natural
Zonal and woreda offices resources in accordance with laws enacted by the Federal Government. Proclamation 197/2000 further
provides for the possibility of the Federal Government delegating its powers to manage water and other
resources to regional states.
RBHCs and RBAs Management and regulatory functions as set out in Proclamation 534/2007: • RBHCs: direct the
preparation of the basin plan in a participatory way and submit it to the government for approval; it has
final responsibility for coordination of stakeholders at basin level. • RBAs: Prepare, and submit to the
BHC, the BP and monitor its implementation upon approval, coordinate water-related interventions at
basin level, and manage permit and information system, Ensure that projects, activities and interventions
related to water in the basin are, in their content, schedule, impacts and management are in line with the
IWRM process, Develop and use a river basin model in order to guide and support its basin water
resources strategic planning and water administration functions;

Source: (Report on building adaptive water resource management in Ethiopia, 2015)

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 4. BASIN SITUATION ASSESSMENT
The output of the sub basin situation assessment and analysis is a report explaining the progress
with implementing improved management of water resources, the outstanding issues, the problems
and some of the solutions. Prioritizing these problems, issues and solutions in terms of social,
economic, environmental and political priorities is an important aspect of the report. The analysis
is carried out with respect to achieving sustainable management and development of water
resources.

4.1. Ziway Shalla sub basin

4.1.1. Assessment of Water resource in the sub-basin (trends and current

situation)
[Link]. Surface water resources potential assessment
The total surface water resource of the RVLB is estimated at just over 5,300 Mm3/year,
calculated from total annual average river flow into the lake systems under ‘natural’
conditions - without human abstractions. This amounts to a per capita water availability of
597m3, per annum which is well below the threshold of ‘water scarcity’, of
1000m3/capita/annum. This will decline to 232m3/capita/annum by the end of the MP period
because of population growth - a situation of extreme water scarcity.

Table 8: Surface water resources of Ziway-Shalla sub-basin

Sub-basin Lake system Total resource (Mm3 )

Ziway-shalla Ziway 755
Abijata 200
Langano 258
Shalla 340
Total 1,553
Source: (RVLB master plan study, 2009)

From the total Rift Valley Lakes Basin surface water a resource, 29% is found in Ziway-Shalla
sub-basin and it is 1,553Mm3/year.

44
The major tributary rivers for Lake Ziway are Ketar and Meki River. The Meki River
discharges the runoff from the plateau west of Lake Ziway. The Ketar River discharges the
water from the eastern and south-eastern plateaus. The catchments of these two rivers cover
5610 km2. A major part of the water inflow of Lake Abijata originates from Lake Ziway
through the Bulbula River. Hence, both lakes are hydro logically connected. Considerable less
water is discharged from Lake Langano to Lake Abijata through the Horakelo River (Lemma,
2016).

Table 9: morphological characterstics of Ziway-Shalla sub basin Lakes

No Lakes Elevati Max. Mean Volume(K Surface
3
on m )
Depth Depth( Area(Km2)
(m.a.s.l (m) m) or in BM3
)
1 Lake 1636 8.95 2.5 1.6 442
Ziway

2 Lake 1578 14.2 7.6 1.1 176

Abijata

3 Lake 1558 266 87 36.7 329

Shalla

4 Lake 1582 47.9 17 5.3 241

Langan
o

Source: (Mulugeta D., etal, 2016)

Summarized morphological information of four Lakes in the sub basin is adapted from the article
named as characterization of water level variability of the main Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes
published in 2016. It indicates that the maximum depth of the lake Ziway is 8.95 m, while the
average depth is only 2.5 m. The volume of the lake is approximately 1.6 billion m3. The
maximum depth of the lake Abijata is 14.2m, while the average depth is 7.6m. The volume of the
lake is approximately 1.1 billion m3. Hence, the average depth of Lake Abijata is approximately
three times the depth of Lake Ziway. The maximum depth of the lake Shalla is 266m, while the
average depth is 87m. The volume of this Lake is about 36.7 billion m3. Similarly, the maximum
depth of Lake Langano is 47.9m and its mean depth is 17m. The volume of the Lake is 5.3m3.

45
Lake Ziway contains fresh water, which principally originates from the two perennialtributary
rivers and rainfall. They used to have substantial base flows, which have, however, reduced as a
result of uncontrolled water abstractions for small-scale irrigation schemes in the upper reaches
of the catchments. The major portion of the inflowing water from the Ketar River and Meki
River returns to the atmosphere by evaporation. Only a small portion discharges through the
natural outlet towards Lake Abijata i.e. is estimated as under natural conditions approximately
10% of the inflowing water (110 million m3) discharge towards Lake Abijata through the
Bulbula River. The present discharge is, however, reported to have decreased (Lemma, 2016).

Tenalem (2004) reported the level of the lake Abijatahas decreased after 1985, when water
abstractions and land use changes increased dramatically. Since the 1970’s the lake level has
dropped about 5m. Water consumption for domestic use and smaller irrigation schemes along the
Bulbula River is unknown but Legesse, et al. (2004) estimated total extraction at about 59
million m3, which is about 38% of the mean annual Bulbula river discharge recorded over the
past 30 years.

According to average monthly basis long data, Meki River maximum flows occur in August with
a minor secondary peak in April and minimum flows between December and February. As it can
be observed from the hydrograph of the Meki River, discharge at Meki town near the confluence
to Lake Ziway, during December-January the river bed may dry. It can be said that the base flow
of the river dry out during the savior dry years which is impossible to depend on runoff the river
throughout the year for irrigation and domestic water supply. On average, the total annual
contribution of the Meki River to the Lake Ziway is 277.81MCM (Lemma, 2016).

46
 Figure 2Mean Monthly Meki River Discharge adopted from (Lemma, 2016)
The Katar with a large catchment of 3400km2 rises in Arsi High lands to the East of the lake.
Consequently, the gradient of the river is generally steep throughout its course to Lake Ziway,
and it is often deeply incised up to 50 m below the surrounding. As it observed by Tenalem
(2004), the hydrograph of the river at two stations, the discharge measured at Katar Fitee
(sagure) is greater than the discharge at Katar Abura and the difference is very pronounced
during the high rainfall months of the country i.e. August. This due to an abstraction either
through the faults or evapo-transpiration between the two observation stations and equal
discharge measurements observed at the two stations in the month of October and November.
The annual inflow of the Lake Ziway from the Katar River is 401.3MCM gauged at Abura
(confluence to Lake Ziway) and 562.20MCM gauged at Katar fite at mid of Katar River. The
overall Katar River discharge is appears to be decreasing. Although the overall pattern of flow of
Katar is similar to that of the Meki, the peak flow are more clearly defined, the base flows in the
dry seasons are rather higher and it seems most unlikely that the Katar would never dry up
(Lemma, 2016).

47
 Figure 3 Comparison of Mean monthly Katar river discharge at Abura and Sagure
adopted from (Lemma, 2016)
The entire outflow from Lake Ziway is carried by the Bulbula River, which flows south for 30
km before discharging to Lake Abijata, a terminal lake. Except periodically during the wet
season, the flow in the Bulbula usually derives entirely from Lake Ziway. However, the Bulbula
does have significant catchments of its own with ephemeral tributaries from the east occasionally
contributing to the flow. The Mean Monthly Bulbula River Discharge at Kakarsitu in actual
sense the discharge at Bulbula town should greater than the discharge at Kakarsitu during the
rainy seasons since there are many ephemeral rivers between the two stations which drains the
runoff to the river from the catchments of Bulbula river. However on Figure 2, discharge
observed at Kakarsitu station is greater than measurements taken at Bulbula town throughout the
observed years. This is due to the river loss, abstraction, along the stretch of the river and
evaporation even during the rainy seasons. The total mean annual outflow from the Lake Ziway
measured at Kakarsitu and Bulbula Town is 161.33 MCM and 127 MCM respectively (Lemma,
2016).

48
 Figure 4Mean Monthly Bulbula River Discharge at Kakarsitu and Bulbula town.

The physical regimes and the levels of lakes are governed by many natural and anthropogenic
factors. Climatic, hydrological and man-induced factors control lake levels in many ways.
Changes in lake levels result from a shift in the water balance or the net steady-state removal of
water via various surficialand subsurface processes. In particular, closed terminal lakes fluctuate
significantly in response to climatic changes but tend to maintain equilibrium between input and
[Link] of the Ethiopian Rift lakes, particularly those located in a terminal position, have
undergone significant lake level changes since the 1970s. In the last few decades, the ever-
growing utilization of water resources in the rift and adjacent highlands has induced salinization
of irrigation fields and lake level changes (Lemma, 2016).

The level of the lake Ziway is not regulated. The annual fluctuation of the water level of the lake
was reported to be 0.8 m, but larger fluctuations, up to 2 meters, may occasionally occur. Current
total surface water abstraction from the Ketar River and Meki River is in the order of 28 million
m3 per year, which is used for irrigation. Due to the sedimentation problem of the lake the mean
annual water level time series of Lake Ziway seems an increasing. The level of Lake Abijata is
influenced strongly by the input into the Lake Ziway, which transfers water through the Bulbula

49
River. However, the monthly gains of Lake Abijata to storage are meager and less than 5% in
most dry months (Lemma, 2016).

In general the level of Lake Abijata fluctuates according to the precipitation trends in the
highlands. However, the recent drastic decline in its level and the increase in salinity coincide
with the time of large-scale water abstraction. The current and future uncontrolled water
abstraction will have obvious environmental repercussions, which are thought to bring grave
consequences to the lacustrine environment in the foreseeable future. Changes in Lake Abijata
should be perceived jointly with the abstraction of water for irrigation around Lake
Ziway(Lemma, 2016).

[Link]. Spatial and temporal rainfall distribution analysis

Precipitation is the main driver of variability in the water balance over space and time and
change in precipitation have very important implication for hydrology and water resources.
Hydrological variability over time in a catchment is influenced by variations in precipitation over
daily, seasonal, annual and decade time scale.

Ziway-Shalla sub- basin is a closed basin; hence there is no inflow and outflow of surface water.
There is also no evidence of (significant) groundwater inflow or outflow. As a result, all water
resources in the area eventually originate from rainfall. Rainfall is intercepted by the vegetation,
temporarily ponds in surface depressions, or infiltrates into the soil, from where it can directly
evaporate or be utilized by crops (evapo-transpiration). If the rainfall exceeds the infiltration
capacity of the soil, surface runoff can occur. In the case of relatively large infiltration rates,
apportion of the rainfall can recharge the groundwater; then groundwater recharge can eventually
discharge into the lakes and rivers as base flow, be temporarily stored (in aquifers), or be
utilized. So assessing the amount of current water potential and projecting the future water
resource potential depends on the current and future climate condition of the basin.

Earlier studies indicate that average rainfall amount in Ziway-Shalla sub basin is decreasing from
time to time. According to Meshasha [Link] (2010), the amount of rain fall of this sub-basin is
decreased while its temperature is increased from 1970 to 2006. It was concluded by this study
that at the existing rate of climatic change, within 50 years temperature increases by 1.5 co,

50
rainfall decrease by 10%, evapo- transpiration increase by 10% and cumulative effect will be
reduction of surface water resources by 24%.

The influence of temperature is not as great as that of precipitation from the viewpoint of water
resources management. However, still temperature affects evaporation amount and thus, it is
important to analyze its tendency of change. Since the amount of precipitation changes every
year, the amount of water resources that are formed by precipitation also changes from year to
year. Thus, it is necessary to analyze the probability of changes in precipitation amount in
addition to the analysis of its tendency in change and cyclic characteristics. One of the objectives
of this is to draw up a water supply plan in the sub basin area. Small amount of rain usually
brings about smaller surface water amount and lowered groundwater table in that year. Thus,
from the point of view of securing water supply, it is important to analyze the probability of
occurrence of dry years (JICA, 2012).

[Link]. Ground water resource potential assessment

The hydrograph of the river is the representation of runoff of a river. The runoff is the sum of
surface runoff and ground water flow. When surface runoff is zero, the runoff is equal to the
ground water flow. Therefore, during the periods of zero surface runoff, the hydrograph of a
river will represent the hydrograph of the ground water flow into the river, i.e. ground water
depletion curve. As a recharge is a function of precipitation, evapo-transpiration, land use
riverbed morphology and its mode of flow, any change in these parameters could result in
change of ground water recharge, although the magnitude may vary over time and space.
Change in ground water recharge can be resulted from change in land use. According to Makin
1976, there is land degradation in the rift valley especially in the Lake Ziway area due to its
accessibility, freshness of the water and over population; impacting the environment by
deforestation and poor soil management practice. The effect of land degradation on recharge was
analyzed by the change in sustainability of base flow(Amare M, 2008).

The groundwater system in the Ziway-Shalla sub-basin especially in Ziway/Abijata catchment is

largely determined by the East African Rift Valley, being a major structural feature with a width
of 40-60 km and at places a depth down to 1000 m below the flanking plateaus. The groundwater
flow is to the lowest point of the Ziway/Abijata catchment. It was estimated that groundwater

51
contributes approximately 20% of the total inflow into Lake [Link] the sub-
basin is a major source for domestic water supply, supplementary to surface water of Lake
Ziway.

Master plan of RVLB states that the interrelationship between the different components of the
groundwater balance demonstrates the difficulty in estimating the available ground water
resource, particularly as it is not possible to realistically estimate most of these components.
With no data with respect to most of the components of the groundwater balance, and with no
other means available, it is necessary to base the estimate for the basin on the direct groundwater
recharge from rainfall. On this basis and given the overall lack of management of the
groundwater resource, a conservative estimate is needed. It is suggested that initially just 5% of
the direct groundwater recharge from rainfall is considered as the available groundwater
resource(RVLB MP, 2009).

Master plan of the basin indicates that development zone one and two are almost fully coincided
Ziway shalla sub-basin. In development zone three, the estimation of groundwater recharge and
groundwater availability of eleven woredas’ coinciding with the sub-basins is considered from
the master plan and Table 3 summarizes ground water availability of the sub-basin.

Table 10: Estimated direct GW recharge and GW resource availability of

ZiwayShalla sub-basin by development zone

D/ zone Estimated annual direct GW Estimated GW resource availability

recharge (Mm3/year) (Mm3/year)

1 146 7
2 119 6
3 122 6
Summation 387 19
Source: (RVLB master plan, 2009)
Table 3 indicates that the total estimation of groundwater availability of Ziway Shalla sub-basin
by calculating 5% of annual direct groundwater recharge of rainfall on the basis of administrative
woredas included in development zones that coincide the sub basin. Accordingly, the total

52
estimated annual direct groundwater recharge and estimated groundwater resource availability of
Ziway Shalla sub-basin are 387 Mm3/year and 19 Mm3/year respectively. The groundwater
model plays a role in groundwater management by the predicting groundwater fluctuations when
usage of groundwater increases or decreases.

[Link]. Assessment of total water resources

In general, total water potential of the sub-basin is summation of annual and projected rainfall
volume estimated from meteorological data; flows of all rivers in the sub basin estimated from
hydrological data and estimated available ground water storage in the sub-basin. Since the water
resources assessment in preparation of this sub basin plan is based on review of prvious studies,
exact figure of surface and ground water resources at sub basin level could not be surely
indicated to be used as baseline. It is assumed to fill the gap by water resources potential study
planned as part of water allocation plan project in the sub basin. Under this section, only the
scope and consideration of total water resources assessment is indicated.

Hence, TWP = RF+SW+GW, Where TWP= total water potential of the sub basin, RF= Rainfall,
SW= total surface water, GW= estimated ground water storage.

Before summing up total water potential at sub-basin wide, it will be calculated by classifying
the sub-basin into measurable catchments that can be used as nodes or measuring units. Possible
catchment divisions are: - Eastern Ziway catchment (focus on River Katar & its tributaries),
Western Ziway catchment (focus on River Meki & its tributaries), Lake Ziway catchment(focus
on its annual inflow & outflow), Lake Abijata catchment(focus on its annual inflow from Rivers
like Bulbula & Horakelo), Lake Langano catchment(focus on inflow from Rivers like Huluka,
Lepis, Gedemso, Kersa and Jirma) and Lake Shalla catchment(focus on flows of Rivers like Jido,
Dedeba, many small Rivers and streams). Estimation of ground water storage is considered at
each catchment.

Issues discussed about water potential in this assessment are adopted from Basin’s Master plan
study document and other various litratures including the old and outdated ones. Currently, Rift
Valley Lakes Basin Authority is conducting the study of water potential of the sub basin by
water allocatin plan project. Following the completion of this study, exact figure of surface
water, groundwater and total water potential of the sub basin will be included in this document.

53
 [Link]. Lakes Buffer zone situation assessment

According to the situation assessment report in Ziway-Shalla sub-basin, lake shore area is not
protected for all Lakes in the basin. Agricultural activities are expanding to the edge of Lake
Ziway enclosing it. Due to high water abstraction, climatic variability and the associated decline
in inflow, the Lake shrinks in area progressively and then farmers start to cultivate crops there.
From such cultivated area sediments like soil, crop residue, pesticide, inorganic fertilizers and
other agricultural chemical containers are washed and deposited in the Lake by surface runoff
during the rainy season. Such sediment deposition gradually leads to Lake depth decrease,
euthrification and degradation of water quality (RVLBA buffer zone study report, 2016).

Population density surrounding Lake Ziway is high and they compete to cultivate the shore
lands. Eight kebels from Adam Tulu Jido Kombolcha woreda, eleven from Dugida woreda, ten
from Ziway Dugida and three kebeles from Ziway town administration are adjacent to Lake
Ziway. Farmers in these kebeles cultivate crops by rain-fed agriculture during wet season and by
irrigation agriculture in dry season. In addition to cultivation, number of individuals constructing
temporal shelter near the Lake in illegal way and gradually become permanent settlers by
holding the land is increasing from time to time. It was tried to stop lake shore cultivation many
times at Kebele level. But this was not successful as it was not supported by legal framework and
not uniformly started in all kebeles, woreda, zone and region level(RVLBA buffer zone study
report, 2016).

Master plan of Ziway town indicates that surrounding the Lake, it is not allowed to build any
construction within 200 meter distance from the edge of Lake. However, this is only on the paper
and actual situation is very different from or opposite to this rule. Moreover, the city
administration constructed a walkway with fifty meter width and one kilometer length bearing in
mind that it helps to protect Lake Shore. But, this was done only at certain part of the Lake and
the remaining sides of the Lake are as they were; even to the part of Ziway town administration.

In general, major problems on Lake buffer zone in the sub basin are cultivating the lands at the
vicinity of the Lakes including water displaced area, illegal settlement, provision of land use
license to cooperated youth near the Lake for the objective of job creation, use of pesticides and
herbicides that may pollute Lake water, clearing lake shore plants which exacerbates lake

54
ecosystem degradation, sand mining creating gullies that trap sediments and uncontrolled cattle
grazing. Such listed problems are revealed at all lakes in the sub-basin. So paying attention to set
goal, objective and strategic plan for buffer zone protection in the sub-basin plan development is
vital (RVLBA buffer zone study report, 2016).

[Link]. Wetland situation assessment

Ignorance to Lake Shore and wetland management is one of critical challenge of water resources in
the sub basin. Wetlands, lands at a vicinity of rivers and lakes are invaded by human activities like
cultivation and grazing. Wetlands in the sub basin have been improperly grazed and cultivated by
farmers and licensed investors. Due to this, they have been changing into dry cultivated lands. One
example of endangered wetland is found in Eastern Ziway called Lekuche wetland which is sited at
the common boundary of Lemu ena Bilbilo, Digelu ena Tijo, Munesa and Tiyo weredas. From this
wetland 1000ha is now owned by Bokoji agricultural farm (RVLBA assessment report, 2016).

Assessment report by RVLBA shows another example of wetland under threat in Tiyo wereda
Chefe Misoma Kebele. This wetland used to receive runoff containing catchment sediment and
waste from Asela town and its surrounding. Currently, this wetland is owned by private investment
and it is already cultivated. Investor has dug deep ditch to divert the runoff into river directly. This
increases waste and sediment load on Katar River as well as its tributaries and finally such waste
materials are disposed into Lake Ziway. This has direct negative impact on Lake Ziway. In addition,
there are more wetlands in the sub-basin that need immediate action for protection and restoration.
Hence, water resources allocation and management plan development must consider wetland
conservation and rehabilitation in the sub-basin(RVLBA assessment report, 2016).

[Link]. Analysis of climate change impact on current and future water availability

Climate is typically the average state of the atmosphere observed as the weather over a finite
time period (e.g., a season) for a number of different years. Climate is usually defined by the
mean state together with measures of variability or fluctuations such as the standard deviation or
autocorrelation statistics for the period.

Recent climate change impact assessment studies have indicated that changes in rainfall (amount
and variability) and increase in temperature are causing stresses on agriculture, water as well as

55
human health, and likely to continue to progress negatively in the future (IPCC, 2001;
2007).

Zeray [Link] used the Hadley Centre Coupled Model (HadCM3) GCM model output downscaled
using the Statistical Downscaling Model (SDSM) to estimate monthly maximum and minimum
temperatures and rainfall. The SWAT rainfall-runoff model was used for assessing climate
change impact on the Ziway-Shall sub basin hydrology over the period 2001-2099. The SWAT
model was calibrated based on 1981-2000 data.

The results showed that average monthly and annual rainfall over ZSsB may increase by up to
29 % and 9.4 % respectively. Average monthly and annual maximum temperature over ZSsB
may raise by 3.6 OC and 1.95 OC respectively. Average monthly and annual minimum
temperature over ZSs B may raise by 4.2 OC and 2 OC respectively.

Climate change has a significant impact on Ziway-Shalla sub Basin future water availability due
to temperature raise and evaporation rate increment. Lake Ziway shows a decline in long term
average. By the end of year 2034 lake levels in Ziway will have fallen by 0.60 m with a decrease
in lake area of 12%. As Reduction in levels in Lake Ziway as a result of climate change also has
an impact on the lake levels in Lake Abijata(RVLB master plan, 2008).

The declining lake levels of Lake Abijata in response to climate change and is the equivalent to a
25% reduction in flow in the Bulbula River. The changes in long term average lake levels due to
climate change show an overall fall by1.3 m, a 17% decrease in lake area and by the end of year
2034 the lake will drop further by 2.1m. The effect of climate change on Lake Shalla shows a
decrease in lake levels of 1.74 by 2034(RVLB master plan, 2008).

[Link]. Water demand assessment

The current and future Water demand in Ziway-Shall Sub Basin dependent on changes in
irrigation development, increases in domestic water supply requirements because of population
increase, as well as increased per capita water demands and increases in industrial demands due
to economic development. These changes are evaluated through developing a set of ‘future
development scenarios’ over the Basin Planning period (the next 15 years) which then can be
modeled using WEAP to assess the implication on the water resources of the ZSsB.

56
Before dealing with demands, one has to understand the future strategy of development on the
Sub Basin. There are four Development Strategies associated with the sub basin.

 Strategy A: Subsistence Based Agricultural Development

 Strategy B: Integrated Socioeconomic Development
 Strategy C: Market Orientated Economic Development
 Strategy D: Accelerated Industrial Development
Water demand estimates for the future development scenarios are required to model the change
in availability of surface water resources. Estimates of water demands are determined from the
Economic Resource Optimisation and Allocation Model (ERAOM) and ROE (Rest of the
Economy) model. The following sources of water demand have been considered by space and
time:
 domestic potable water supply for urban consumers
 water for livestock
 irrigation from new schemes and on-farm expansion
 industrial water use for food processing and other industrial production
 water required for construction
 water required for service activities
 water required for health and education service

57
[Link].1. Domestic demands
The minimum daily water requirement for survival during normal activity in temperate climates
is 2 to 5 l d-1 per person (Gleick, 1996). The average domestic water use in Ethiopia is 13.3 l d-1
per person, being very low compared with other countries in the world. As there is no detailed
information available on the domestic water use in the CRV, the average national water use is
assumed. Studies indicate population of RV is about 1.5 Million and they consumes about 7.3
million m3 of water on annual basis.

Rapid population growth and economic development of current and future time all over the Rift
valley lake basin as well as Ziway-shall sub basin cause increase in the domestic water demand.
The domestic water demand calculated according to Per capita consumption of potable water is
estimated as 10 liters per day per capita from unprotected sources (rural) and 50 liters per capita
per day from (urban) piped systems.

The water use per capital is used together with predicted urban and rural population in Ziway–
shalla sub basin to calculate the total domestic water demand through the Basin Plan period.
Total predicted urban population of ZSsb is shown in Table 7 and total annual urban water
demand is provided in Table 8. At each existing or new urban centre (i.e. water supply site) the
activity level within the water resource model is increased incrementally to represent future
urban water demands.

Water demands for smaller towns within ZSSB are aggregated and then added to existing larger
urban areas if in close proximity, or if not in proximity, a new urban area (water supply site) is
created and located on a river course related to that group of aggregated towns. These water
demands, or activity levels for a water supply site, are increased linearly between each 5 year
time intervals up to the maximum water demand in the year 2035. Water demands for urban
areas are assumed to be supplied by surface water resources as there is insufficient information
on groundwater supply to urban areas. However, in balance the water demands in rural areas are
assumed to be supplied entirely by groundwater. According to the predicted population growth
the domestic water demand will be 110 Mm3/year by 2034 without considering the rural water
demand from ground water source(RVLBA, 2009).

58
 Table 11: Urban water use (excluding hydropower, irrigation and coffee)
Water Use 2020 2025 2030 2035
Demands l/c/day 72.9 75.1 79.3 83.5
Demands M3/c/yr 26.6 27.4 28.9 30.5

Table 12: Rural water use (excluding hydropower, irrigation and coffee)
Water Use 2020 2025 2030 2035
Demands l/c/day 16.6 17.6 18.6 19.5
Demands M3/c/yr 6.0 6.4 6.8 7.1

Table 13: Predicted total urban population

Year 2020 2025 2030 2035

Urban population 1,332,029 1,748,093 2,242,876 3,607,083

Table 14: Total urban water demands in Mm3/Year

Year 2020 2025 2030 2035

Urban water 46.4 61.5 85.8 110
demand

[Link]. Livestock water use

The water intake by animals varies largely and depends on many factors, such as the prevailing
climatic conditions, the activity level of the animals, the amount and typeof feed consumed,
lactation, and the salinity of water. In this assessment it isassumed that the livestock in the CRV
consumes 15 l d-1 per TLU in the wet season(4 months) and 30 l d-1 per TLU in the dry season
(Van der Meer, pers. com.).This corresponds with an average daily intake of approximately 25 l
d-1 per TLU, which is in agreement with the typical use of livestock (Peden et al., 2006). Based
ona livestock population of 0.85 million TLU, the total annual waterconsumption by the
livestock sector is estimated at 7.7 million m3.

[Link]. Industrial water use

Since 1990 a soda-ash factory is operational along the shore of Lake Abyata. This factory
produces soda-ash (Na2CO3) from sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) dissolved in lake water. The
lake water is evaporated in large evaporation ponds, leaving sodium bicarbonate behind. The
59
experimental factory is designed for the production of 20,000 ton soda-ash per year. The actual
production has been around 10,000 ton per year, or even less. The amount of water that is
required to produce 10,000 ton of soda-ash is in the order of 0.9 million m3. This volume is
based on an average sodium bicarbonate concentration of 16.8 g l-1. Fluctuations between 10
and 27 g l-1 were reported for Lake Abyata (Legesse and Ayenew, 2006). Bastiaanssen (2006)
quantified the water use by the soda-ash plant at 1.4 million m3, using remote sensing
techniques. Although both calculation methods differ their results are in the same order of
magnitude.

[Link].2. Agricultural or Irrigation demand

Current irrigation development in the country takes two forms, traditional and modern. The
former usually comprise small to medium scale schemes (up to 200ha, and between 200 and
500ha, respectively) which are developed by the farmers using local skills with little or no
assistance from other organizations. Modern schemes are those studied, designed and
implemented using modern techniques, that is with the help of government or non-government
organisations in engineering, irrigation practices and cropping. These constitute most schemes
developed by Government and NGOs in the last three to four decades. State farms using
irrigation also fall in this category.

Ziway-Shalla Sub Basin lies in parts of two regional states, Oromia National Regional State and
Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State. The MoWIE focuses only on large
scale schemes, i.e schemes of the order of 2,000+ha. The Regional States concentrate on small
to medium scale schemes. Sector offices at regional level are accountable to their regional
councils and not to federal government ministries although they cooperate in areas of common
interest.

As well as Private sector involvement is increasing, generally using pumped irrigation,

particularly in areas where markets are in close proximity. The Meki-Ziway area which produces
substantial quantities of fruits and vegetables is worthy of mention in this regard. On the same
basis floriculture has started in a few places in the Ziway area using drip irrigation systems.

60
Closed irrigated production systems:-

The water use of closed irrigated production systems refers to the production ofroses. In
collaboration with the project Dutch-Ethiopian Horticulture partnership asurvey among (mainly
greenhouse) flower producers in Ethiopia was carried outduring the Fall of 2006 (Danse et al.,
2007). Based on data from 22 farms thatcultivate roses under drip irrigation the average water
use for irrigation was estimatedat approximately 18000 m3 ha-1 per year.

The minimum water use in the survey was 11500 m3 ha-1 per year and the maximumwater use
30300 m3 ha-1 per year. All closed production systems used drip irrigationsystems. The
observed variation in water use is the result of various factors, such asdifferences in climate
zone, the availability of recirculation systems or rainfall basins,the use of substrates or soil
cultivation, crop management, [Link] rose farm in the CRV uses approximately 10% more
water than the average ofthe surveyed farms. This water use does not yet include the water for
processing andother on-farm activities (cleaning, etc.), as the farms could not provide
reliableestimates for these quantities. At the closed production systems in the CRV part ofthis
water is drained and discharged to Lake Ziway. Also the rainfall on thegreenhouse canopies is
being discharged to Lake Ziway, being estimated atapproximately 6000 m3 ha-1 year-1.

On the basis of these data the gross annual water use for the production of roses is estimated at
20000 m3 ha-1. The net water use will be somewhat lower, because of the drainage water.
Various experts estimate that the actual evapotranspiration of roses under the conditions at
Ziway vary between 10000 and 13000 m3 ha-1 per year. Therefore, water use efficiency in the
greenhouses (roses) is about 50 to 65%. Total gross water use by closed irrigated production
systems is in the order of 2 million m3 per year by the end of 2006 (based on 100 ha). If this area
increases to 1000 ha, the annual water consumption will increase to an amount in the order of 15-
20 million m3.

Open-field irrigated production systems:-

It is noted that the factors that determine the irrigation water requirements vary throughout the
CRV. It is therefore difficult to accurately determine these quantities. In the CRV normally two
crops per year are grown on irrigated lands, however there is no well-defined growing season for
each of the cultivated crops (Scholten, 2007). On the basis of the above information the

61
averageannual irrigation water use can be estimated at 20.000 m3 ha-1 for open-field irrigated
production systems.

(Scholten, 2007) estimated the average irrigation water use at 10.000 m3 ha-1 per growing
season on the basis of the number of irrigations, inundation depth, and inundated area. Based on
a total irrigated area of 7500-10,000 ha the total water use by open-field irrigated production
systems is estimated at 150-200 million m3 per year. It is noted that not all this water is used. As
the irrigation efficiencies are in the order of 30% part of this water will recharge the groundwater
(and can, therefore, be reused), another part may indeed be lost through evaporation. The amount
of excess irrigation water and conveyance losses that eventually recharge the groundwater is
unknown.
Synthesis water users
From the previous sections it can be concluded that the open-field irrigated production systems
are by far the largest user of the surface water and groundwater resources. The present gross
abstraction is in the order of 200 million m3 of water. A portion of this water will, however,
return to the hydrological system as groundwater recharge or surface runoff. Also a portion of
the domestic water and water used by the closed irrigation systems will return to the hydrological
system as waste water or drainage water. The amount of drainage water from the closed
irrigation systems is however small, both in absolute and relative volumes (given the relatively
high irrigation efficiencies of 50-65%).

The quality of this water can, however, still have major impacts on the hydrological system, as
this water may be enriched with nutrients and pesticides or their residues, which can pose risks
on other water-related services. it can be concluded that the focus for (quantitative) water
resources management should be on the water abstractions by the open field irrigation systems.
For these systems the irrigation water use efficiencies are in the order of 20-40%. This means
that in the order of 50-100 million m3 of the abstracted water is evaporated (and thus leaves the
hydrological system). Part of the remaining water is also lost by evaporation (e.g. as a result of
conveyance losses) and transpiration by weeds and the natural vegetation. Unfortunately this
volume cannot be quantified with the available data.

62
 [Link].2.1. Current and planned irrigation of Ziway shalla Sub Basin
Estimates of current irrigation were derived from feasibility studies and design documents. The
future water demands for the proposed projects were assumed to be same as current and weighed
based on project situation (e.g., for irrigation projects water demand was weighed based on
future command area). Monthly gross irrigation water requirement was derived from the Rift
valley Lake Basin Master plan and feasibility study documents based on their availability.

Similarly, irrigation demand for each identified irrigation sites is calculated within WEAP based
on: crop coefficients, irrigation efficiency, irrigation area, rainfall and ETo. Monthly crop
coefficients have been specified, varying according to the cropping pattern identified at each of
the irrigation sites. Due to the lack of data for specific irrigation sites, generalised cropping
patterns have been used within the WEAP models that relate a typical cropping pattern to the
agro-ecological conditions of the site. Within the WEAP model, simplified agro-ecological zones
have been applied (i.e., altitude zones) based on the altitude of the irrigation site:

63
 Table 15: Summary of Monthly Water Requirements for Diversified cropping (l/s/ha)

Efficiency

Annual
May
Mar

Aug
Apr

Nov
Jun
Feb

Dec
Jan

Sep

Oct
Jul
Highland 5 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
s /Low 0 2 1 6 8 5 1 4 6 6 2 6
ETo
6 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1
5 7 4 8 2 4 0 0 8 1 2 2 9 2
Midlands 5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2
/ Medium 0 6 7 8 6 0 0 0 8 4 5 7 3 3
ETo
6 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
5 5 6 9 2 0 0 8 4 8 9 3 5 8
Lowlands 5 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.3
/ High 0 5 4 8 5 0 4 2 7 2 4 6 4 2
ETo
6 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2
5 7 4 2 4 0 8 8 9 0 8 5 8 5

64
 Table 16: Existing irrigation land and water demand
No Irrigated land (ha) Total area Required Required Total
(ha) water (l/s/h) water water
allocation required
(m3/ha) (Mm3)
1 Meki Irrigation 388 0.25 12087 4.7
2 Katar Irrigation 856 0.18 11487 10
3 Ziway Irrigation 2000 0.25 12691 25.4
4 Langano Irrigation 830 0.25 12691 10.5
5 Bulbula Irrigation 1095 0.25 12691 14
6 Share ethiopia 500 0.25 14600 7.3
Total 5669 71.9

From the above Table 16 Meki and Katar river about 4.7 Mm3/year and 9.8 Mm3/year are
diverted to irrigate 388 ha and 856 ha of land respectively. Presently direct pump age from Lake
Ziway is about 25 Mm3/year for irrigating about 2000 ha. Pumped water for irrigation from
Bulbula River is amounted to 13.9 Mm3/year for irrigating 1095 ha. Main tributary rivers of
Lake Langano are diverted for irrigation of 830 ha amounting to 10.5 Mm3/year. Crop types
grown vary from year to year: onion, vegetables and maize often take the largest share.

Table 17: Future irrigation plan and water demand

no Planned Irrigable land Total Required Demand site
3
(ha) water (Mm )
1 3800 22.3 Katar Dam
2 5000 39.4 Meki Dam
3 15,500 72.32 Ziway pressurized and
irrigation schem
4 5000 39.4 Ziwaykatar& diversion
5 750 9.5 Ejersa and Hombo River
(tributary of Langano)
6 4000 31.52 Three tributary river of shall
Total 34,050 214.44
Source: (RVLB Master plan, 2008, Abebe and Kassa, 2016)

65
The future irrigation water demand are calculated based on feasibility study projects and project
identification was done so that according to the planning of irrigation land additional 173
Mm3ofwaterwill abstract from most of Ziway shall sub Basin lakes and rivers.

Climate change and the expansion of irrigation land is the outstanding issue on future availability
of water resource in Ziway-shall sub basin; So that the lake level respond for climate change and
future irrigation expansion must be analyzed. There are a total of 49,250 ha of planned irrigation
on Ziway-shall sub basin the future time series shows a continual decline in lake levels in Lake
Ziway ending at a level well below the sill height of the Bulbula River.

[Link].2.2. Assessment of current water use trend

The most common forms of surface irrigation methods practiced in the sub-basin are flooding,
furrow and basin irrigation. These are less costly methods, but they are relatively inefficient.
Moreover, they cause water scarcity and environmental impacts to downstream Lakes. Hence,
they are not particularly desirable systems. Since the basin has extensive land potential but
relatively limited water resources, and as downstream impacts on lakes need to be minimized,
these types of irrigation application techniques need to be gradually converted to more water use
efficient methods, certainly for new developments, and also through rehabilitation and extension
of existing schemes.

Current assessment conducted by (RVLBA, 2016) on water resource situation in the sub-basin
reflects that there is high rate of water depletion by different factors. The major identified factor
of water depletion is increasing water abstraction in the sub-basin for drinking water
requirements of a growing population, industry, commerce, construction and irrigation. From the
beginning of eastern highlands of sub basin, water abstraction for irrigation has been increasing
on rivers, streams and the Lake Ziway itself.

According to the assessment result, there is intensive water abstraction from rivers like Katar,
Meki, Bulbula, and Lake Ziway by traditional as well as modern structures and direct pumping.
There is also ground water abstraction around the Lake through shallow and deep well. In
addition to major rivers mentioned here, there is also exhaustive water abstraction for irrigation
on small rivers found in the western and eastern escarpments in the sub-basin. To the West,
abstraction is high on rivers, streams and springs which are tributaries of Meki River while to the

66
East Rivers, streams and springs feeding Katar River are being highly abstracted for irrigation.
Many farmers and investors around the Lake Ziway uses water by furrow irrigation and they do
not estimate the amount of water used. According to water user inventory report of RVLBA,
5202 pumps with different size and discharge rate were counted within 5Km radius from Lake
Ziway.

The assessment report also indicates that there are so many commercial farms along Bulbula
River from its beginning at the outlet of Lake Ziway till it reaches Bulbula town and farmers
continue to abstract it until its end at Abijata Lake. Due to this, Flow of the river decreases
progressively until it joins Lake Abijata. For example, at the out let of Lake Ziway 5.24 m3/sec,
after 1.6 kilo meter distance from the outlet 2.3 m3/sec, at bridge in Bulbula town 0.599 m3/sec,
at the site between Bulbula town and Lake Abijata in Desta Abijata kebele 0.232 m3/sec and at
the inlet to Lake Abijata, its flow diminished to 0.21 m3/sec. These measurements were recorded
on the site by calculating the river flow discharge by floating method during the sub basin
assessment.

Water has been highly utilized for commercial agriculture and emmerging industries planting in
the central part of the sub-basin. Share Ethiopia floriculture farm daily abstracts water from
Ziway Lake, River Bulbula and Groundwater, Castle winery abstracts water from Bulbula River
by pumping and also it abstracts ground water by two deep wells in the compound for
commercial wine farm irrigation and processing throughout year. Abijata soda ash factory
evaporates much amount of water to extract trona for soda ash production. Various researchers
quantified the amount of water evaporated per year by soda ash factory from Lake Abijata. There
are also expanding commercial fattening farms in this central part of the sub-basin abstracting
huge amount of water from ground water for cattle consumption and abattoir.

[Link].3. Water Demand management options of Ziway-Shall Sub Basin.

Water demand management is: ‘The management of the total quantity of water abstracted from a
source of supply using measures to control waste and undue consumption. The traditional
approach of hydrologists and water resources engineers has been to focus on the supply side and
the assessment of available water resources.
There is a limitation on demand and demand managements to be in place on ZSsB these are:-

67
  Limited data on historic actual water use
 High levels of uncertainty in establishing efficiency of water use, with significant losses
likely in irrigation, urban and industrial water use
 Uncertainties in the basic economic, social and demographic assumptions required for
water demand forecasts.

Due to high irrigation land potential, near to central market the dominant water demand in
Ziway-Shall Sub Basin are irrigation or Agricultural demand which utilize large areas of land by
inefficient irrigation system(Flooding and Furrow irrigation system) which loss 50%-60% of
water demand by irrigation. So that if demand management system applied on irrigation
demands, it can maximize the irrigation land without any additional water abstraction and
increase the economic value of water resource in the sub Basin.

Most of the water user in Ziway-Shalla sub-basin are farmers, individual investor which rent the
farmer land by contract and small enterprises which has limited awareness and capacity on water
use efficiency so that the recommended demand management will be:-

 Awareness creation and capacity building on water use

 Establish water user Association (WRUA’s) to use common water pumping and
canal.
 Implementing water rationing specially during drought time
 Carrying out old irrigation system maintenance
 Develop water allocations to WRUA’s and in place legal system of abstraction.
 Promoting water fees
 Shifting water use trend from Flooding and Furrow irrigation system to sprinkler/drip
irrigation systems by developing the capacity of WRUA’s

Here, any information about water demand and related issues are discussed from basin’s Master
plan study document and other various litratures including the old and outdated ones. Rift Valley
Lakes Basin Authority is also conducting the study of water demand of the sub basin by water
allocatin plan project. At the end of this study, exact figure of current as well as projected
domestic, industry, livestock, municipal, environmental, commercial, institutional, recreational

68
and tourism demand of water in the sub basin will be indicated in this strategic basin plan
document.

4.1.2. Assessment of water quality in the basin (trends and current)

[Link]. Lakes Water Quality Status
Lake Ziway:-

Lake Ziway is one of the rift valley fresh water lakes. The Lake have long been used as source
of town’s water supply, small scale irrigation, bathing, animal watering, domestic water use,
fishery and eco-tourism.

According to the RVLB Master Plan Study (2008), the water quality of Lake Ziway is fresh and
very good that can meet the quality requirements set for most of water uses such as drinking,
irrigation(commercial farming), bathing and animal watering quality standards. Lake Ziway is
slightly alkaline, fresh and characterized by low concentrations of dissolved solids, salinity (EC),
and main cations and anions such as sodium, potassium, fluoride and chloride concentrations are
all very low. This could be attributed to dilution with high inflow of freshwater rivers (Katar
River and Meki River) which feed the lake and periodic flushing out through the Bulbula River.
The seasonal variation in water quality is not significant, and most of the parameters have
changed by less than 10%. Most of the parameters have decreased slightly, presumably due to
dilution from the freshwater runoff. The Ethiopian guidelines for Surface Water Quality
Standards require a minimum of 4mg/l of Dissolved Oxygen to sustain coarse fish and 50% of
water samples to be equal or greater than 7mg/l, so DO (Dissolved oxygen) concentrations of
about 6mg/l are sufficient to sustain aquatic life including fish. This is possibly due to water
turbulence from runoff and wind-induced waves. The Master Plan Study showed that the lake is
eutrophic, indicating enrichment of nutrients, productive in terms of aquatic animal and plant
life.

But recently, the water quality of Lake Ziway has been threatened and becoming less suitable for
the variety of purposes being used. Large-scale irrigation projects have decreased the volume
of the lake while slightly increasing its salinity (Kloos & Legesse, 2010). The lake’s extensive
use for irrigation, which began in the 1970s (Ayenew & Legesse, 2007), can be linked to the
industrial flower farms in the surrounding area.

69
The intensive use of agro-chemicals in modern floriculture may have detrimental effects on
human health, water quality and the entire environment. Several studies indicated that the most
visible impact of floriculture on the environment comes from the massive use of toxic chemicals
including fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, insecticides, nematocides, soil fumigants as well as
plant growth regulators. Floriculture industries located at the shore of Lake Ziway have been
putting pressure on the water quality of the lake through discharging effluents containing
chemicals directly in to the water. Effluents from the farm are causing algal blooms around the
outlet of the farm which is driven by excessive nitrate and phosphate residues. The nearby
growing town of Ziway also contributes urban wastes via runoff. The long-term effect of all
these on water quality and on food webs is complex.

Other pollution indicator evidence can be obtained from Ziway Water Supply Office. Before the
year 2012, the office abstracts water from Lake Ziway for treatment at a water treatment works
(WTW) by the lakeside and distribution in the town for drinking water. The treatment comprises
aeration, flocculation, rapid sand filtration and chlorination. The aeration is undertaken to
improve the taste and odour of treated water, which is affected by the high load of organic matter
(algae) in the water. Staff at the WTW analyse and record the quality of the raw and treated
water for a small range of parameters including pH, alkalinity, hardness and turbidity. Since
currently Lake Ziway is highly polluted, it is not used for drinking purpose and now water
supply is obtained from groundwater.

Lake Abijata:-
The water in Lake Abijata has a pH of around 10. Being the terminal lake, Lake Abiyata is
subject to evaporative conditions, resulting in increased salinity and increased alkalinity. The
increase of alkalinity is a result of the disequilibrium between bicarbonate and earth-alkali
elements. Hot springs that discharge directly or indirectly into the lake also contribute to the
elevated salinity and alkalinity. The salinity ranges between 12000 and 24000 mg/1. However,
the salinity may have increased further since 1994 (comparison: sea water has a salinity of
approximately 35000 mg l-1) [Kebede E., et al,1999]

Lake Abijata is terminal lake and characterized by very high concentration of nutrients. Abiyata
and shalla lakes are highly saline-alkaline-sodic waters and contain high concentrations of
dissolved solids and registered high value for TDS, EC, HCO3, Chloride, Fluoride and Sodium

70
beyond water quality standards for human consumption, watering cattle and irrigation. The DO
concentration in both lakes is very low to sustain aquatic life. Anoxic conditions (absence of
oxygen) can develop during low water levels and lack of mixing, which in turn leads to fish
killing. Seasonal variations in water quality are minimal, which could be due to the lack of
overflow from Lake Ziway via the Bulbula River.

The soda ash factory on Lake Abijata, sites where industry is located in the sub basin. The Soda
Ash factory could potentially affect water quality of Lake Abijata in two ways, through
excessive abstraction of water and through the return flow of highly mineralized wastewaters.

The flow reductions of Bulbula and Horakalo rivers have caused significant reduction in the
amount of Lake Abijata and this condition could aggravate quality problems. The major reason
for discharge reduction is due to water consumption for small –scale irrigation and decline of the
lake level of Ziway.

Table 18: Chemical composition and changing trends of the water quality
parameters of Lakes Ziway and Abijata
Parameter Unit Lake Lake General trend over the last
Ziway Abiyata 50 years
Na + meq/l 2.4. 249 Stable
K+ “ 0.34 7.5 Stable
Ca ++ “ 0.60 <0.1 Fluctuates
Mg ++ “ 0.70 < 0.4 Fluctuates
Cl- “ 0.38 71 Fluctuates
SO4 -2 “ 0.40 19.5 Stable
Total cations “ 4.04 256 Fluctuates
Total anions “ 4.31 278 Increase then decrease

Conductivity µS/cm) 370-410 22 900- Increase then decrease

28300
Alkalinity meq/l 3.6 325 Fluctuates (Abijata)
SiO2 meq/l 46 114 Fluctuates (Abijata)
Phosphate mg/l 219-282 3200 Stable
(SRP)
Nitrate µg/l 3.9 8.1 Increasing trend

71
 pH - 8.9 10.3 Increasing trend
Salinity µg/l 0.40 18.2 (26.4) Increasing in Ziway and
Stable for Abjata
Chl A µg/l 91 60 Increasing in Abijata?
Decreasing in Lake Ziway?

Source:- (Petra Spliethoff, etal. 2009)

Lake Shalla:-
Lake Shalla is a separate terminal lake and one of the deepest lake(266m) in the sub-basin.
Although it is isolated from the other lakes at the present time it has probably received an inflow
in the past from lake Abijata at times when the water level in lake Abijata was high (Wood et.
al.,1978). The major inflow comes from precipitation, surface run off through rivers Dijo and
Awade, and hot springs around the shore. It has an average annual surface inflow of 535 Mm3
and the only loss of water from the lake is through evaporation accounting to an average yearly
total of 781 MCM. The stable lake level irrespective of the difference of the input and loss of
water from the lake dictates the contribution of large amount of groundwater inflow (Tenalem
Ayenew, 1998).

Lake Shalla is dominated by the countless hot springs, which pour boiling water into the lake.
The lake water is extremely saline and alkaline because of a prolonged stability and evaporation
(Tudorancea et. al., 1989). According to Di Bois (1976) the lake has a total soda ash reserve
potential of 740 million tones but Halcrow (1992) reported the reserve potential of soda ash to be
375 million tones.

Lake Lanagano:-

Langano is alkaline with pH of about 9 and the water is characterized by high concentrations of
TDS, EC, fluoride, chloride and sodium. The fluoride concentrations of 8 to 9 mg/l exceed the
WHO drinking water quality guideline values of 1.5 mg/l. The sodium concentrations of 390-405
mg/l slightly exceed the Ethiopian standards of 358 mg/l ( for substances that may give rise to
complaints from consumers). The DO concentrations at the surface are sufficient to support
aquatic life. The lake also showed spatial water quality variation from the northern part of the

72
lake containing higher concentrations of chemicals compared with the southern part which show
evidence of fresh water quality. This could be due to the effect of incoming water from hot
springs which are located around the northern shore, while the main tributaries flowing into the
lake and the outflow via the Horakello River are located in the southern part of the lake. This
may result in dilution and freshening of water in the southern part of Lake Lanagano.

Lake Langano is recognized as one of the best tourism site in the RVLB for domestic and
international tourists. The attractions include the sandy beach, swimming, boating, fishing, bird
watching and wind surfing. The hot springs and forests along the beach of Lake Langano are
complimentary attractions. The lake itself is the main attraction, as it is close enough to Addis
Ababa for weekend tourism and it is possible to swim in as it is one of the few bilharzia free
lakes. Continuing environmental degradation around the lake is a major concern for the
sustainability of the tourist developments. The loss of acacia trees from the area is one major
factor to increase runoff into the lake and reducing its tourism attraction.

Lake Chitu:-

Lake Chitu is a circular small crater lake located southwest of Lake Shala. It is themost saline
lake in the basin. It is a highly saline lake having a total reserve potentialof 1.2 million tones of
soda ash (Di Bois, 1976). As most of the crater lakes the mainsource of inflow is groundwater
and small surface run off and precipitation in thecatchment. The lake is also fed by a number of
low discharge hot-springs.
Table 19: Chemical Composition of Water in the Lakes of Ziway-shalla sub
basin
Chemical Parameters
Langano
Ziway

Abijata

Shalla

Shalla

Spring
Hot

pH 8.31 8.09 10.03 9.92 8.82

Total Dissolve Solids, mg/l 238 887 25,100 19,975 2,915

Conductivity, µs/cm 498 1,815 51,950 41,300 5,995
Total Alkalinity as CaCO3, mg/l 188 560 13,900 11,000 1,940
Bicarbonate as HCO3, mg/l 222 634.4 11,078 9,272 2,140
Carbonate as CO3, mg/l 7.2 Nil 5,784 4,080 223.2
Total Hardness as CaCO3, mg/l 76 26 10 18 4

73
Chemical Parameters

Langano
Ziway

Abijata

Shalla

Shalla

Spring
Hot
Calcium as Ca, mg/l 16.8 5.6 3.2 7.2 0.8
Magnesium as Mg, mg/l 8.26 0.97 0.49 Nil 0.49
Ammonia as NH4, mg/l Nil 0.119 0.343 0.069 0.401
Nitrite as NO2, mg/l Nil 0.0736 Nil Nil Nil
Nitrate as NO3, mg/l 0.32 1.6 1.5 Nil Nil
Phosphate as PO4, mg/l 0.452 0.037 Nil 0.012 1.172
Sulphate as SO4, mg/l 7.0 6.7 57 Nil Nil
Fluoride as F, mg/l 3.2 13.1 228 285 35.5
Chloride as Cl, mg/l 24 162 3,530 3,098 467
Iron as Fe, mg/l 0.5 0.341 0.043 0.1 0.062
Manganese as Mn, mg/l 0.043 0.005 0.002 0.039 0.009
Potassium as K, mg/l 12.4 23 16.9 288.5 66.2
Sodium as Na, mg/l 66.5 338 11,251 8,800 1283
Silica as SiO2, mg/l 27.3 28.1 1.9 22.1 -
Source: (AAWSA water quality database, 2004 cited in Master plan)

The data show that saline lakes (Abijata and Shalla) contain higher concentrations of major ions
than the freshwater Lake Ziway. All the lakes except Lake Ziway are unsuitable for domestic
water use and irrigation purposes, and are currently used for fishery and recreation.

Table 20: Selected water quality parameters of the lakes, ( RVLB Master plan
study, 2007)

Lake Sampling Physico-Chemical Parameters

time
pH TDS EC DO Ca+2 HCO3 Cl- F- Na+
Units - mg/l µS/cm mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
Ziway April 8.68 220 460 6.0 22.4 203 12.5 1.51 63.5
August 8.05 212 442 6.7 20.8 185 12.0 1.62 59
Variation 3.6 3.9 11.7 7.2 8.9 4 5.3 7.1
(%)
Langano April 8.89 923 1932 6.7 4.8 520 182 9.9 405

74
 Lake Sampling Physico-Chemical Parameters
time
pH TDS EC DO Ca+2 HCO3 Cl- F- Na+
Units - mg/l µS/cm mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
August 9.07 906 1839 6.8 4.8 470 187 8.7 390
Variation 1.84 4.8 0 0 9.6 2.8 12 3.7
(%)
Abjata April 10.05 41.52 83.58 2.9 3.2 25,900 10,778 370 12,940
August 10.00 41.60 84.25 2.3 4.0 26,000 10,900 370 13,100
Shala April 9.77 23.16 48.15 2.8 Nil 5,675 3,250 156 6,000
August 9.83 21.30 44.00 2.7 6.4 11,000 6,300 220 6,950
Source: - RVLB Master plan study (2008)

 Fluoride Concentration in water

Both human-induced and natural factors affect water quality in the area. Most of the rocky
terrain in the CRV is of volcanic origin, leading to fluoride concentrations in groundwater
sources of up to 200 mg/l in lower regions (Ayenew, 2008). Fluoride is the principal
groundwater quality problem in the [Link] Concentrations of fluoride (above 1.5 mg/l in
drinking water can cause dental and skeletal fluorosis. These clinical conditions are commonly
encountered in the Rift Valley. The complications have no cure. With dental fluorosis, the teeth
have brown discoloration. Moreover, the water used for irrigation shows high levels of alkalinity
and sodium concentrations that damage agricultural land (Chernet,Travi, & Valles, 2001).
Furthermore, anthropogenic contaminants have been found in thebasin.

14
12
Frequency

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 - 1.0

10.0
1.0 -

1.5 -

2.0 -

2.5 -

3.0 -

5.0 -

7.0 -
1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

5.0

7.0

Fluoride, mg/ltr

75
 Figure 5Fluoride Distribution Around Lake Ziway
Source:- RVLB Master plan study,(2007)

[Link]. Rivers water quality status in Ziway Catchments

The Meki and Katar Rivers that originate in the Guraghe and Arsi highlands, respectively, are
the main tributaries to Lake Ziway. The Meki River has slightly higher concentration of
suspended solids, cations, anions, ammonia and TDS. This could be due to economic activities,
such as irrigation and sand mining, taking place along the Meki River. People were mining sand
on the upstream and irrigation return water, which dissolves minerals in the soil, usually
increases the salinity of river water from where it was abstracted. The ammonia content of the
Meki River was found to be 1.33 mg/l, which indicates the influence of waste discharge into the
river at Meki town.

The results of the chemical analysis of major elements in the Meki and Katar rivers show that the
dominant cations are sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. The analysis also indicates
that the dominant anion is bicarbonate followed by sulphate for the Meki River and chloride for
Katar River. Strong seasonal variations are indicated by the total suspended solids (TSS), which
are an order of magnitude higher in the wet season, and lower salinity and mineralisation which
may be due to increased runoff. The major ionic content of the tributaries to Lakes Ziway is
shown below.

Table 21: Major Cation and Anion Concentration of Tributaries to Lake Ziway

ParametersUnit- (mg/l) Meki Katar

Apr August April August
il
TDS 142 43 94 39
EC (µS/cm) 294 90.4 197 83.3
TSS 530 3600 94 312
+
Na 29 15 16 5.2
K+ 10. 5.9 5.1 3.5
1
Ca++ 25. 4.8 15.2 8.0
6
Mg++ 6.8 0.486 4.86 1.944

76
 04
HCO3- 131 29.28 100.04 12.2
.76
Cl - 8.5 2.0 1.5 2.5
SO42- 18. 2.4 1.27 3.04
62
SAR 1.3 1.74 0.92 0.43
Source: RVLB Master plan study (2008)

4.2.3 Water Quality and Environmental flows of Rivers

Increased flows in rivers dilute effluents, reducing the impacts on downstream users and the
environment. Faster flowing Rivers may limit algal blooms and increase re oxygenation, whereas
slower flowing rivers may increase the assimilation of pollutants through absorption and
sedimentation. Reduced inflows into Lakes promote \intrusion and may alter the redox potential,
pH and chemistry of bottom sediments, causing a variety of water quality and environmental
problems.

Lake Abijata has major tributary rivers, called Bulbula and Horakallo. The rivers outflow from
Lake Ziway and Langano that are situated on the upper stream respectively. The lower stream of
the water is the receiver of the out flow. Unfortunately, these days, the inflow from the rivers to
Lake Abijata has stopped and alarmingly drying even in the major seasons of the year. As a
result not only the quality of the lake water is compromised but also the death of Lake is close to
becoming a reality.

4.2.4 Ground Water quality status

The quality of groundwater depends on the composition of the recharge water, the interactions
between the water and the soil, soil-gas and rocks with which it comes into contact in the
unsaturated zone, and the residence time and reactions that take place within the aquifer.
Therefore, considerable variation can be found, even in the same general area, especially where
rocks of different compositions and solubility occur. The principal processes influencing water
quality in aquifers are physical (dispersion/dilution, filtration and gas movement), geochemical

77
(complexation, acid-base reactions, oxidation-reduction, precipitation-solution, and adsorption
desorption) and biochemical (microbial respiration and decay, cell synthesis).

Groundwater quality is influenced by the effects of human activities which cause pollution at
the land surface because most groundwater originates by recharge of rainwater infiltrating
from the surface. The rainwater itself may also have an increased acidity due to human
activity(UNEP/WHO, 1996).The type and concentration of dissolved substances present in
groundwater determines its usefulness for various purposes. It is always necessary to determine
the composition of groundwater before it can be used for any purpose.

Table 22: Representative Groundwater Chemistries in ziway- shalla basin (mg/l)

Woreda Chemical and physical parameters
Community

P T T C Fe M S N F-
source
Name

0
H D l- n O4 O3 1
-2 -1
C S
Adami Shekla B 7. 2 2 0. 0.0 0.0 13 Ni 5.
Tulu Fabrika H 6 4. 4 0 2 08 l 8
3 4 3 1
Adami Adami B 8. 2 3 0. 0.3 Ni Ni 9.6 8.
Tulu Tulu Water H 3 7 5 0 l l 8 4
Supply 9 0 2
Dugda Abosa B 8. 2 5 N 0.0 0.3 Ni 34. 4.
H 6 6. 3 il 2 l 76 6
1 6 6
ArsiNege Anano B 8. 2 4 N 0.0 Ni Ni 25. 1
le H 6 6. 1 il 3 l l 17 1.
7 5 1
Arsi Sayo Maja B 6. 1 5 0. Ni Ni 12 11. 3.
Negele H 5 7. 8 0 l l 62 4
4 8 1
Arsi Wayu Dara B 7. 1 1.
Negele H 2 3. 8
2 5 5
Source: (Oromia Regional State Water Quality Database cited in,RVLB Master plan ,2008)

78
 [Link]. The Impact of improper irrigation on Water quality
In Ziway-shalla sub- basin although there is increasing consensus in the development of (mostly
small-scale) open-field irrigation and it is the principal cause for reduced water quality. Given
the fragile hydrological and ecological system further expansion of irrigation may lead to the
salinization of Lake Ziway, which is the largest fresh water resource in the area and a principal
drinking water resource for humans and livestock.

Aside from problems related to decreasing water level, over-irrigation started to induce
Stalinization of farmlands. Excess irrigation and groundwater level rise result in evaporation of
water in the top soil and precipitation of salts on the soil surface. The dissolved salts left behind
on soil surface not only severely reduce crop growth but also impact the water quality of the
lakes when this soil is leached by occasional surface runoff. The impact of the increased
Stalinization of the farmland surrounding lake Ziway is still being studied. Simultaneously the
application of agrochemicals and fertilizers has increased and impacted the water and soil
chemistry of the nearby areas (Hailu et al., 1996; Halcrow, 1989; Tessema, 1998; Ayenew,
2004). Recently few cases of the inflow of pesticides were reported.

[Link].The relationship of watershed, water quantity and quality

The rift valley Lakes like Ziway has been subjected to water quality and quantity
deterioration,overfishing and sedimentation problems. The degradations of land and water
resourcesin its watershed are also critical problems. The increase in human population
andlivestock, and the subsequent changes in land use and land cover (LULC) patterns andwater
demand for various uses have been increasing in Lake Ziway-shalla watersheds. These changes
have significant influences on the hydrologicalprocesses of Lake Ziway and other water bodies
found in the sub basin.

The quality of the lake water largely depends on the quality and quantity of the inflowing water
as the retention time of the water is rather short. With the clearing of the forests in the in
watershed, silt loads of the feeder Rivers (Meki and Katar) and the runoff water is increasing,
impacting on the immunological system and hydrological conditions of the lake. The high
sediment loads cause turbidity of water and this affecting fish breathing and growth, as turbidity
hampers light penetration and therefore plankton production and bottom life.

79
Evidence from other lakes in Ethiopia show that the longer term impact of human induced
changes like deforestation increases the risk of flooding and even complete degradation of the
lake like in the case of Haramaya. Regular monitoring of the lake limnology is needed in order to
understand long term trends in water quality in Lake Ziway and to appraise whether the in- and
outflow in this shallow lake ( the environmental flow ) is still sufficiently high to leave the lake
with a water quality almost identical to its main inflows, the rivers Meki and Ketar.

Sustainable land and water management will help to mitigate the issues of water pollution,
unbalanced water use and deforestation that otherwise will lead to resource conflicts that may
undermine socio-economic sustainability. Therefore, Actions should be taken to protect the fresh
water Lake and its rivers. Environmental audit and waste water management measures will also
needs to be put into action for controlling discharge. To minimize the direct discharge of
fertilizer rich effluents in to the lake, some pollution prevention measures should also be put in
place to reduce the non point source pollution

The highlands of the rift valley lakes basin have considerable potential to rehabilitate the
vegetation cover, where the highlands are the origin of most rivers and streams feeding the main
water courses. The potential of the highlands to restore the water resources would be a good
opportunity to improve both the quantity and quality condition of the water resource and
agricultural base of the rift valley. Implementing appropriate watershed management and forestry
development could help to improve degraded areas and steeply slopes.

[Link]. Current situation of the Water quality in Ziway-shalla sub Basin

[Link].1. Major water pollution contributing sources in Ziway Shalla sub-basin

Surface and ground water resources are an essential element particularly in the development of
water supply for urban and rural domestic use, irrigated agriculture, recreation, flower culture
and industries in Ziway shalla sub basin. However, Water quality damage from point and diffuse
sources is an issue of concern in the sub basin due to the diverse polluting activities and its socio-
economic and ecological significances.

Pollution source to affect water resource and the environment have originated from uncontrolled
release of wastes from domestic, industrial and agricultural facilities. The level of pollution

80
would be directly related to the volume and type of chemical constituent of the effluent as well
as on the receiving water resource and environment characteristics.

The main sources of environmental pollution in Ziway-Shalla sub basin to date are domestic
waste water, Agricultural waste, industrial wastewater and solid waste disposal. The towns
(Ziway, Meki, Asella, Arsi-Negele and Shashemene ) in the present in the sub basin don’t have
domestic wastewater treatment plant, and urban domestic wastewater is discharged directly to
receiving waters (rivers and Lakes), where it pollutes the water and presents an environmental
health risk to the user communities.

The level of industrial development in the sub- basin is at infant stage, except a handful
operating industries that were established around the lakes area by taking the opportunity of
access, labour, water and other favourable condition. Some of these industries, however, are
result in pollution of water resources. Sher Ethiopia floriculture industry and other small scale
irrigation users nearby the Lake are the major pollution source to Ziway Lake. The factory had
waste water treatment plants but discharge its effluent without proper treatment since there exist
no frequent monitoring and inspection by the regulatory body. The following points could give
clear justification for this:-

- .In an aquatic environment, we know that EC is an important and simple indicator to

characterize the pollution status of surface waters, sudden increase in conductivity can
indicate the presence of more dissolved ions in the water and this may have an impact on
aquatic life and water quality. A study conducted by Berhan M. Teklu etal. (2016) have
showed that a higher EC values (1740 μS/cm) at sampling points near the floriculture area
(main liquid waste outlet). In comparison with WHO/Ethiopian standard (Maximum
permissible limit (MPL,) for EC =1000 μS/cm. while the result is greater.

- Also detection for the presence of different types of pesticides in water samples (of Lake
Ziway, Meki and Ketar and Bulula rivers) was checked at different sampling locations.
Pesticides were detected in all detection sites ( Meki and Ketar rivers, Kontola and Gura ,
floriculture, water supply treatment plant, Bulbula). However, the floriculture area had the
highest total number of detections of pesticides (e,g, Spiroxamine,.Methomyl,
Chlofentezin).The environmental impact from the expansion of large-scale flower farms
around Lake Ziway area is probably a higher risk it is associated with the frequent use of this

81
 pesticides for fungal disease control. Therefore, Commercial horticultural farms that produce
vegetables and cut flowers need to develop or improve the use of mechanical and biological
pest management techniques to reduce the use of synthetic chemicals. Prevention to
pollution risks requires implementation of constant interventions in liquid waste management
and regular follow up by the regulatory bodies.

The area around Lake Ziway in Ethiopia is going through a major agricultural transformation
with both small scale farmers and large horticultural companies using pesticides and fertilizers at
an increased [Link] land use records of the area for the year 2006 indicate that the area of
irrigated agriculture in the Lake Ziway catchment has increased up to 5000 ha since 1973.

The impact of new irrigation schemes on Lake Ziway and its tributary rivers is very high.
Currently this mostly attributed to a decrease in water levels. There is severe impact on the
ecosystems that depends on the lake and the rivers. The reduced outflow could result in
inadequate flushing and not sufficient to maintain the salt balance in the lake. A series threat is
that further decrease in the amount of the water and level of the lake may turn,the fresh Lake
Ziway, into terminal lake (similar to Lake Abijata). Salinity of Lake Ziway will obviously have
critical problems for all development investments that are rely on fresh water and for the local
communities who satisfy their water demand for domestic and livestock watering.

82
 Table 23: Profiles of main industries expected to be source of water pollution in the sub-basin

No. Name of industtry Location Area of Type of Source of Amount of Means of Receiving Expected potential
Land (ha) Investment water for use discharge treatment impacts
Water
body
1 Sher Ethiopia flower Adami 750 Floricultu Lake 6825 Construc Lake Surface and
farm tullu re ziway liters per ted ziway ground water
productio day wetland pollution
J/ komb + ground
n + ditch
water
2 Castle winery 469.54 Winery Bulbula 10,000m³ Stabiliz ground water
and irrigation “ productio river /y ation pollution
PLC n pond
3 Elfora agro Dugda 930 Horticultu Lake Use of Lake Surface and
industry re Ziway+riv organic Ziway( ground water
Not
productio er katar + agro dischar pollution
measured
n river Meki chemical ge
+ s, through
groundwa seepage
Biologic
ter
al pest
mgt
4 Frogrofico Boran Adami 75 Integrated ground 2400M³ Treatme reused ground water
Foods PLC tullu J/ meat water / day nt plant for pollution at treat
komb processin +use of cleanin ment place
g lagoons g
or ponds purpose
5 Lasal Agro Dugda 30 Fruit and Lake Not Septic Lake Surface and
processing hectar vegetable Ziway measured tank Ziway ground water
processin +ground pollution
g water
6 BRAAM Ziway 22 Floricultu Lake Not wetland Lake Surface and
Flowers Plc town re and Ziway measured Ziway ground water

83
 Horticultu pollution
re
productio
n
7 Ziway Rose Plc Ziway 42 Floricultu Lake Not wetland Lake Surface and
town re Ziway measured Ziway ground water
productio pollution
n
9 Abiyata soda Ash Arsi - Soda ash Lake 150m3/to - Lake return flow of
factory Negele extraction Abiyata n/y Abiyata highly
ofwater mineralized
evaporat waste waters
ed

Source:(RVLBA Assessment Report, 2016)

84
 [Link]. Impact of pesticide use on the sub basin water quality:-

The area around Lake Ziway is going through a major agricultural transformation with both
small scale farmers and large horticultural companies using pesticides and fertilizers at an
increased [Link] use /misuse/ of pesticides for pest control resulting in poor quality
products, public health problems and environmental damage. According toTibebu Habtewold
(unpublished report) ,87 % of the farmers did not receive any training/ technical support on how
to use and handle pesticides . Most farmers (74 %) mix their pesticides close to a river, canal or
community water sources and they disposed off empty pesticide containers by throwing them
in the field (97%), irrigation canals or rivers (82 %) .

Farmers and companies in the area use pesticides and chemical fertilizers, which may affect the
water quality of the lake and the surrounding surface waters through the release of some trace
elements and residues from the agricultural fields into the surface waters. A study done by
Berhan M. Teklu etal. (2016) have showed that the dynamics of pesticide concentrations and
physicochemical parameters of the Lake for the years from 2009 to 2015. The assessment
indicated that the use of a higher risk fungicide spiroxamine( i. e . ETR=317, ETR=38 and
ETR=22) which poses a high chronic risk to humans and aquatic organisms. Also use of
endosulfan in the area of the Meki and Ketar rivers (ETR=2.90 and 0.14 μg/L measured
concentration) and deltamethrin (of ETR =4.1 and its 0.01 μg/L measured concentration) were
found in the possible risk [Link] sources of these pesticides are open agricultural fields
from small holder irrigations (at kontola and gura site,meki and katar rivers site, Bulbula site)
and Green houses (floriculture waste out let site).

85
 Figure 6numbers of ditection over the years of sampling at different sampling
locations
Source: Jansen and Harmsen, 2011

Table 24: Concentration and level of risks of pesticide use to water bodies in the
sub-basin
R. Types of Location Year of Maximum Level of risk to the aquatic
No pesticides detection concentration environment
(detection site)
(μg/L) (ETR < 1 is low risk, ETR >1:
possible risk; and ETR >10:
high risk)
Spiroxami kontola and 2014 57 high risk (ETR=317)
1
ne gura

Bulbula River 2014 6.9 high risk (ETR=38)

Near Sher 2009 4.0 high risk (ETR=22)

floriculture
possible risk (ETR=2.9)
2 Endosulfan kontola and gura 2014 0.14
possible risk (ETR=2.1)
Around water 2014 0.10
(are frequently
supply treatment
used on
vegetables)
plant

possible risk (ETR=4.1)

3 Deltamethrin Around water 2014 0.01
supply treatment
plant

Source: -Berhan M. Teklu etal, (2016) * ETR=refers to exposure toxicity ratio

4.1.3. Catchment /watershed situation assessment

[Link]. Assessment of land use land cover
The central plains around Lakes Shalla, Langano and Abijata are characterised by open
woodland and wooded grassland with intensive maize cultivation to the south and west. On the
western edge of the area the moderately intensive barley cultivation passes into intensive mixed
upland (RVLB Master Plan, 2008).

The dominant land use system in the sub-basin is rainfed agriculture of mainly annual and
perennial crops with some irrigated farms around Lake Ziway, Meki River and some area in the

86
central parts of sub watershed (Master plan, WesternZiway feasibility study, volume 1 main
report).
Table 25: Major land use land cover of Ziway Shalla sub basin
LULC AREA CN USLE_L PREC mm SURQ mm GWQ mm ET mm NO3Kgh
Km2 S

Annual crop 6,063.23 86.69 1.06 1,7067 753.05 864.03 106.01 1.94
land
wood land 1,886.16 90.5 1.23 1,770.67 1,083.67 548.35 107.2 6.37

Sparse forest 237.79 87 0.37 1,770.67 1,039.36 594.06 102.79 3.98

Bare land 82.65 86.92 0.26 1,770.67 1,024.63 607.82 103.11 1.65
Salt pan 3.09 87 1.5 1,770.67 779.43 842.05 102.46 1.1
Closed grass 142.05 84 0.27 1,770.67 551.32 1,054.58 106.19 0.03
land
Settlement 550.19 86.69 2.21 1,770.67 890.48 732.13 107.82 0.22
perennial crop 206.51 86.98 6.64 1,770.67 978.38 653.83 105.87 4.3
land
Open grass land 346.91 83.61 3.16 1,770.67 653.47 964.05 103.33 3.2

Water body 554.71 92 0.4 1,770.67 0 0 283.47 0

Wetland 124.33 83.32 1.38 1,770.67 679.06 941.74 101.76 1.85
Source: Model output
It is checked out that the summation of land use areas obtained as model output is 10,197.62Km2
and this shows difference from the total known area of Ziway Shalla sub basin which is
14,477km2. Possible reason for this might be the gap in feeding input data of the whole sub basin
into the model. It will be solved with updating the sub basin’s land use land cover map next and
incorporated in this sub basin plan document.

Land use in Ziway shalla sub basin shows that large amount of the land is occupied by
agriculture, water body and settlement. In this sub basin the resource utilization trend is not wise
because of this, the landis becoming moisture stress and expand the bare lands in dramatic way.

Land use is dominated by cultivation which occupies 53% of the area with intensive cultivation
(often with open woodland and on-farm tree plantations) comprising 42% and moderate
cultivation (in association with grassland, woodland and bare eroded land) comprising 11%.
Shrub land occurs in the west and north covering some 25%, often in association with remnant

87
forests which occupy only 1%. Plantation forests cover 3%, grassland 4%, marshland 3%, and
bare eroded land with scattered vegetation 9%. Water bodies make up 1% of the sub-basin as
shown in the table below (Western Ziway feasibility study).

Figure 7land use map of Ziway-Shalla sub-basin

Source: (RVLBA Master plan, 2009)

The major land cover is cultivation with some areas of open and closed shrub land of dominantly
acacia species and very small area of natural and plantation forest on the western hills and
mountains of the sub basin. There are also urban areas made up of residential, commercial and
industrial buildings with bare ground and roads (Master plan, Western Ziway feasibility study,
volume 1 main report).

Based on information gathered through discussions, observations, and referring to the

limited number of published documents obtained, significant changes have occurred over
the past few decades in the sub-basin. There has been a significant expansion of irrigated
agriculture and floriculture in the sub-basin. The changes are expected to continue in the

88
foreseeable futureand further impact the delicate balance of resource utilization in the areas
surrounding Lake Ziway.

Based on observations made during the field assessment, significant expansions are
underway in the local floriculture activities primarily by Sher Ethiopia. There are huge parcels
of land on the way to Bulbula fenced off for the continued expansion of Sher Ethiopia.
Information obtained from media (Addis Fortune, 2008) indicates that Sher now has 500
hectares of land in Ethiopia, half of which has been developed into green houses.

Castel winery is a major water user with possible expansions of the vineyard and as a result
of future expansions the landuse is expected to be changed in the
coming years. Additional information on the landuse planning for the watershed for a
planning period of the next three decades would be necessary to understand changes in the
hydrologic processes that govern recharge.

89
 Figure 8land cover map of Ziway-Shalla sub-basin
Source: RVLB Master plan, 2008
Since there is fast rate expansion of agricultural and other development activities in the sub
basin, the above map may not represent current situation of land cover in the sub basin.
Therefore, recent land cover map indicating the real situation of the sub basin is on the process of
preparation and it will incorporated in this sub basin plan document in progress.

[Link] .Assessment of soil type and distribution

[Link].1. Soil Physical Characteristics

It is very important to determine the soil physical properties which are important such as texture,
depth, drainage, structure and consistency. Most of the soils in the sub-basin are medium and fine
textured, with coarse textured soils occurring in the lower parts of the sub-basin near Lake Ziway. In
terms of structure, Weakly to moderately developed sub-angular blocky structure is dominant in the soils
of the sub-basin with some area of strong angular blocky structure in the middle of the sub basin but on
some layers of soils in the western and northern part of the sub-basin and around the Lake are massive.

Most soils of the sub-basin are moderately deep to very deep with few area of shallow and very
shallow soil depth on leptosols of some hills and mountainous areas. Thus, the effective soil
depth is generally not a major limitation in agricultural development in the sub basin except for
Leptosols and some Cambisols and Andosols that are inhibited by a gravely layer and pumice at

90
a shallow depth. These soils occur in the southern and central part of the sub basin and with few
areas of leptosols in the sub watersheds(RVLB Master Plan study, 2009).

Most of the soils of the sub-basin are well to moderately well drained and some of the Andosols
on rolling plains and cambisols and leptosols on mountains and hills are somewhat excessively
drained due to coarse texture and high slope gradient. Thereare some areas of poorly and
imperfectly drained soils in sub watersheds.

Soil stoniness is not a major limitation to development in the sub-basin as most area of the sub
basin is stone free. But there are some areas with surface stones which occur on leptosols and
some soils of hilly and mountainous area. Parts of sub watersheds have surface stones and
gravels cover.

[Link].2 Soil Chemical Characteristics

Soil chemical properties have a great influence on planning soil and agronomic programs,
evaluation and monitoring of the schemes. This section describes chemical characteristics and
distribution of the major soil types in the sub basin.

91
 Table 26: Major Soils in the Sub Basin
Major Soil Groupings Identified Soil Units
Andosols Vitric Andosols
Arenosols (AR) Haplic Arenosols
Eutric Cambisols
Cambisols (CM) Dystric Cambisols
Chromic Cambisols
Calcaric Fluvisols
Fluvisols (FL)
Eutric Fluvisols
Leptosols (LP) Leptosols
Haplic Luvisols
Luvisols (LV)
Chromic Luvisols
Nitisols (NT) Rhodic Nitisols
Solonetz (SN) Haplic Solonetz
Solonchaks Haplic Solonchaks
Vertisols (VR) Eutric Vertisols

Andosols cover 14036ha or 4.7% of the total area of Ziway-Shalla sub-basin. The chemical
analysis shows Andosols in the sub-basin are moderately acidic to strongly alkaline with pH
range of 5.9 -8.2 which increase down the profile. The CEC values of the soils are low to high
ranging from 14.5-32.0 (me/100 g of soil). Base saturation percent of this soil is high ranging
from 75-152 % with average of 101% which shows the soil is fertile and classified as [Link]
addition of inorganic fertilizer, use of a cover crop, incorporating crop residues and use of lime
can improve the pH, nutrient reserve and buffering capacity of these soils.

The cambisols in the western Lake Ziway sub basin is formed from alkaline basalt, rhyolites,
trachytes, recent and sub recent basalt flows and cones, tuffs, water lain pyroclastics and
occasionally lacustrine beds, lacustrine sediments; sand, silt, pyroclastic deposits and diatomites.
The cambisols of this sub basin is well drained soil. It occurs in association with luvisols and
leptosols. Eutric, dystric, fluvic and vertic cambisols are identified in the sub [Link] chemical
analysis of the soil survey study shows the cambisols in sub-basin are very strongly acidic to
very strongly alkaline with pH ranging from 4.3-9.7 and under low pH (<5.5) phosphate ions

92
combine with iron and aluminium to form compounds and it is not readily available for plants.
The CEC values of the soils are medium to very high ranging from 15.3-58.4 (me/100g of soil).
Under medium condition of CEC fertilizer application is needed for better crop production. Base
saturation percent is medium to high ranging from 34 -128 indicating good soil fertility.

Fluvisols of this sub basin is found on the eastern lower part of the sub basin arround the Lake
Ziway on level plain topography. This soil is derived from recent alluvial deposition of lacustrine
sediments; sand, silt, pyroclastic deposits and diatomites. It is well to excessively drained soil
having slight splash and sheet erosion. It is found in association with cambisols and Andosols.
Fluvisols in the sub-basin are neutral to strongly alkaline with pH ranging from 6.6 -8.9.

Leptosol of this sub basin is formed from nazreth group and dino formation on medium to high
gradient hills, mountains and elongated escarpments. Some of the leptosols in the sub basin are
slightly acidic with pH value of 6.2 and the CEC of the soil is 0.2ms/cm which indicates the soils
are salt free. The CEC and BS% of the soils is in a high range indicating good natural fertility.

The Luvisols of the sub basin is formed from stratoid silicics; ignimbrites, unwelded tuffs, ash
flows, rhyolites and trachytes. It occurs on different topography from level plain to rolling plain
and on medium to high gradient mountains. The luvisols of this sub basin is moderate to well
drained soil and it is characterized by deep to very deep soil depth and very dark brown to dark
reddish brown clay and clay loam textured soil with distinct clay skins in sub surface horizons. It
occurs in association with Vertisols, Cambisols and Leptosols. The Luvisols are very strongly
acidic to very strongly alkaline with pH ranging from 5 to [Link] Vertisols in sub basin is
formed from recent and sub recent basalt flows and cones on level and rolling plain topography
(RVLB Master Plan study, 2009).

[Link] Assessment of Existing Forest cover

Forest vegetation occupies a significant section of the sub-basin and has a key role in
maintaining the water balance of the whole of the sub-basin. In the middle and lower parts
(below 2,400m) the dominant forest vegetation types are woodlands (open and dense) and
shrublands with lowland species of various Acacia spp and other broad-leaved species such as
Croton macrostachyus, Cordia africana, Olea capensis, Maesa lanceolata, Carissa edulis, Rosa
abyssinica, Dodonia anguistifolia, and Euclea schimperii . Many of the species in the woodlands

93
are also found in cultivated fields. This vegetation serves as a source of fuelwood and
construction wood and serves as grazing land.

The dominant or upper canopy species are Juniperus procera, Hagenia abyssinica, Olea
africana, Celtis africana and Scheflera abyssinica, which are now very sparse due to
uncontrolled removal of mature trees for economic purposes. The understory vegetation
constitutes a substantial number of seedling and sapling stocks of the economic species. The
forest has never been managed and there is no management plan prepared for it.

Individual woodlots are common in many parts of the sub-basin and households have woodlots
of mainly Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. globules species planted around boundaries,
degraded lands, road sides, grazing lands and front yards.

Woodlands and shrub lands occur mainly in the middle and lower sub-basin. The few
remaining dense and open woodlands mostly of Acacia species such as Acacia seyal, A.
abyssinica, A. etbaica, A. lahai and A. tortilis in the lower sub-basin occupying flat lands and
serving as grazing lands and sources of fuelwood. The open shrublands occupy large areas in the
upper, middle and lower sub-basin mostly on the hills and mountains and are also a source of
fuel wood and grazing land (RVLB Master Plan study, 2009).

The most important shrubland is the Afro-alpine and sub-afro-alpine ericaceous (Erica arborea)
shrubland occupying most of the headwater areas in the upper sub-basin. There is extensive
cutting of this species in many parts because of its suitability for fuelwood, fencing and
construction and as grazing land. Since it occupies a large portion of the uppermost part of the
sub-basin, it is extremely important for ecosystem functions and for recharging of the streams
originating from the mountains. This shrub land requires a special consideration for conservation
and exclusive protection (RVLB Master Plan study, 2009).

The most common agro-forestry practice is the natural integration of multi-purpose tree species
in cultivated fields. In the large part of the middle sub-basin there is a well established backyard
and homestead agro-forestry system.

In the lower sub-basin, the single dominant practice is the natural integration of trees in
cultivated crop fields. The most common species are Acacia albida, A. seyal, A. tortilis and

94
Croton macrostachyus. However there are no backyards or homestead practices due to the
shortage of water and a resultant very low seedling survival rate (below 10%). Most weredas
have at least one government nursery and individual nurseries have been promoted in the
highland areas but they have a much lower [Link] of the increasing population and the
demand for land and fuel wood, agricultural encroachment to marginal land is increasing. This
leads to removal of vegetation, soil erosion at the downstream areas (RVLB Master Plan study,
2009).

[Link] Assessment of sub-basin ecosystem service

The natural resource of the sub-basin has immense economic and cultural values. It is well-
known for its biodiversity and contribute enormous role in ecosystem services. The flora and
fauna, Lakes, Rivers, wetlands and minerals in the sub-basin provide the different type of
ecosystem services. Ecosystem services in the sub-basin can be classified in to provisioning
services,regulating services, supporting services and cultural services.

Provisioning services: -In the sub-basin the identified provisioning services are grouped into:
food, water resource, raw materials and medicinal resources.

The water bodies, flora and fauna in the sub-basin used for a source of food in the form of
fruits,fish,crop cultivation,and honey from Bee hive keeping. The sub-basin also provide with
water resources. Some of the sources are Lake Ziway, Lake Langanoo, Lake Abijata, Lake
Shalla, Katar River, Meki River, Bulbula, Horaqello River, Huluka River, Lepis River, Gedemso
River, Kersa River, Jirma River, Jido River and Dedeba River. The raw materials provided are
grouped in to wood products, animal fodder (use of grasses, leaves and fruits of trees and grazing
land) and thatching grass. Also water is used as a raw material for Soda Ash Factory. Different
Medicinal plants,Hot Springs in the sub-basin serve as medicinal resources.

Regulating services

Regulating service include climate regulation, water resources regulation, flood regulation,
erosion control and waste regulation. Some of the major ecosystems in Ziway Shalla sub-basin
include the dominant acacia woodland, Lakes, Rivers, Wetlands and other functional landscape
units. These ecosystems provide various services and they are important components which
serve as biological pool.

95
Supporting services

The main supporting services in the sub-basin are soil formation, nursery services, nutrient and
water cycling. The Abijata-Shalla National Park,Arsi Mountains national park, the Lakes, Rivers
and Wetlands serve as a supporting services in the sub-basin.

Cultural services

The Sub-basin cultural services can be identified as recreation and ecotourism, spiritual,
educational and research services.

The Lakes, National Park, Sanctuary and Controlled Hunting Areas has a remarkable use in
recreation because of their unique landscape views, hot springs, large number of bird and
wildlife. In many rural areas of the sub-basin peoples use the natural resource (Trees, Lakes,
Rivers and Wetlands) for Spiritual purpose.

There have been also a number of researches and educational activities conducted in Sub-basin
by various research institutes, universities and interested individuals. Still the Sub-basin serves as
educational and research area.

[Link] Assessment of existing agricultural practices

The predominant land use in the sub-basin is intensively cultivated land. Agricultural
communities of the Ziway-Shalla sub-basin have developed their own agricultural practice based
on their cultures, socioeconomic conditions and natural resources endowments. The farming
system in the sub-basin is mainly dominated by crop production and supplemented by livestock
production; especially dairy production is the main livelihood of the people in the sub-basin.

Major problems in the agriculture:

The farming system in the sub-basin is mainly dominated by rain-fed agriculture and there is a
few evidence of irrigation base agriculture. The major limitations to crop production in the sub-
basin are:
 Crop pests and disease infestation of the area
 Shortages of skilled manpower at the Kebele level
 Short and erratic rainfall with uneven distribution and recurrent drought

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  Inadequate and untimely supply of the essential agricultural inputs
 Lack of efficient commercial oriented extension services
 Unpredictable and uncontrollable flooding damaging crops in the field.
 Soil fertility decline
 Absence of agricultural technologies
 Frost prevalence

[Link] Assessment of Livestock population

In the sub-basin livestock husbandry is an integral part of the farming system supplementing the
crop production. There is a huge amount of livestock population in the Sub-basin. According to
the Master plan study common animals kept by smallholders are Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Horses,
Donkeys, Mules and Poultry. The holding size and rate depend on the status of individual
farmers and the livestockpopulation in the Sub-basin can be shown below in the Table 23.

Table 27: Livestock Population (Numbers) in the sub-basin

Zone Cattle Sheep Goat Horse Donk Mul Poultr
s s eys es y
Arsi 618,10 295,53 107,5 75,617 75,416 3,44 447,43
2 0 10 6 4
East 250,45 28,189 103,2 2,637 30,544 1,85 209,25
Shewa 6 56 8 9
West 612,79 130,87 137,0 38,013 74,293 882 481,71
Arsi 0 0 81 9
South 5,725 1,214 1,488 309 861 121 3,946
West
Shewa
Total 1,487,0 160,27 349,3 116,57 181,11 6,30 1,142,3
73 3 35 6 4 7 58
Source: (RVLB Master plan, 2008)

Not only have these large numbers of livestock population grazed the area, but also nomadic
pastoralists which from outside the Sub-basin periodically graze their herds in the Sub-basin.
Their number seems to decrease as a result of more conflicts with arable farmers. The presence
of animals in the sub-basin is highly dependent on the availability of food (seasonality).

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Despite of the uncertainty in the size of the livestock population, the area clearly shows signs of
overgrazing. The degraded bare land and predominance of less palatable plant species including
the recently discovered invasive weed Parthenium which an indicator of overgrazing.

The livestock production cause multiple environmental impacts including erosion, soil
degradation (reduction in soil quality and supported vegetation), contributes to slight
increment of green house gas (GHG), deforestation, and water pollution.

[Link] Assessment of Erosion, Sedimentation and siltation load of Lakes & Rivers

The nexus between land degradation, low agricultural productivity, poverty/food insecurity has
long been recognized by the government and the development partners. In an effort to break this
viscous circle, intensive and widespread soil conservation schemes have been launched since the
infamous famines of the 1970s and 1980s. However, these efforts are not to the required scale in
all parts of the country. Particularly, land degradation in the Ziway Shalla sub basin which is
induced by conversion of forest areas into agricultural land and pastoralism to agriculture,
expansion of urban and investments to the periphery of Lakes, excess water abstraction, frequent
drought and inappropriate land use planning became severe. These eventually results in
sedimentation of Lakes, low flow of rivers and conflicts over water.

Soil erosion, land degradation and soil fertility decline are seen as a result of population pressure
with the intensification of cultivation on productive land and increasing cultivation of more
marginal lands. This with absence ofeffective alternatives has resulted in plot fragmentation and
increasing food insecurity. Soil erosion is cited as a highly ranked issue in the Ziway-Shalla sub-
basin.

According to the Rift Valley Lakes Basin Integrated Resources Development master plan study
2009, almost two thirds of the Ziway-shalla sub basin is either high or extreme in erosion hazard
because of the steep valley sides and the fragile soil structure. Intensive farming and poor
farming methods have resulted in significant land degradation over many areas of the sub basin
and the causing sedimentation load in the lakes and Rivers of the sub basin.

As the Country Environmental Analysis (CEA) for Ethiopia (World Bank, 2004) indicated, the
country’s principal environmental issues involve complex cross-sectorial linkages. One of the

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key environment-development linkages identified relates to the land degradation – food
insecurity – energy access – livelihood nexus. This includes unsustainable agricultural land
management practices such as cultivating steep slopes without protective measures and heavy
reliance on biomass energy.

The use of biomass accelerates the rate of deforestation and erosion while the use of crop
residues and dung as fuel, rather than returning this organic matter to the soil, causes a decline in
soil fertility and deterioration in soil structure. The degraded land is then more prone to erosion,
leading to further loss of fertility in the topsoil and to a reduction in soil depth, both of which can
have an adverse effect on crop yields. The consequences of deforestation and degraded soil
structure include greater runoff which contributes to erosion, sedimentation and siltation, less
infiltration of rainfall which diminishes groundwater recharge; and reduced water storage
capacity in the soil which makes crops less able to withstand drought.

Clearance and cultivation of land is generally the initial activity, leading directly to erosion
through exposure and disturbance of the soil. Biomass diversion from the land (for forage and
fuel) increases erosion directly through increasing exposure (decreased surface cover) and
decreasing soil resistance to erosion. However, there is also an indirect effect through reduced
productivity, especially from reduced soil moisture and nutrient holding capacity. This in turn
stimulates a search for more land, either through extension of cultivation or through decrease in
fallow periods.

Erosion Hazard

Erosion hazard was reviewed by the Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study (EHRS, 1986cieted
in the Master plan) in the light of soil erosion rates and soil depth. For a given erosion rate, the
hazard falls with increasing soil depth. The study identified areas with high and very high
erosion in the highland to the west and east of the Ziway-Shalla sub-basin, moderate erosion
rates on the escarpments and slight erosion rates in the main valley. However, when soil depth is
taken into consideration, not only are there areas in the highlands where the erosion hazard is
severe, but there are also locations in the Ziway-Shalla sub basin, for example in the middle
Katar valley, around Mareko, between lakes Abijata and Langano, to the south of Lake Shalla.

Effect of soil erosion

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Accelerated soil erosion results in the removal of the top soil, the A horizon, which is the most
fertile soil horizon in which crops are grown. Erosion exposes the B and C soil horizons which
contain less organic matter, nutrients, and water-holding capacity. Consequently erosion reduces
the fertility of the remaining soils and crop yields, Lake level decrease due to siltation,
environmental pollution and biodiversity loss.

Erosion hotspot areas

Areas of extreme erosion potential are associated with steep slopes and cultivated areas that are
dominated by mixed cereals and maize, and sorghum mono-cropping. This includes the central
of southwestern, eastern and the northwestern areas of the basin including the eastern side of
Asela, Werabe,Silte, and east of Lanfero. Areas of high erosion potential have similar land
characteristics to those of extreme areas including Leptosols and Cambisols on slopes 8 to 15%,
Andosols on all slopes and Luvisols and Nitisols on slopes greater than 15%. It occurs in the
southern middle basin, the central highlands, and the eastern and western sides of the Ziway-
shalla sub basin. In general high to severe erosion occurs over extensive areas with slopes greater
than 8%. Moderate and slight erosion potential areas are concentrated in the lowlands, plateaux
and plain areas with denser vegetation cover are identified as areas with such degrees of erosion.

The highest degree of current erosion occurs in similar areas, particularly the east and west of
Lake Ziway watersheds, Abijata Shalla watersheds. The main contributing factors are steep
slopes, highly erodible volcanic soils, the predominance of cereal cultivation and a higher
population density. Shallow to very shallow soils are an additional factor in places. The next
highest area of current erosion extends from the southern part of western Ziway to the Lake
Shalla, and most of the steeply cultivated areas in Alaba have similar degrees of erosion.
Deforestation, highly fragile and erodible silty soils and naturally susceptible Andosols, coupled
with high population pressure are the major factors with shallow soils and steep slopes.

Siltation

Soil erosion, the transport of sediment by rivers and siltation in river courses, wetlands and lakes
is a natural process. When this process is accelerated by human activity it can lead to

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environmental problems such as loss of soils, degradation of aquatic habitats, infilling of
wetlands and loss of biodiversity, and siltation nuisance in irrigation schemes.

Data on sediment transport by rivers and siltation from: Suspended sediment data collected in
rivers, and Rates of sedimentation obtained from bathymetric surveys of reservoirs were
collected and reported during the master plan study. This information was used to obtain a
regional estimate of annual sediment entering Lakes Ziway and Langano, comprising 610
tones/km2/yr for the Meki River, 128 tones/km2/yr for the Katar River and 214 tones/km2/yr for
the Langano tributaries.

Table 28: Estimates of Sediment Yield in Lakes and Rivers in Ethiopia

Source River Catchment Sediment Yield (Tonnes/km2/yr)

Halcrow, 2007 Meki RVLB 610

Katar RVLB 128
Langano RVLB 214
Source: RVLB Master plan 2009

In the short term, suspended sediment is deposited during low flows in the river channels, is
carried into irrigation schemes and silts up channels and drains, and is carried into wetlands and
lakes where it is deposited. High siltation in irrigation systems causes a nuisance and increases
maintenance costs.

Sedimentation in shallow wetlands has resulted in the reduction in size of wetlands and
conversion to land with concomitant succession changes in vegetation. This process seen on the
Cheleleka wetland and other small wetlands within the sub basin over a period of about 20 to 30
years. Over the recent geological timescale, some of the rivers are building deltas into the lakes.
This is particularly noticeable on Lakes Ziway by the Meki river and other lakes and rivers.
Estimation of sediment load, assessment erosion and siltation issues indicated here are outdated
and do not consider all Lakes and Rivers in the sub basin. These issues will be updated onwards
with the improvement and development of this sub basin plan.

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 [Link]. Assessment of existing watershed management practices

[Link].1 National Experiences

In Ethiopia, soil and water conservation practices were started about a decade earlier than the
watershed management approach, following the 1971 drought, under the food assistance from
World Food Programme (WFP) (Rift Valley Lakes basin Integrated Resources Development
Master Plan Study, 2009).

Since 1974, the previous government gave much attention to implementation of soil and water
conservation measures as a means of abating land degradation and established the Community
Forest and Soil Conservation Department (CFSCD) within the then Ministry of Agriculture
(MoA) to plan and oversee conservation and community forestry projects by watershed
countrywide. The soil and water conservation and community forestry programmes were then
implemented on watershed basis from 1980 up to 1991. During this period, the size of
watersheds considered as development unit varied from 20,000 to 40,000ha (BCEOM, 1998).

Firstly, the planning of watershed works was top down, being decided by technical experts;
secondly, the size of watershed for planning was large, 20,000-40,000 ha and thirdly, the
watershed management interventions were biased towards soil and water conservation measures
emphasizing degraded communal and hilly areas with little attention to individually held
farmlands. The lessons learned from these experiences pushed the Ministry of Agriculture
(MoA) and support agencies like FAO to initiate pilot watershed planning approaches on a
bottom-up basis, using smaller units and following community-based approaches.

The new paradigm shift in natural resources management in Ethiopia follows a ‘participatory
integrated watershed development and management’ approach. The approach is coordinating
frameworks that integrate biophysical and socio-economic aspects through continuous and close
contacts as well as participatory processes that involve community and stakeholders and aim at
improving their livelihoods while ensuring sustainable conservation of natural resources for
future generations. It focuses mainly on raising agricultural productivity, water recharging,
reducing siltation of lakes and dams,improving livelihoods and addressing gender and equity
issues along with the protection of the environment and biodiversity conservation by
implementing sustainable land management practices and potential livelihood options. Although

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the new direction and its packages are interesting, the actual implementation on the ground needs
much more concerted, integrated and collaborative efforts.

This resulted in the introduction of minimum planning and a sub-watershed approach, initiating a
shift from larger to smaller watershed as a planning unit. This approach was tested at pilot stage
through FAO technical assistance under MoA during 1988 – 91. During the last two decades,
with support from different projects and organizations, the FDRE has worked with communities
within micro-watersheds to develop and implement natural resources conservation and
community watershed management plans. To reinforce such efforts guidelines on watershed
management planning have been published by the MoARD and are generally accepted by almost
all practitioners. This would give a favourable condition for implementation of watershed
management programmes at community level.

In the early 2000s, community-based integrated watershed development was introduced to

promote watershed management as a means to achieve broader integrated natural resource
management and livelihood improvement objectives within prevailing agro-ecological and
socioeconomic environments.

Different studies revealed that across the country watershed management has had a positive
impact on natural resource conservation, crop-livestock production and productivity,
socioeconomic conditions and livelihoods. The watershed management has improved farm
incomes and food security by an average of 50% and 56%, respectively.

However, several challenges were also threaten the success of watershed management. These
include the lack of technical advice and information to support the selection of interventions
suitable for the local context; uncoordinated interventions, institutions and actors within a
watershed; and, importantly, the uneven distribution of the water management costs and benefits.
To address these challenges and support the scaling up of best practices, recommended by
different scholars are:-

(i) Linking physical and biological conservation activities with income-generating and
livelihood improvement activities;

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(ii) Tailoring technologies and implementation approaches to prevailing agro-climatic,
biophysical and socioeconomic conditions;

(iii) Co-managing surface and subsurface water resources to improve water productivity;

(iv) Strengthening institutional mechanisms to foster partnership among stakeholders, and ensure
the fair and equitable sharing of costs and benefits;

(v) Supporting community participation with adequate technical and financial support;

(vi) Improving access to markets; and

(vii) developing/updating guidelines for the collection of baseline data, and monitoring and
evaluation of water management interventions.

[Link].2. Activities and Experiences in the RVLB

In Ethiopia, as well as in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin (RVLB) including ZiwayShalla sub basin,
soil and water conservation practices have a related history with agriculture. All types of soil and
water conservation interventions are practised in the basin. In spite of efforts to investigate and
acquire information on the past interventions in the entire basin and sub basin, no adequate data
could be obtained. The Productive Safety-net Programme supports the implementation of public
works such as soil and water conservation that are expected to be carried out on communal lands
on a sub-watershed basis. Moreover, the safety-net programme operates in the Weredas believed
to be food in-secure according to criteria set by the government, although little information could
be obtained on the extent of the programme.

The then Mistry of Agriculture, now Mistry of Agriculture and natural resources together with
the regional and woreda Agriculture and Natural Resources Bureaus/offices has been
implementing watershed management to reduce soil loose and to increase productivity and then
to ensure food security. On the other hand, Ministry of Water, irrigation and electricity and Rift
Valley lakes basin Authority has been implementing integrated watershed management in the
sub basin to save lakes and other water bodies from sedimentation and siltation.

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These activities were mainly physical measures (soil bunds, stone bunds, stone-faced soil bunds,
cut-off drains & waterways and gabion check-dams), water harvesting structures focusing on
watershed rehabilitation. Biological/Vegetative/ measures include area closure and vegetative
check-dams for gully control in addition to on-farm forestry, agro-forestry plantations,
reforestation of degraded forests, and afforestation of bare communal lands. On top this, they
focus on community’s livelihood improvement/diversification by creating income generating
activities.

But, the success of SWC interventions is constrained by the free grazing of livestock, a lack of
maintenance, Farmers lack the commitment to implement and maintain implemented measures,
lack of communal understanding on the importance of these measures and a reluctance to include
soil and water conservation measures in farming practices coupled with a lack of land
management enforcement.

However, recent developments and particularly the issue of land user certificates, has increased
farmers’ awareness in the judicial management of their land. This is clearly demonstrated by the
area closure of degraded areas which are then managed by individuals or groups of farmers.
In general, actual data of existing rehabilitated land

 Base line of existing watershed management/rehabilitated land in hectare

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 4.1.4. Risk assessment and uncertainties
[Link]. Assessment of climate change and variability
Climate change has a significant impact on Ziway-Shalla sub Basin future water availability due to
temperature raise and evaporation rate increment. Lake Ziway shows a decline in long term average. By
the end of year 2034 lake levels in Ziway will have fallen by 0.60 m with a decrease in lake area of 12%.
As Reduction in levels in Lake Ziway as a result of climate change also has an impact on the lake levels
in Lake Abijata (RVLB master plan, 2008). The declining lake levels of Lake Abijata in response to
climate change and is the equivalent to a 25% reduction in flow in the Bulbula River. The changes in long
term average lake levels due to climate change show an overall fall by1.3 m, a 17% decrease in lake area
and by the end of year 2034 the lake will drop further by 2.1m. (RVLB master plan, 2008).
Also a study by Zeray et al. (2006) used the HadCM3 GCM model output for assessing climate
change impact on the Lake Ziway basin hydrology over the next century. The total average
annual inflow into Lake Ziway is predicted to decrease by between 19% and 27% caused by
decreasing inflows in the rainy season (June-September).

A study by(Lijalem Zeray, Jackson Roehrig and Dilnesaw Alamirew,2007),developed scenarios

for Lake ziway for the years 2001-2099 showed that both, temperature and precipitation are
likely to increase from the 1981-2000 level. These changes are likely to have significant impacts
on the inflow volume into the lake. Despite the increasing trend of both climatic variables, the
increase in precipitation seems to be obscured by increases in [Link], the total
average annual inflow volume into Lake Ziway might decline significantly. This is likely to drop
the lake level up to two third of a meter and shrink the water surface area up to 25 km2,which is
about 6% of the base period water surface area. This combined with the unbalanced supply-
demand equation in the watershed is expected to have significant impact on the lake water
balance. Therefore, in Lake Ziway Watershed, runoff is likely to decrease in the future and be
insufficient to meet future demands for water of the ever increasing population.

[Link]. Drought
Ziway-shalla sub basin is characterized by erratic rainfall and high evapotranspiration. Total
annual rainfall is sufficient for crop production but the highly variable distribution in time and
space frequently threatens crop production and contributes to food insecurity.

A study conducted by Gizachewand Andualem (2014),over 16 districts in Central Rift Valley (CRV) of
Ethiopia, to determine the degree of climate risk and the relative vulnerability of the districts, has

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indicated vulnerable [Link] mapping helps to target vulnerable hotspots and
recommend appropriate interventions.

Frequency of drought:-Climate risk quantified interms of drought frequency revealed that all
thedistricts experienced drought ranging from 2 to 5 times within 33 years. Among the worsthit districts,
which experienced the highestfrequency of drought (5 times in 33 years), were Adami tulu-Jido-
Kombolcha, Dugda, ZiwayDugda and Tiyo [Link] (2012) also confirmed thatAdamituluJido-
kombolcha and Ziway dugda districts hadthe highest probability of severe drought occurrence with 46 to
76% severity level in East Shoa zone of oromia. Bekoji, Gedeb,Kofele and Lanfaro districts experienced
thelowest drought frequencies of 2 to 3 times in 33years. The remaining districts experienceddrought 4
times in 33 years. This result was usedas a proxy indicator for exposure to future climatechange in
vulnerability analysis. Therefore, more vernerable districts need site specific adaptationoptions
based on their level of vulnerability toclimate change.

As a result Rainwaterharvesting (RWH) has been proposed in the literature to mitigate dry spells.
During the last decade, the Ethiopian Government have supported the implementation of RWH
interventions throughout the country,including theCRV. A systematic identification of areas
suitable for different forms of RWH may contribute to more effective interventions and targeted
investments in [Link] assumption is that producing high value crops using water from RHS
and enables them toget returns from selling the product and thus increasing the ability to
generate income.

According to (Girma Moges,2009),a more suited woredas for RWH were identified andthe majority of the
very high and high suitable areas for community pond RWH are in Degeluna Tijo (21%), Tiyo(16%),
Munessa(15%), Limuna Bilbilo (13%), Ziway dugeda (9%), Meskan and Mareko Woreda (9%)
respectively. The majority of very high and high suitable areas for in-situ RWH are in Degeluna Tijo
(18%) ,Ziway Dugda (15%), Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha(14%), Tiyo (12%) and Limuna Bilbilo
Woreda (11%) respectively.

Table 29: Level of vulnerability of Woredas to drought and proposed Strategies

for water
conservation
R. Woerda name Level of Vulnerability to drought Drought Proposed Strategy for water
N frequency conservation
Time
1 Ziway dugda Severe (severity level is 46 to 76%) 5 times Constructing Rain Water
in 33 Harvesting pondsat HHlevel (30)
years Constructing community ponds

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 (6

2 AdamituluJ/Kombolcha Severe (severity level is 46 to 76%) 5 times Constructing community ponds

in 33 (5
years
3 Dugda Severe drought 5 times Constructing Rain Water
in 33 Harvesting ponds at HH level
years (17) Constructing community
ponds (8
4 Tiyo Severe drought 5 times Constructing Rain Water
in 33 Harvesting ponds at HH level
(severity level is 46 to 76%) (83) Constructing community
years
ponds (8
5 Mareko Moderate 4 times Constructing Rain Water
in 33 Harvesting ponds at HH level
years (63) Constructing community
ponds (3
6 Silti Moderate ‘’ Constructing Rain Water
Harvesting ponds at HH level
(17) Constructing community
ponds (2
7 Meskan ‘’ ‘’

8 Soddo ‘’ ‘’
9 Munessa ‘’ ‘’

10 Arsi Negele ‘’ ‘’ Constructing Rain Water

Harvesting ponds at HH level
(19) Constructing community
ponds (8
11 Hitosa ‘’ ‘’

12 Degeluna Tijo ‘’ ‘’
13 Lanfaro Low vulnera blity 2-3 times in -
33 yrs

14 Limuna Bilbilo /Bokoji LOW vulnera blity ‘’ -

15 Gedeb Asasa LOW vulnera blity ‘’ -

[Link]. Flood Risks

The catchment area of Meki River has two distinctive features:
a) Upstream of Meki:- the upstream catchment area has generally steep slope and found on
topofAddisAbaba-Butajira-HosainaRoad .
b) Meki valley:- covers the downstream of the above-mentioned road, this catchment is flat.
This part of the catchment area is typically characterized by marshy area and a land setup that is

108
suitable for crop cultivation. The catchment of Meki valley includes small lakes like Tinishu
Abaya , Haro shetan and swamps like tufa and Gololsha and Kuntane Swamp and other
networks of small streams..Some of the runoff enters these water [Link] the summer
season the overflow from these waters enters Weja River, which is tributary of Meki River. The
low runoff coefficient (12%) of Meki River as compared to Keter (14%) can be related to storage
of some of the runoff into these places. During wet season, several shallow steams fill in water
and overflow channels carry floodwaters causing serious local flooding.

Figure 9: (a)Store damaged by Flood in butajira town b) flooded crops in silti

woreda

[Link]. water use conflict

Population growth, increased economic activity and improved standards of living have led to
increased demand for water resources in the sub-basin. In the Sub-basin the main competing
water sector is irrigation development that supports the economy of the Sub-basin as well as the
country. In the Sub-basin which both small scale and large scale irrigated agriculture has
expanded rapidly. Due to population growth the water demand for domestic use increases over
time. Comparing to other Sub-basins in the basin, the Sub-basin infrastructure is found in good
condition. In addition to this it is found close to the capital city which is a conducive
environment for the market; these leads to the expansion of different water demanding industries
in the Sub-basin. Beside to these the environment by itself requires water to sustain life.

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Climatic change which characterized by low rainfall, low river flows, high demand for irrigation
water, water pollution, failure of water storage delivery and distribution systems has accelerated
water stress in the Sub-basin.(bio) Currently in the Sub-basin especially on Lake Ziway, River
Meki and River Bulbula; there are water use conflicts between different users. In the Sub-basin
there is a limited water resource with an increasing demand. This leads to scarcity of water,
which in turn, inevitably lead to conflict over resources. The Sub-basin is under a high risk of
water use conflict. This conflict is further aggravated by high social inequity, economic
marginalization and limited non-land, non-water dependent sources of livelihoods.

[Link]. Geological hazard

Even though the degree of a potential hazard of landslide varies in the sub basin, the southern
part of the sub basin is highly, because the area is high steep fault (fault line) escarpments.

In the sub basin, natural and anthropogenic causes of landslide are:-

 elevation of pore water pressure by saturation of slope material from either intense or
prolonged rainfall and seepage
 vibrations caused by earthquakes
 tectonic fractures and faults
 undercutting of cliffs and banks by waves or river erosion
 Deforestation
 Modification of slopes by construction like roads.

Landslide hazard is one of the crucial environmental constraints for the development of Ethiopia
including our sub Basin. The most common impact of land slide are፡
-Economic impact:-limiting Urbanization,Destruction of deferent properties like infrastructures
- Social impact:-Migration from one area to the other area.
The historical events indicate that the earth quakes have been occurring in the Ziway-Shalla sub
basin from 1906 to 2013. Examples are
 Langano earthquake in 1906:-intensity of 8 on the Mercalli scale, and a magnitude
of 6.75 Epicentre (UNISDR, 1999, p.21). No deaths are reported to have
occurred, however, the earthquake is reported to have caused “wide spread panic”
(Gouin in Kinde, 2002; Ayele, 2012). An estimated US$6,750,000 of economic

110
 damage resulted – this is considered a low level in the literature as the affected
areas did not have a great deal of (Gouin in Kinde, 2002).
 Wendogenet earthquake in 1983 (Kinde, 2002).
 Langano earthquake in 1985 with magnitude of 6.2 (Kinde, 2002).
 Rift Valley Area earthquake in 1987 with magnitude of 6.2 (Kinde, 2002).

Therefore East Shewa(Around Adamitulu , Dugda , Meki , Abosa , Ziway , Bulbula ,Aje, Bura ,
Arsi-Negele , Kuyera ,Around lake Langano) are vulnerable for earthquake. So the ground
cracks in Muleti, Lake Shala and Adamitulu area were appearing, there was an understanding
that they could be manifestations of earthquake activity or large-scale tectonic processes (Yirgu
et al.,1997).

According to the literatures, in Ziway-Shalla sub basin no “high” or “very high” earthquake
exposure and deaths are reported. However, the earthquake is reported to have caused
“widespread panic” (Gouin in Kinde, 2002; Ayele, 2012) with estimated US$6,750,000 of
economic damage resulted per one shocking (Gouin in Kinde, 2002). Population and economic
growth have led to increased urbanization, and more people are living close to active earthquake
area in the sub-basin, however there is little awareness or preparedness in regards to potential
earthquakes like Poor building structures, absence of alert systems make the urban public more
vulnerable to disasters and also the absence of earthquake resistant regulations {(IGNOU, 2006
in Abebe, 2010), (Ayele, 2012), (Kinde, 2002;)}.

Ground cracks and fissure were developed in central portion of the sub Basin when an
anomalous heavy rainfall was soaking the region in 1996, 1997, 1998 and 2016. The cracks were
observed in Adamitulu area with a width of 1–3 m, a depth of 6–12 m and a length of more than
1 km, the cracks were the first major structures observed in the rift floor with no record of
seismicity a large open basin bounded from east and west by long and high mountains of
volcanic rocks. Its general outline is in such a way that it is very wide in the north and narrow in
the central and southern portions. At around the town of Shashemene, its east–west stretch is in
the range of 60–70 km.

It’s not uniformly flat floor is occupied mainly by lake basins of the Ziway-Shalla, and other
volcano-tectonic depressions. Major rivers from surrounding highlands, constantly flow into

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these sub basins and depressions, and together with the groundwater, they constitute a complex
hydrologic system in the region. Hence, tectonic movements are thought to be active in the
region. The presence of faults dissecting recent formations, high seismicity and geothermal
activities are common reasons cited by many authors as evidences for this. Therefore, when the
ground cracks in Muleti, Lake Shalla and Adamitulu area were appearing, there was an
understanding that they could be manifestations of this activity or large-scale tectonic processes
(L. Ayalew, H. Yamagishi, G. Reik, Yirgu, et al., 1997).

[Link]. Assessment of Risks related to industrial waste

In Ziway-Shalla Sub-basin large and small scale industries has been booming due to various
reasons. The sectors in which these industries engage are in soda-ash production, wine
production, floriculture and horticulture, Agro processing industrial park, beef production,
mineral water production, malt production. These industries are mainly found in towns like
Ziway, Adami Tulu , Arsi-Negele, Shashemene, Asella andBulbula area .

Based on different journals floriculture and horticultureproduction industries in Sub-basin uses

considerable amounts of pesticides, chemical fertilizers and crop protection agents in which most
of them are pollutants and toxic. The Excessive and uncontrolled use of such inputs currently
disrupts the biophysical environment and it isaffecting the wellbeing of humans. Health and
environmental effect of floriculture industry there is also a problem on the working conditions
which characterized by low wages, job insecurity and frequent violation of employees’
rights, and an absence of social dialogue and poor safety measures.

The major risks related to industries in the Sub-basin are listed as follows:-
 Water shortage and Water use conflict
 Water pollution
 Soil pollution
 Air pollution
 Health impact

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 [Link]. Invasive species (water hyacinth)

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a freefloating plant(requiring a wet habitat). It is

recognized as one of thetop 10 worst weeds in the world. It is characterized by rapid growth
rates, extensive dispersalcapabilities, large and rapid reproductive output and broad
environmental tolerance.; with bright green, waxy leaves and attractive, violet flowers that have
yellow strips on the banner petals. These plants tend to form mats on the water surface. Some
times water hyacinth can be found growing in muddy soils near the edge of an aquatic system.
Thisinvasive nuisance often jams rivers and lakes with uncounted thousands of tons of floating
[Link] clogs waterways, making boating, fishing andalmost all other water activities
[Link] also degrades water quality by blockingphotosynthesis, which greatly reduces
oxygen levels in the water. This creates a cascadingeffect by reducing other underwater life such
as fish and other plants. Water hyacinth alsoreduces biological diversity, impacts native
submersed plants, alters immersed plantcommunities by pushing away and crushing them, and
also alter animal communities byblocking access to the water and/or eliminating plants the
animals depend on for shelter andnesting.

Water hyacinth is native to tropical South America,originallyfrom the Amazon Basin, its entry
into Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America was facilitatedby human activities. Infestation of
water hyacinth in Ethiopia has also been manifested on a large scale in many water bodies of
Gambella area, Awash river, Lake koka and Lake Tana.

According to RVLBA assessment report (2018), more than 78 hectars of the shore of
Lakeziway(8 kebele’s in Dugda woreda) and 24 hectars in part of Ziway town, totally 102
hectars is infested with this weed. As Local people’s perception, water hyacinth has been
introduced in to Lake Ziwayfrom the neighbouring koka Lake through escavator whichbrought
(4 years ago) from the nearby villages of Awash to clear silt from the traditional canals (in dugda
woreda bekele girsa kebele) that supply water for irrigation. This perception is a good guess
because the weed were not observed in the area for many years before escavation but now all

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irrigation canals contain plenty of water hyacinth than the Lakeshore. This canals have direct
linkage to the Lake and the weed has easily reached to the Lake shore infested all the area.

4.2. Hawassa sub basin

4.2.1. Assessment of Trends and Current Water resource situation in the sub Basin
Surface water resources assessment

[Link]. Surface water resources potential assessment

The Lake Hawassa Sub-basin (1,403 km2) is hydrologically separate from the other lakes in the
RVLB, though it includes the former Lake Cheleleka, which is now primarily a wetland, with
grazing and even agriculture now encroaching. In 2004, the area of Lake Hawassa was 92 km2,
and in the past three decades had a maximum area of 100km2, which was in 1998 after a
significantly wet period. The average lake area over the period of record is 93.5 km2, with an
average depth of 13.6m, and a maximum depth of 32.2m, based on data from the 2001
bathymetric survey (WWDSE, 2001).

On the east side, Lake Hawassa is fed by a dense river network from the highlands. Elevation in
the catchment drops from about 3000m near Hogiso to 1680m near Hawassa. The channels from
the highlands form a single main channel, Tikur Wuha, as it passes through Lake Cheleleka. The
flow is slowed and regulated as it passes through the wetland area and eventually drains via
Tikur Wuha into Lake Hawassa.

The surface area of the former Lake Cheleleka was about 12 km2 in 1972, but has transformed to
swamp with practically no open water surface area. Perennial rivers are concentrated only in the
eastern side of the catchment emerging from the highlands and end up in the Cheleleka swamps
from which Tikur Wuha River carries the water to Lake Hawassa. Tikur Wuha River is the only
one which has been gauged since 1981. Tikur Wuha River drains a total catchment area of 636
Km2. There are eleven perennial streams which have their headwater in the eastern highland and
flow to the west, Hawassa Caldera, crossing the Wondo genet escarpment that finally join
together to form Tikur Wuha river which subsequently leads into Lake Hawassa. Tikur Wuha is
the only perennial stream that directly flows into Lake Hawassa. Seasonal courses and dry

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gullies that carry a lot of water and sediment during rainy seasons to Lake Hawassa are common
in the western part of Hawassa caldera. The table below shows list of those perennial streams
that originate from the eastern highland and join the Tikur Wuha River.

Table 30: Discharge Rates of Tributaries of Tikur Wuha River (April, 1999)
No Name of the stream Discharge (m3/d) Discharge (m3/year)

1 Bela 6,598 2.40

2 Wesha 64,895 23.68

3 Werka 32,400 11.82

4 Sole 20,412 7.45

5 Shenkora wuha 2,800 1.02

6 Gomesha 3,733 1.36

7 Gimatam wuha 48,384 17.66

8 Wodesa 74,756 27.28

9 Abosa 5,184 1.89

10 Kedo 43,131 15.74

11 Bogete 2,117 0.77

Total 304,410 111.07

There are also part of the catchment referred as un-gauged sub catchment to Lake Hawassa but
has never been gauged. This area includes west, south west, and north and some part of eastern
side of the lake. The closed sub catchments Mulate and wendo kosha located 5 to 10 Km away
towards west and north-west of the lake cover 15% of the land surface surrounding the lake.
Therefore an area of 205.8Km2 that is covered with these sub catchments should not be
accounted in the estimation of surface runoff. Thus 38% of the total land surface (517Km2) that
is needed to be considered to determine surface water input to the lake turns out to be un-gauged.

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There is also small pond called Derba located at South west of Lake Hawassa, created in 1970 as
a result of enormous volume of runoff coming from adjacent escarpment. The pond is 2m deep
and covers 5 Km2 areas. It is located in Hawassa catchment but has no surface connection with
Hawassa Lake (Tadesse and Zenaw, 2003). The above mentioned pond did not exist anymore
since 2001/2002. It is clear that then water bearing pond and now grassland has existed till the
early inception of the report by Tadesse and Zenaw. Although not confirmed with different
sources, it has been learnt from the local people that the lake has disappeared as widely opened
ground cracks were formed as a result of repeated earth quake.

The following figure shows the model of periodic oscillation and trend of Hawassa Lake level as
observed during 1969 to 1999. As it can be seen from the same figure, the lake achieves
maximum level in November whereas the minimum lake level is observed in April. Regardless
of the seasonal fluctuations, the lake has been rising at and average rate of 76 mm per year.

Figure 10Model of Periodic Oscillation and Trend of Awassa Lake Level (1969-
1999)

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 Figure 11Model of Periodic Oscillation and Trend of Awassa Lake
Level (1969-1999)

Figure 12Hydrograph of monthly maximum lake level ( source mulugeta dadi, etal
2017)
The figure above shows that the water level of Hawassa Lake correlates well with Tikur Wuha
river discharge with lag time of one month. The hydrological time lag between the peak of
rainfall and peak discharge of Tikur Wuha River is also one month. The one-month time lag is
the time required for system to respond. The monthly and annual Hawassa lake level and Tikur
Wuha stream flow showed an increasing overall trend (Wagesho et al., 2012). The possible
causes of the water-level rise of the lake is associated to climate changes, the upset of
hydrological variables, sedimentation process, and geological tectonic processes that affect the
ground water flow towards the lake (Lamb et al., 2002; Esayas, 2010; Ayenew, 2006 and
WWDSE, 2001).

[Link]. Water Balance of Hawassa Lake catchment

The mean annul potential evapo transpiration in catchment is 1786 mm, where as rainfall is 950
mm per year. The lake surface, on the average, receives about 87.4MCM of water annually
fromdirect rainfall on its surface. The Mean annual discharge of Tikur Wuha River is 83.8
MCM. Runoff from ungauged catchment is 81.9 MCM, making the total runoff 165.7 MCM.
Rate of open water evaporation, on the average, is about 165 MCM/year, which is almost equal
to therunoff from effective catchment. Outflow from the lake, in the form of groundwater, is

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about 71.5MCM/year on average [Link] water balance of the lake is equated according to
the following mass balance equation:
Input = output ± ΔS
Where input = Direct rainfall on the lake surface + Surface runoff ungauged catchment +
discharge from Tikur Wuha river + Groundwater input
= 87.4 + 81.9 + 83.8 + 3.2 = 256.3 MCM per year
Output = Evaporation + Groundwater outflow + direct abstraction
= 165 +71.5 +0.073= 236.573 MCM per year
Change in storage (ΔS) = Input – output
= 256.3 - 236.573 = 19.727 MCM per year
From the above facts, it can be concluded that the outflow from the lake in the form of
groundwater is of lesser magnitude as compared with the inflow to the lake in the form of
rainfall on the lake surface. This clearly indicates that wet years have overwhelming influence in
generating high runoff on the Lake Surface and effective catchment which thereby contributes
too much to lake level rise. The runoff volume from the effective catchment has been increasing
in recent years (last decade) mainly because of the change in land use and land cover. Canopy
interception loss is highly reduced because of depletion of vegetation cover and the slowing
down of overland flow by vegetation cover and higher resident time for partly recharging the
groundwater has been changed in favor of increasing surface runoff.

The relatively compacted surface of the Hawassa town and the roof catchments have resulted in
generating higher magnitude of runoff, which eventually leads to Lake Hawassa. From base flow
separation; the annual recharge to groundwater is 49mm, which is 5 % of the annual rainfall. The
volume of recharge in Hawassa lake catchment is, therefore, 63.7 MCM per year. The basin safe
yield (exploitable amount) of Hawassa lake catchment is 38 MCM per year, which is 60 % of
annual recharge.

[Link]. Spatial and temporal rainfall distribution analysis

The moisture for precipitation in the area originates from southwest equatorial air stream, which
moves northwards with inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), (WWDSE, 2001). From June to
18 September rainfall contributes 44% to the mean annual precipitation in the sub basin.
The climate in the area is dry to sub-humid according to the Thornthwaite’s system of defining

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 climate or moisture regions, the mean annual rainfall on bases of 15 years of record of 5 rainfall
stations that contribute to the sub basin is estimated to be 136mm. Both the amount and
seasonality of the rainfall shows some variability (Dessie Nadaw, 1995).

The rainfall regime of the project area is characterized by one rainy season, that is, the rainy
months are contiguously distributed and the rainfall pattern is unimodal type with only one dry
season. The rainfall data taken over the past 28 years (1973 – 2000) at a station in Hawassa
townshow a slightly modified unimodal rainfall distribution. The first significant rainfall starts
inMarch and continues to increase up to May, and then it slightly decreases in June, which
finally is followed by the big rain through July to October.
Table 31: Mean Monthly Rainfall at Hawassa (1973 – 2000)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual

Mean 27 41 68 100 118 99 126 119 122 84 29 16 949

SD 32 42 44 49 50 45 39 32 45 52 34 19 150

Min 0 0 0 7 44 36 54 40 40 22 0 0 722

Max 102 165 199 202 239 243 210 194 205 223 122 84 1226

n 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28

Where: SD = Standard Deviation, Min = Minimum, Max = Maximum, n = Sample size

In addition to the station monitored by the National Meteorological Service Agency (NMSA),
there is one owned by the Hawassa Agricultural Research Center (AARC). The mean annual
rainfall (1047mm) measured by AARC is higher by 10 % (98mm) than the amount measured by
NMSA, [Link] two stations are located 3km apart within Hawassa town. The reason for
such difference could be due to wind speed, location and diameter of a gauge.

Trend analysis of annual rainfall of four stations (Shashemene, Hawassa, Haisa-wita, and Yirba)
has shown a decreasing trend. The ten years moving averages of each station were computed
from long-term record (28-30 years). As it can be seen from the figure below, slightly decreasing
trend of rainfall is observed at Shashemene and Hawassa, whereas steep trend of decreasing
rainfall have been observed at two stations, Haisa-wita and Yirba, which are located at the
southern side of the water divide of Hawassa lake sub basin. The decreasing trend of rainfall

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may be related with the increasing trend of aridity that may be the result of regional climatic
changes.

Figure 13ten year moving average of ranfall amounts at different stations

Consistency analyses are plotted in Figure. From the data plotted for the periods 1996-2010 all the
stations are internally consistent for all the stations. If all stations are consistent this should result in a
straight line.

Hasawita Yirba Dubachew Wondogenet Shashamenen Hawassa

cummulative rainfall of each

16000
14000
12000
stations

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Cummulative mean Annual R.F of five station (1996-2010)

Figure 14Double Mass Curve for the Stations of Hawassa watershed

[Link]. Ground water resource potential assessment

General
For the purpose of water supply planning, the water resources in the study area are examined.

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The water resources can be divided into two categories which are: Surface water and
Groundwater. In any event, the main concept of selecting the suitable water resources for the
provision of water should satisfy the following items:

1) Sustainability for water use, 2) Availability throughout the year, and 3) Safety as potable
water source

For the evaluation of the groundwater potential in the study area, it is very important to grasp
the amount of groundwater recharge. As there are neither lysimeter measurement data nor
long term groundwater level records that can be used for the analysis for the calculation of
groundwater recharge, the recharge amount can be estimated by the calculation of
groundwater discharge amount using equality of the recharge and discharge amounts in a
long hydrological cycle.

The river water is formed by surface runoff from the precipitation and groundwater discharge
to the river. The former is the surface runoff and interflow, the latter is discharge into rivers,
discharge into lakes, and discharge to outside the basin, and so on. The most important
component is considered to be the discharge into river streams. The two methods (programs:
PART（USGS,2007）, RAT（Monash University, 2006））in this plane were selected since
both are considered to be reliable and used to separate the groundwater (base flow)
component and direct runoff component from daily river flow data. Finally, the average
values of BFI (Base Flow Index) by two above programs were calculated in each lake. The
Table 3.7 was shown as the groundwater recharge (= Base flow) calculated using the
evaporation in each lake that the rainfall was subtracted multiplied by BFI. The portion of
groundwater recharge out of the total water resources amount is 1965.7Mm3. As described
herein, the proportion of groundwater discharge to recharge is about 20% at the most and
about 0.13% at the least in each sub-basin.
The sub basin is semi qualitatively classified into five relative aquifer potential zones based on
recharge, permeability, aquifer thickness, yield of springs and topography.
Accordingly, the sub basin has been classified qualitatively as very high, high, moderate, low,
very low potential aquifer zones.

The area, east of Wondo Genet escarpment in the Hawassa caldera, is classified as very high
potential aquifer. More than one highly permeable water-bearing unit of sand, pumice and coarse

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tuff, which is separated by aquitards of clay and diatomaceous clay are encountered in boreholes
in this area. Considerable amount of recharge to groundwater is taking place from overland flow
that comes from Wojigra- Guguma highland and direct precipitation. Perennial streams flowing
from the Easter highland into this area which induce indirect recharge through their river beds,
particularly during the peak dry months (Jan to march). There are many perennial springs with
good discharge that emanate from the Wondo genet escarpment and flow into this area that fed
the groundwater of this zone. As irrigation is a common agricultural practice in this area,
particularly in Wondo genet area, recharge from irrigation loss is additional source of recharge of
aquifers in this zone. The groundwater is under confined and semi-confined condition. One
borehole drilled, near Melga-wondo meat factory, was found to be under flowing condition.

There are also areas with High to Moderate Potential aquifers. Highly permeable sediment and
un-welded coarse tuff constitute the potential aquifers of this zone that is found in Hawassa –
Corbetti caldera. Water tables are generally deep. The area receives quite significant amount or
recharge from Shashemene escarpment and direct rainfall, during rainy season (May to October).
Unlike the Wondo genet escarpment, there are no either springs or perennial streams on this part
of the catchment. Hence the source of recharge is limited in time and amount. Here, below a
depth of 60 meters, an aquifer of ignimbrite can be encountered, as normally ignimbrite is the
basement of the region. However, boreholes drilled to greater depth in Hawassa – Corbetti
caldera can encounter hot water. The zone was rated as second because of its lesser recharge
when compared the first one. In addition to the mentioned two aquifers, there are also Moderate
Potential Aquifers, low to moderate potential aquifers, low potential aquifers and very low
Potential aquifer zone shares Hawassa sub basin in general.

In (RVLB Master Plan, 2009), estimation of ground water availability based on the amount of
rainfall recharging the ground water of some Woredas of different development zone in Hawassa
sub basin is made.

Table 32: Groundwater Recharge Amount in Lake Hawassa

Lake Evaponet BFI GWR Other Total
Name

Hawassa 91.6 0.45 40.8 2.3 43.1

Evaponet: Net Evaporation amount from lakes in rift valley area (Mm3).

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BFI: Base flow index.

GWR: Groundwater recharge amount (Mm3).

Others: Groundwater recharge amount used by all other water consumption (Mm3).

Total: Total groundwater recharge amount for the lakes (Mm3).

Table 33: GW recharge and GW resource availability of Hawassa sub-basin by

development zone
Woreda D/zone Recharge by Woreda Mm3/year Recharged by DZ
Mm3/year
Shalla 2 17.90 3
Shashemene 2 23.28
Siraro 2 18.08
Hawassa 4 22.61 3
Zuria
Shebedino 4 40.58
Summation 6 Mm3/year

GW recharge and GW resource availability of Hawassa sub-basin by development zone

Issues discussed about water potential in this assessment are adopted from Basin’s Master plan
study document and other various literatures including the old and outdated ones. It is assumed
that all water potential data will be updated by conducting reliable assessment in near future.

[Link]. Lakes Buffer zone situation assessment

From the side of Hawassa city, a number of recreational institutions are built at the lake edge. In
addition, solid waste affecting the water quality and aquatic life is often to be thrown either in the
surrounding or in the lake water without any restriction since there is no legal framework to do
so. However, Hawassa city municipality administration tried to manage the solid waste.

At the west part of Lake Hawassa, there is agricultural expansion and the land is vulnerable to be
eroded easily. At the west escarpments, there are uncontrolled mining activities and these
aggravated the erosion of upper catchments that contribute to the siltation of the lake Hawassa.
Moreover, small scale irrigation is also highly increasing at the lake edge of the lake in south,
south west and south east of the lake Hawassa.

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Irrigation agriculture around the lake contributes to the entrance of eroded soil, crop residue,
pesticide, inorganic fertilizers and other agricultural chemical containers in to the lake degrading
the lake water quality, sediment deposition leading to Lake depth decrease, eutrophication
(RVLBA buffer zone study report, 2016).Population density surrounding Lake Hawassa is high
and increasing the volume of waste production that finally terminated in the Lake directly, since
there is no buffer demarcation to the lake surrounding area.

In general, major problems on Lake buffer zone in the sub basin are cultivating the lands at the
vicinity of the Lakes, provision of land use license to cooperated youth near the Lake for the
objective of job creation, use of pesticides and herbicides that may pollute Lake water, clearing
lake shore plants which exacerbates lake ecosystem degradation, sand mining creating gullies
that trap sediments and uncontrolled cattle grazing. Such listed problems are revealed around
Lake Hawassa. So paying attention to set goal, objective and strategic plan for buffer zone
protection in the sub-basin plan development is vital (RVLBA buffer zone study report, 2016).

[Link]. Wetland situation assessment

According to Telford (2000), the Shallo swampy wetland (including the remnant of Lake
Cheleleka) has a surface area of 77.5 km2. Very little is known about the chemistry, physical
features, and biota of this wetland. The major functions and values of the wetland include:
 The water is used by local people for irrigation, sanitation, and as drinking water for
domestic animals.
 Much of the runoff from the catchment area of Lake Hawassa drains first into the swamp and
then gradually flows to the lake via the Tikur Wuha. Thus, the system plays a vital role in
controlling flooding, particularly that originating from the upstream farm lands
 It supports a diverse species of animals, plants, and micro-organisms, which makes it an
important regional biodiversity domain
 It is used by the farming community as a grazing area for cattle and - who exploit its
vegetation for a host of domestic needs
 The wetland plays an important environmental service by maintaining the hydrology of the
area, stabilizing the microclimate, and serving as a buffer against toxic substances from
natural processes and human activities in the catchment.
In general Cheleleka wetland found in Hawassa sub basin plays important role in environmental,

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social and economic improvement of the catchment. However, this wetland is now degraded highly
and its area is shrinking and being changed into dry land leading to serious problems of the
catchment and lake Hawassa. Hence, water resources allocation and management plan development
must consider conservation and rehabilitation of Cheleleka wetland in the sub-basin (RVLBA
assessment report, 2016).

[Link]. Water demand assessment

The water demand assessment includes irrigation, domestic, industrial, commercial and other
related water consuming sectors in the sub basin. Excessive water abstraction also leads to
fluctuation of the water level of the lake. There is already an indication that even without
intensive water abstraction/irrigation, the water level is prone to fluctuation due to climatic
influence. Therefore, any irrigation/excess water abstraction activity should be regularly
monitored to fit with the rate of recharge.

According to (RVLBDO assessment report, 2016), total annual consumption of water by hotels
found in Hawassa town is 460,060.06m3/annum and that of factories and industries is
2,368,704.22m3/annum. The report also indicated that the domestic water use of the whole
Hawassa sub basin is estimated as 5,019,464.82m3/annum. Irrigation water use was assessed in
woredas of the subbasin i.e. Wondo Sidama, Wondo Oromia, Hawassa zuria, tikur wuha/bishan
guracha and Tula kifle ketema woredas. The total irrigation water estimated from the woredas
inventory is 173565249.2m3/annum.
In general, the assessment report showed that the estimated total demand of water by different
sectors in Hawassa sub basin is estimated as 177,714,858.84m3/annum.

[Link].1. Domestic water demand

According to (RVLBDO assessment report, 2016), total annual consumption of water by hotels
found in Hawassa town is 460,060.06m3/annum. The report also indicated that the domestic
water use of the whole Hawassa sub basin is estimated as 5,019,464.82m3/annum.

There continues to be a water shortage in the town and the water supply needs to increase from
about 98l/s at present to 128 l/s to meet demand and 248 l/s by 2026. The Water Supply and
Sanitation Department is examining options to abstract water from a spring in Wendo Genet and
Kike spring on the Washa River which also serves Shashemene.

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 [Link].2. Industrial water demand
According to (RVLBDO assessment report, 2016), total annual consumption of water by
factories and industries is 2,368,704.22m3/annum.

[Link].3. Irrigation water demand

Irrigation water use was assessed in woredas of the subbasin i.e. Wondo Sidama, Wondo
Oromia, Hawassa zuria, tikur wuha/bishan guracha and tula kifle ketema woredas. The total
irrigation water estimated from the woredas inventory is 173565249.2m3/annum.
Table 34: Irrigation water consumption summery
[Link] Woreda Command area in ha Discharge M3/Annum

1 Wendogenet 2084.75 33,965,980.10

2 Wendo oromia 684 135,900,649.10
3 Hawassa zuria (Almeta,kadla & kelever) 582 900,620

4 Bishan guracha/Tikurwuha (Elfora & jitu ) 3000 2,420,000

5 Tula kifle ketema (Green hurbs ) 55 378,000

Total 6405.75 173565249.2

According to (RVLB Master Plan, 2009), there are considerations for increasing future irrigation
around of Lake Hawassa to as much as 10,000 ha. Such an increase in irrigation is unrealistic
and unsustainable as it would draw down Lake Hawassa to close to a dry bed towards the end of
the future time series. The lake level falls by 11.6 m and the lake area shrinks by 45.4% to an
area of 51 km2. By the end of year 2034 lake levels have fallen by 17.8 m, and the lake has
declined to 28 km2. However, Lake Hawassa is close to disappearing during the dry years of
2032 and 2033 when the lake area is less than 8 km2. This large area of irrigation results in a
decline in lake level of 0.6 m per year.
Table 35: Lake Hawassa level and area decline in relation to planned irrigation
(Kc crops)
Scenario Lake Hawassa Level threshold Change in lake Change in
No planned irrigation 10% of av. level level (m) mean lake area
(ha) (m) (%)
1 10,000 0.19 -11.55 -45.4

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2 1,000 0.19 -1.02 -4.0

3 700 0.19 -0.64 -2.5

4 500 0.19 -0.43 -1.7

Lake Hawassa level and area decline in relation to planned irrigation (Kc crops)
There is continuous abstraction of ground and surface water for irrigation purposes in Hawassa
sub basin. It has been reported that, about 7.6% of the community uses irrigation; mostly to
produce horticulture and sugarcane. Streams that are sources of fresh water and supply the Shallo
swamp and the surrounding marsh lands are used for irrigating about 400 hectare of agricultural
fields upstream of the swamp. There is also extensive shoreline encroachment where vegetables
are grown around the lake and the River Tikur Wuha using irrigated water. Summing all these
facts up, we can deduce that there is a continuous abstraction of water for irrigation activities.
Needless to mention that water abstraction, in spite of its economic benefits, will affect the
quantity of the lake water leading to other ecological problems.

The water level of the lakes has been recorded since the early 1970s. The variations by year and by lake
are obvious; however, the water level change of the lakes is not large in the long term. The water balance
of the lakes, recharge and outflow (evaporation, groundwater outflow) seems to be well balanced.
Therefore, securing a sufficient volume of drinking water seems to be possible. However, the problem is
not the quantity of water but the quality.

[Link].4. Livestock Water Supplies

The water intake by animals varies largely and depends on many factors, such as the prevailing
climatic conditions, the activity level of the animals, the amount and typeof feed consumed,
lactation, and the salinity of water. It isassumed that the livestock in rift valley consumes 15
l/d/TLU in the wet season(4 months) and 30 l/d/TLU in the dry season (Van der Meer, pers.
com.).This corresponds with an average daily intake of approximately 25 l/d/TLU, which is in
agreement with the typical use of livestock (Peden et al., 2006). Bearing this in mind, we could
consider the livestock population of Hawassa sub basin from RVLB master plan as flows-
Table 36: Livestock population in Lake Hawassa Sub-basin (TLU)
Part Livestock type
of
sub- Cattle Sheep Goats Horse Donkey Mule Poultry

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basin Total TLU

East 211,132 6,403 2,318 5,439 5,436 111 1,049 231,888

West 191,473 3,100 4,570 2,985 13,645 210 1,660 217,644

Total 402,604 9,503 6,888 8,424 19,082 321 2,709 449,532

Livestock population in Lake Hawassa Sub-basin (TLU)

Here the total livestock unit in the sub basin is 449,532. The standard for livestock water demand
is 25 l/day per livestock unit (TLU). Accordingly, livestock water demand in Hawassa sub basin
is estimated by 449,532*25 l/day/TLU = 11,238,300 l/day or 4.1million m3/annum.

Livestock in the sub-basin get water from different sources including lakes, rivers, springs,
ponds, wells and marshland. Local communities use Lake Hawassa as water supply for their
livestock and major rivers such as Tikr Wuha, Wedesa and their tributaries provide reliable
water. In Wondo Genet, Malga and Kofele weredas springs provide water for most of the year.
Ponds are used in Shala, Siraro and Shebedino and shallow and deep wells both with hand
pumps and motorized are also used.

The Cheleleka marshlands are a very important water source for livestock at normal periods and
particularly during times of water shortage and drought when they are also an important source
of forage. The annual water requirements for livestock have been calculated at 3.44 million m3
of which cattle consume just over 90% at 3.11 million m3. In general water is short during the
dry period but there are times in the year when the deficit becomes critical for the survival of
livestock. Livestock owners in Shala and Siraro weredas have reported that the availability of
water is a problem all the year round with the exception of a short period during the wet season.
In most of the rest of the sub-basin the months of January to April are critical periods with the
exception of Kofele and Wondo Genet weredas where water is available all year.
Coping measures include depending more on water from the lake and swamps, seasonal
migration to the Cheleleka marshland, water harvesting, transporting water for small ruminants
and taking cattle to watering points every other day.

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 4.2.2. Assessement of Water Quality in the Hawassa sub basin (trend and
current)
Lakes are fragile and vulnerable to global and local climate changes, and human intervention.
Changes in lake ecosystems as a result of climatic and anthropogenic factors can in turn have
significant impact on the livelihood of a society (Asgedom et al., 2012). Many lakes (wetlands)
throughout the world have vanished, shrieked, or showed changes in their ecosystem due to
several factors. Intensive land use for various purposes and associated deforestation and land
degradation have impact on the lakes hydrology, ecology and ecosystem services which
eventually led to decline in lake level in many regions of the world. Many studies have also
indicated that wetland ecosystem is one of the most vulnerable systems in the world to climate
change (Kassaye et al., 2012). Land use changes such as urbanization, deforestation, and
reforestation continue to affect groundwater-surface water interactions including percolation or
recharge, groundwater contributions to streams, and soil moisture as well as water availability
influencing ecosystem services (Nejadhashemi et al., 2011).

Wastes and effluents from different sources contribute to the pollution of the aquatic mediums.
In addition, entry of pollutants in to lake ecosystems from point and non point source pollutants
could result in accumulation of heavy metals in sediments and fish species (Asgedom et al.,
2012). High contents of nitrogen elements resulted in pollution of lake, and mercury was found
in fishes which makes fish unrecompensed for consumption (BAWA et al., 2007).

Lake Hawassa is the back bone of Hawassa city. It is the most important place for fishery
activities for both local and national market. It is also used for cultivation of vegetables,
recreational purposes as well as swimming and washing of cloths. Due to the fact that Lake
Hawassa is situated adjacent to Hawassa city and surrounded by agricultural lands, it is prone to
overloading with a variety of pollutants either through direct or indirect discharges. Lake
Hawassa watershed experienced rapid changes in land cover; and natural resources have
significantly diminished and are expected to continue. The lake is a closed basin with no known
outflow, and entirely retains all pollutant inter in to it. As a result, the lake is facing various
problems and the water quality gets deteriorated, and endangers the biodiversity supported by it.
Pollutants from agricultural land surfaces, built areas, factories, residential and business
establishments are getting access in to the lake through flooding, wind, and direct discharge of
effluents through open ditches.

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The use of pesticides became an integral part of farming industry and forestry in Ethiopia.
However, their application in the whole world resulted in that pesticides became one of the most
widespread and hazardous chemical substances polluting the environment. Pesticides deposited
into surface water bodies pose hazards to the environment and public health. They also
negatively impacts non-target species. In Ethiopia, 2-4D is the most imported pesticide b/n the
years 2006-10 followed by Glyphosate and Endosulfan (Teklu et al.). The impacts of pesticides
in Ethiopia are likely to be aggravated by the limited knowledge among users on toxicological
and chemical properties of these substances. The awareness of farmers regarding application of
pesticides is referred as one of the poorest in Africa; labels on pesticide containers were in a
language which cannot be understood or missing. in addition to these little is known about the
long term and indirect effects of pesticides on rural and urban communities as well as on local
and national food production systems (Teklu et al.). Application of pesticides results in
migration, accumulation in different links of ecological systems, death of useful flora and fauna,
pollution of the foodstuff, and, hence, an impact on the health and life of people. OCPs in edible
fishes from freshwater ecosystem were found in elevated concentrations depending on age and
feeding habit (Zhao et al., 2014).

Studies showed that Lake Hawassa seemed to have high concentrations of trace metals and
pesticides in its water, sediment and fish species as a result of exposure of the lake to effluents
from factories and domestic sewages in addition to absence of refreshing rivers (discussed in the
following sections in detail). These processes can lead to contamination of the biodiversity of the
lake ecosystem including fish. Consumption of mercury-contaminated fish results in subtle
neurological effects (Gilbertson and Carpenter, 2004).

Erosion and sedimentation are serious problems in the catchment. These processes may reduce
the storage capacity of the lake and can degrade water quality. Lakes are highly sensitive to
external influences which lead to rapid deterioration of its water quality and susceptible to
degradation (Zieliński et al., 2013). If large amounts of fertilizers or farm waste drain into a
river/lake the concentration of nitrate and phosphate in the water increases considerably. Since
fertilizers contain good amount of Pesticide, now classified as POPs, is a term used for a broad
range of chemicals, synthetic or natural that serve for preventing, destroying, repelling or
mitigating any pest and disease. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are
also drawbacks such as potential toxicity to humans and other animals (Walker et al., 2001).

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Eutrophication is visible in the lake, and as a result of it, the growing and dying grasses are
supplementing to the sediments which accumulates in the lake through floods and
discharges(Kassaye et al., 2012). The eutrophication process alters basic Lake Characteristics
such as depth, biological productivity, oxygen levels, and water clarity (EPA, 1994).

Figure 15: The interaction of various components that maight positively or

negatively affect water quality of Lakes (Ndungu, 2014)
If proper protection of the lake from pollutants is not in place, the concentration of pollutants
may be increasing in the lake ecosystem with the potential bio-magnification and
bioaccumulation in different trophic levels of the water ecosystem. This in turn affects the health
of the community which is dependent on the lake for livelihood. Therefore, the aim of this study
is to assess the overall activities in the lake Hawassa watershed that can be detrimental to the
lake ecosystem, and to determine the level of pollutants from point and non point sources.

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 [Link]. General water quality assessment of Lake Hawassa

Figure 16: Recent physical water quality of Lake Hawassa (2016/17)

[Link]. Hawassa Catchment Major Industries

[Link].1. Hawassa Industrial Park

Water pollution mitigation measures

 Domestic wastewater from the operations of the workers should be collected and
treatedinto the septic tank before being discharged to the environment. Mobile toilets
are used asan impact mitigation measure for domestic wastewater of workers.
 Construction equipment accessories and oil must be collected comprehensively to
avoidunexpected spilling on site.
 Design rainwater drainage ditches surrounding the site to prevent from contamination
ofimpurities before discharging to the environment.

Mitigation Measures for Impacts of Solid Waste (SW) and Hazardous Waste (HZ)

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SW includes building materials related waste such as rubble, sand and gravel, dead cement,
thewaste of external protection devices, domestic waste of workers on site including
protectiveobjects, cement bags, and others. The SW must be treated in a regular, concentrated
andclassified manner.

Construction waste: Limit waste generation in construction by reasonable calculation and use
of raw materials; reminding workers the importance of efficient us of materials, strict
management and supervision of the [Link]- toxic waste such as broken bricks, sand
residual sand and soil which will be used for site clearance. The Contractors shall collect,
classify and store construction waste regularly in the prescribed locations on site. The storage
locations must be convenient for dumping. They should be designed with hard walls, cover,
and temporary drainage ditches, etc to avoid losses and leakage of waste into the environment.
The construction waste will be transported every day to proper sites. Other waste such as
cement bags, protective equipment, steel pieces, welding rods, etc are collected and transportedto
designated places for reuse or resale to the wanting units. The contractors shall sign thecontracts
with the functional units which are specialized in transportation of waste under strictand regular
supervision of the Project Management Unit, to avoid illegal dump of constructionwaste.

Domestic waste will be collected in dust bins near the tents and temporary works to protect
theenvironment and hygiene. Contracts will be signed with the local Environment Service
Suppliers to collect and dispose waste under current [Link] created hazardous solid
waste such as oily rags and wasted oil must be collected in thespecialized storage tanks and cans
with sealed cover to secure hygienic storage and treated byhired functional agencies.

Ground Water Quality

As the construction activities are not expected to impact adversely on groundwater flow and
quality, no mitigation measures are recommended. However, the handling, storage and
disposalof materials and wastes at all stages of the construction of the facility should be based on
theESMP developed for the project. Training on safe practices for personnel involved in
handling,storage and disposal of materials and wastes should be provided.

The regular maintenance and inspection of equipment and vehicles will be ensured to prevent
potential sources of leaks.

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Control of Pollution by Waste Water

 Efficient utilization and reuse of water as required. Only essential amount shall be
used for the different industrial purposes and consumptions since uncontrolledutilization
of water means production of more waste water which makes pretreatment and treatment
more difficult and expensive.
 Good housekeeping is very important by way of appropriate storage of any oil and
grease, toxic materials and making industrial plant clean and neat by cleaning and
removing greases and other lubricants from machines and any spills on floors that
can be easily washed by water.
 Pre-treatment at the level of each plant in as much as possible. Primary treatment at
plant level is very important. Particularly, a lot can be done with physical
characteristics. Waste water usually contains large quantities of floating rubbish.
Floating matter, matter in suspension, colloidal matter can be removed by metal
bars, coarse or fine screens, trickling filters, grit chambers, grease traps, plain
sedimentation tanks.
 Provision of separate drainage for rain water and sewage to prevent overflow of
sewage with rain water.
Control of Solid Waste (Both hazardous and non-hazardous)

Installation of proper solid waste management based on ‘three R’s – Reduce, Reuse and
Recycle before destruction and maintaining safe storage of waste at the level of eachindustrial
plant, public buildings and other areas within the IP is a very important controlmeasure to start
with.

 Reduction on use of raw materials: This will correspondingly decrease theproduction of

waste.
 Reuse of waste materials: Refillable containers which are discarded after use canbe re-
used.
 Recycling of materials in the reprocessing of discarded materials into new
usefulproducts.
Where possible installation of composting technology, devices and equipment should be
encouraged at a plant and IP level where conditions of type of waste generated are suitable as

134
compost raw materials. This can be practical in the food and beverage industries.
All in all, the process of reducing, reusing and recycling saves money, energy, raw
materials, land space and also reduces pollution. After all these processes the IP should
dispose of any remaining solid waste (hazardous and non-hazardous) in their appropriate
separate spaces. No solid waste shall be dumped in open spaces and along the banks of
streams or in the streams and rivers themselves.

The IP management would be responsible for the collection, storage and disposal of solid
waste at the IP level but each factory would be charged for the waste management cost.
Each factory would also be obliged to collect and segregate its waste and expected to have
standard waste bins. The frequency of waste collection will depend on the characteristics
of the waste: organic waste would be collected daily but non-degradable materials can be
collected twice or three times per week. Hazardous waste would be collected once in a
month but the exact schedules can be fixed after studying the generation rate of the waste.
Resource recycling facility will be available in the IP. The purpose is to maximize the
ecoefficiency of the whole area.

[Link].2. HawassaTextileFactory (HTF)

Hawassa textile factory (HTF), located at the Eastern edge of Hawassa city, wasestablished
in1989. Thefactory uses large amounts of ground water mainly as a solvent forprocessing
chemicals and awashing-rinsingmedium. According to Zerihun Desta (1997) the factory
discharges about 1200m3 of liquid waste every day ataflowrateof13.9l/[Link] HTF is the
most studied industrial effluentin the city, and the effluents were analysed by different
researchers at different occasions.

Previous studies (Zinabu Gebremariam and Zerihun Desta, 2002; Zerihun Desta, 2003; Zinabu
Gebremariam and Pearce, 2003; BireneshAbay, 2007; BehailuBerehanu, et al., 2010) indicated
that waste water from the factory is treated, both chemically andbiologically, beforethe effluent
is discharged into the surrounding. The chemical treatment takes place with in the compound of
the factory and involves the use of sulphuric acid to neutralize the wastewater which has Avery
high pH. However, an investigation by Lijalem Hailu (2011) and our recent visit to the factory
have revealed that the chemical treatment plantisnon- functional. The biological treatment takes
place in oxidation ponds located about 2km away from the factory and it is very close to the

135
neighbouring rural community.
Recent observation of the factory’s dischargeeroute confirmed that the raw wastewater from the
production process is released into four treatment oxidation ponds and then the “treated”
effluent is discharged through underground concrete tube into an open ditch. Another separate
discharge, considered tobe from washing and sewage system of the factory, joins the effluent
from the ponds athe open ditch and all of the waste streamsahead toTikur Wuha River through
Boeitcha stream. Previously, it was reported (Zerihun Desta, 1997; Birenesh Abay, 2007) that
the factory effluent is discharged into the nearby Shalloswamp/ wetland. However, the present
observation on theroute of the discharge revealed that the effluent intercepts the wetland only
attheedgeandjoinsBoeitchastreamflowing througha ditchtowardsTikur WuhaRiverthat ends up
in Lake Hawassa.

There is no regular environmental audit system andnolegal body has ever monitored the factory
for the typeof effluentdischarged, manner of disposal or compliance to environmental laws and
principle sof the EEPA. Effluent from textile factories is known to contain complex mixtures of
chemicals that varyin composition from factory to factory as well as on atemporal basis at
individual factory based on material used inwet processing (Wynneetal.2001). Studies on HTF
by several researchers (Zinabu Gebremariam and Zerihun Desta, 2002; Zinabu Gebremariam
and Pearce, 2003; BireneshAbay, 2007; YadessaChibsa, 2011) have clearly shown the presence
of toxic substance in the effluent that is discharged from the treatment plants (bothchemical and
biological treatment ponds). Accordingly, effluent discharged from the factory after treatment
contains high concentrations of organic and inorganic chemicals and it is loaded with different
toxic substances, someof which are much higher than the MPL. This suggests that the waste
treatment methods used by the factory are inefficient. Therefore, the effluent from the factory
that contains pollutants reaches the nearby water bodies (Boeitchastream, Tikur Wuha and then
Lake Hawassa) and the immediate environment. This could posea serious threat to the biota and
disrupt the ecological integrity of the environment to which they are linked.
Brinesh Abay (2007) and morere cently Yadessa Chibsa (2011) studied the phsico-chemical
parameters and heavy metal concentrations of the effluent flowing down the watercourse
(Boeitchastream) to Tikur Wuha River at different points. The concentrations of some of the
physico-chemical parameters reported by Yadessa Chibsa (2011), suchaspH, phosphate, total
dissolved solid (TDS) and electrical conductivity in the effluent were much higher than in the

136
raw wastewater and above the provisional waste discharge limitset by the EEPA (2003) and
WHO (2002). Although the measured pollution parameters downs tream along Tikur Wuha
River were highly reduced compared to the raw wastewater, concentrations of most of the
pollutants entering the lake were still higher to meet the provisional discharge limits set by the
EEPA (EEPA, 2003).
Yadessa Chibssa (2011) determined the concentrations of some heavy metals in different
aquatic media along the wastestream and found that the concentrations followed in descending
orderin: sediments >macrophytes >wastewater. It is possible that the concentrations of the
chemicals may be much higher in the sediments than the wastewater itself due to the
accumulation effect, and henc ecreating an extended effect on the waterbody and the biota.

Birnesh Abay (2007) and Yadessa Chibssa (2011) reported four heavy metals (namely Cu, Mn,
Zn &Cr) in treated effluenttand two more (Hg andAs) were reported previously by Zinabu
G/Mariam and Pearce (2003) and recently by Behailu Berehanu, etal (2010). According to
Yadessa (2011), the heavy metals concentration in wastewater samples was found in the order
of Cu>Mn>Zn>Cr. The concentrations of heavy metals in sediment andi n macrophytes also
followed almost the same order, i.e. Mn>Zn>Cu>Cr.

Given that trace metals are not usually eliminated from aquatic systems by any known means
(Forstner and Wittmann, 1983 cited in Zinabu Gebremariam and Pearce, 2003), it is evident that
the lake is facing Avery serious threat of heavy metal contamination. Therefore, the effluent
from HTF can be considered as the major gate way of toxic substances and nutrients in to Lake
Hawassa.

Inanut-shell, eventhough the concentrations of most of the heavy metals detected in wastewater
from HTF were low and with in acceptable ranges of the provisional discharge limits of
industrial waste (EEPA, 2003), their accumulation overtime should be emphasized as potential
threat to the ecological integrityof the environment.

[Link].3. Moha Hawassa Soft Drinks Factory (MHSDF)

This factory was established in 2007. The RT has confirmed that the raw wastewater from the
factory is treated chemically, mainly by neutralization processes, using acids in a treatment plant
located within its premises. The chemically treated effluent from the factory goes through
underground tunnel (for only some distance from the factory) then flows through an open ditch

137
around a residential area of a nearby rural community. According to our observation, the effluent
from the factory is channeled through PVC pipes buried under the earth and is released into an
open concrete ditch. There are two ponds right where the effluent is released into the open ditch
from the PVC pipes. The ponds were presumably constructed to serve as storage ponds. But they
were too small to hold the large volume of the effluent even for a few hours (according to local
informants) and are not used at the moment. Instead, an alternative open ditch that leads into the
open has been constructed. The effluent is finally collected through a metal pipe and discharged
into the open at the edge of the Shallo swamp. The effluent then eventually reaches a stream
(named as “Boga” by the local people) flowing down and joins another stream named as
“Boietcha” that flows in to Tikur Wuha river. The rate of effluent discharge from this factory is
not yet determined by the factory, but according to Behailu Berehanu [Link]. (2010) it was
estimated to be 3 liters per second (l/s). It has been observed by the RT that as the effluent from
MHSDF runs through the ditch, the people in the neighborhood use it for irrigation and for other
domestic purposes. We have been able to learn that no environmental protection institution
monitors the factory.

Behailu Berehanu [Link]. (2010) studied the composition of the effluent from this factory and
detected some nutrients, organic materials and heavy metals. However, this has not been
confirmed by other studies and it is very difficult to be certain at this moment.

[Link].4. BGI Hawassa Brewery Factory (BGI-BF)

Like other sectors of industries, breweries in Ethiopia have also got attention in terms of their
pollution contribution to the environment (Yared Shumate, 2008).Brewery plants have been
known to cause pollution by discharging effluent into receiving stream, ground water and soil
(Olajumoke , [Link]., 2010). It has been estimated that approximately 3 to 10 liters of wastewaters
are generated per litre of beer produced in breweries (Kenatu Angassa, 2011).

The BGI Hawassa brewery factory started production in 2010. It is a relatively recently
constructed factory, and is located at the Eastern part of Hawassa city in the industrial zone
between Moha soft drink factory and Hawassa textile factory. The Factory uses modernized
technology for treatment of the ground water used for production and waste water. The treatment
system includes chemical treatment using neutralization method and biological treatment using
oxidation ponds in the compound of the factory. The treated effluent from the factory joins the

138
waste stream from Moha soft drink factory at an open ditch of Boga stream and then flow to
Tikur Wuha and finally Lake Hawassa.

Because it is recently operational factory, the chemical composition of the effluent discharged
has not been studied. Although we do not have data on the chemical composition, it will not be
out of place to mention the possible composition from other studies.

According to Fillaudeau (2006), the physical parameters of brewery wastewater include color,
door, temperature, turbidity. Brewery plants produce large quantities of highly polluting
wastewater rich in organic substances. Generally, the wastewater is the combined effluent
comprising discharges from various sources of unit operation in the plant and is usually
characterized by wide variation both in the discharge volume and the strength of pollutants such
as biological oxygen demand (BOD)5, carbon oxygen demand (COD), total solid (TS) and pH.
Considering the continuous variation in the discharge of wastewaters (both in quantity and
quality) due to the nature of the factory’s operation, a brewery effluent can generally be
characterized as medium to high strength waste.

[Link].5. Tabor Ceramics Factory (TCF)

Tabor ceramics factory was established in 1996. According to the information available, the
liquid wastewater from the factory is collected in a kind of storage pond located inside the
compound of the factory for long periods of time. According to the people living in the area, the
effluent from the factory is discharged directly into Lake Hawassa through storm drainage lines
along Shashamanne-Hawassa road side near the Tikur Wuha bridge. Behailu Berehanu, et al
(2010) indicated that the effluent was monitored once or twice by EEPA. However, the factory
has no regular environmental audit system and no legal documented reports concerning
compliance to environmental laws and principles of EEPA.

Behailu Berehanu et al. (2010) reported higher levels of nutrients (especially S2, SO4 and PO4)
and heavy metals such as Zn and Hg exceeding MPLs of industrial waste. Massive growth of
plants in the biological lagoon in the ceramic factory compound may be associated with high
nutrients concentration in the effluent. Therefore, the presence of high nutrient load and toxic
metals like Hg in the effluent could affect the aquatic life as the effluent is directly discharged
into the lake.

139
 [Link].6. Etab Soap Factory (ETAB-SF)
Etab soap factory, located near HTF, is founded in 2005. According to the factory officials, the
factory is not discharging the waste out into the environment. The overall liquid waste generated
by the factory is collected in the septic tank and when filled disposed by city municipality liquid
waste disposal transport service. The by-product of the raw material is used as source of energy
for the boiler. Therefore, there is no way the factory effluent reaches the lake and thus not
potential source of pollution to the lake.

The only effluent analysis result of the soap factory was that of Behailu [Link]. (2010). For
analysis, the sample was taken from the storage container of effluent and it is very difficult to
confirm the credibility and reliability of the data. However, among the measured parameters, the
effluent contained higher concentrations of nutrients (NO3 and PO4), SO4 and Pb that is above
the general limit (EPA, 2003). The concentration of SO4, NO3 and PO4 were about twenty, sixty
seven and fifteen times, respectively, the general limit. Currently the factory is not discharging
the liquid waste to the environment and thus not directly contributing to the pollution of the lake
in particular and the surrounding in general.

[Link].7. Hawassa University Referral Hospital (HURH)

The HURH, located at south-eastern edge of Hawassa city, started operation in 2006. The
hospital and the waste stabilization/ oxidation ponds, which treat the wastewater of the hospital,
are constructed in close proximity to Lake Hawassa, about 200 m to north of the hospital and
about 150 m from Hawassa Lake.

The wastewater generated from the hospital (including that from students‟ dormitory, toilets,
laboratories and cafeterias) flow directly to the ponds for treatment and finally the treated
effluent is directly discharged into the Lake. According to Simachew Dires (2008), the estimated
volume of wastewater that enters in to the ponds from the hospital was about 47 m per day and
the effluent is released at flow rate of 2 l/s (or 172.8 m3 per day) from the treatment ponds.

Studies (Dana et al., 2005; Rezaee et al., 2005) indicated that hospitals discharge contains
considerable amounts of chemicals and microbial agents in their wastewaters. Even though the
hospital uses treatment ponds, the study results of Simache Dires (2008) and Hunachew Beyene

140
and Getachew Redaie (2011) clearly showed inefficiency of the hospital treatment system and it
is highly likely that some of the pollutants would reach the lake.

Concerning physico-chemical characteristic, Simachew Dires (2008) reported mean dissolved

oxygen (DO) concentration of the treated wastewater far less than the value recommended for
fish to respire and perform metabolic activities. Both Simache Dires (2008) and Hunachew
Beyene and Getachew Redaie (2011) reported the effluent BOD, COD and total suspended solid
(TSS) concentrations higher than that set by the U.S. federal standards (USEPA, 2001) for
effluent quality discharged in to the lake and the European Commission or EC) for
Environmental Protection minimum effluent standards.

Concerning heavy metals, the concentration of the Cu, Ni and Zn in the treated effluent of the
hospital reported by Simache Dires (2008) was below the standard limits (USEPA, 2001). But
Cd, Pb and Ag were not detected in the effluent. However, according to Hunachew Beyene and
Getachew Redaie (2011), the concentration of Ni and Zn in the effluent was higher than the
values recommended by Food and Agriculture organization (FAO) for agriculture reuse (Pescod,
1992).

Simache Dires (2008) reported a microbial contamination due to faecal coliforms in the treated
hospital effluent that exceeded standard levels of 1000 cfu/100 ml. Therefore, the effluent of the
hospital discharged in to Lake Hawassa may have a probability to contain photogenic and drug
resistant microorganisms. Thus, the chance of multi drug resistant bacteria to leave the treatment
plant is also high (Hunachew Beyene and Getachew Redaie, 2011). In summary, the available
information mentioned above indicates that due to inefficient treatment of the waste water
from the hospital, the lake receives considerable amount of pollutants including nutrients, heavy
metals and pathogenic bacteria, the values of most exceeding the standard limits.

[Link]. Non-point sources of pollution

Very little research work has been done to assess the non-point source pollutants in Lake
Hawassa watershed; even though report of Demelash Amare (2008) indicated they often are the
major contributors to onsite degradation of agricultural lands and offsite pollution of Lake
Hawassa. In addition, there is little information on sources, impacts and possible management
options of non-point source pollution. A brief description of each of the run-off from urban

141
settings (mainly from Hawassa city and Tikur Wuha city) and rural areas (agricultural fields) in
the catchment are presented hereunder.

[Link].1. Run-off from urban settings

Hawassa city can be considered as one of the rapidly growing cities in Ethiopia. The growth of
the city across different economic sectors, the noticeable migration from rural areas in the region
and the increased number of higher learning institutions (both private and government) in the
city has made Hawassa a major population center. As a result of this, the city has undergone a
substantial physical expansion and urbanization is visible with enormous urban sprawls in almost
every corners of the city in general (i.e. especially in the South and South East part of the city).

With the expansion of urban infrastructures, the urbanization process resulted in major changes
in the natural conditions of the Hawassa city watershed. With construction of residential and
other buildings to accommodate the increasing population (both private and governmental), road
rehabilitation and upgrading works, etc.; the main features of the natural areas are modified in
Hawassa. Generally the urbanization process influences the natural surface detention, the
infiltration characteristics and the drainage pattern formed by the natural flow paths. Lake
Hawassa is located at 1680m above sea level (a.s.l.) while the city of Hawassa is located at
1685m a.s.l. and the caldera rim rises to 2700m a.s.l (Behailu Berehanu, et al,2010). Therefore,
the surface and subsurface drainage from the immediate watershed, including Hawassa city, is
towards the lake and hence, the lake is the main destination for any type of pollutants generated
from anthropogenic activities in the city and its surroundings. The same is true for Tikur Wuha
city located at Northern part of the lake near Tikur Wuha River.

The runoff containing pollutants from the city, particularly at the eastern and south-eastern
shoreline of the lake, channelled through ditches into the lake at different points (in the vicinity
of Greenwood and unique Parks, Amoragedel, Referral hospital; etc.). Similarly, the runoff from
Tikur Wuha city is channelled into Tikur Wuha River near the bridge through two big
constructed and directed ditches. Therefore, the runoff from these areas is expected to contain
different kinds of pollutants that would eventually reach the lake. Even though, runoff in the
water shade of Lake Hawassa has not been studied, it is useful to see the potential pollutants in
the urban runoff from other studies. According to Tenagne Addisu (2009), trace metals,
suspended solids, nutrients, pesticides, petroleum products, and pathogenic bacteria (faecal

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coliform) are generally found in higher concentrations in urbanized and urbanizing areas
than in natural systems, due to increased numbers of people, vehicles, roads, and building
materials introduced into the landscape. These constituents that storm water runoff carries
through drainage canals is found to be a major source of pollution to surface water quality and
groundwater resources. Though the actual composition of wastewater may differ from
community to community, as described by Hussain, [Link] (2002), all municipal wastewater
contains organic matter; nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium); inorganic matter
(dissolved minerals); toxic chemicals and Pathogens. Therefore, runoffs entering the lake from
Hawassa city and Tikur Wuha city are anticipated to contain some of these pollutants.

[Link].2. Runoff from rural areas

Intensive agricultural and deforestation activities in the catchments are serious environmental
problems in most Ethiopian rift-valley lakes (Zinabu Gebremariam and Elias Dadebo, 1989;
Zinabu Gebremariam 2002). Human settlement and urbanization in the drainage basin of Lake
Hawassa is concentrated mostly in the eastern part of the catchment with the rest of it left to
various agricultural activities.

Our visit to the catchment area of Lake Hawassa revealed that agricultural production is a major
activity of local farmers residing at the northern, western and southern part of the catchment.
Also there are state and private farms at the northern catchment area and these include
Wondotika state farm, the seed multiplication plots of the seed corporation, the ELFORA farm,
the G-farm located near ELFORA, etc. Furthermore, the RT observed intensive shoreline
agriculture at south and south-eastern part of the lake. According to Susanne (1995), however,
agriculture is generally regarded as one of the largest contributor of pollutants of all the
categories and the pollutants are usually discharged as a component of natural runoff into surface
waters and the underlying groundwater. Through current observation, we have been able to
verify that in the part of the catchment where there is agricultural activity; there is very little
plant cover because of the increased tilling of the land and overgrazing of the vegetation.
Therefore, the soil is exposed to erosion. This has been the trend for many years and will
probably continue the same way. Such land use and degradation of catchments will certainly
lead to runoff with increased input of sediment (sediment inundation) and nutrients which will
eventually cause eutrophication of the lake.

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In this regard, the only available study on Lake Hawassa catchment is that of Demelash Amare
(2008) carried out to identify primary sources of the non-point pollution in the watershed and
assessed the relative contribution of each source. Results of the researcher indicated the presence
of strong association of land use/land cover, run-off water yield, non- point sources and
pollutants. The major pollutants identified were sediment/siltation and nutrient loading.

One other aspect of increased agricultural activity in catchments of water bodies is chemical
pollution from agro-chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides). We have no information on how much
agro-chemicals are being used in the catchments of Lake Hawassa. However, we are sure that
the state and private farms, and south-eastern shoreline vegetable farms, even some local
farmers, etc., which are in the catchment of the lake may use some kind of agro- chemicals that
end up in the lake.

One of the indications that the lake is polluted with Persistent Organic pollutants (POPs) of
pesticide origin is the findings of a more recent study by Yared Beyene [Link]. (2013). these
researchers detected organochlorine pesticide (predominantly DDTs) in the muscle and liver of
fish in Lake Hawassa. Therefore, the runoff from those agricultural fields in the catchment area
is expected to carry the pollutants into the lake through storm water ditches or water courses.

[Link]. Pollutants in Lake Hawassa

As described in the above sections, Lake Hawassa receives wastewater containing complex
mixture of pollutants from factories, referral hospital, storm water (urban run-off) from Hawassa
city as well as Tikur Wuha city and from agricultural fields. Usually, the level of pollutants in
the aquatic environment is determined by measuring the concentration in water, sediment and
living organisms. In this section attempts will be made to present the pollutants in different
media of the lake (water, sediment and fish) giving special attention to concentrations of toxic
substances (heavy metals) and nutrients.

[Link].1. Pollutants in the lake water

A study on the long-term changes of Lake Hawassa (Zinabu Gebremariam et al., 2002) has
shown that the chemical concentrations of the lake have decreased and it has become more dilute
over the last 40 years. This study also revealed that, unlike the rest of the ERVL (with the
exception of Lake Langano) the salinity (and its correlates -conductivity, alkalinity and sodium

144
concentrations) of the lake has decreased since the early 1960s. Behailu Berehanu, [Link]. (2010)
also reported the absence of appreciable variation in EC in the Lake water over the years except
for the change from 1961 to 1964. Zinabu Gebremariam et al., 2002) reasoned out the possibility
that the lake could have been saline at one point in time and then changes associated to water
level may have diluted the lake, and they suggested that the water level and the chemical
concentrations of the lake may have fluctuated over the years.

However, a more recent study (Behailu Berehanu, et al., 2010) indicated that pH showed 3-little
variation within four decade; the concentration of nutrients (NO3-, NH4+ and PO4) were slightly
increasing over the years; and sodium concentration is by far greater than other metal ions in the
Lake. Alemayehu (2008) described that the dominance of Na could be due to weathering of
acidic rocks. During our visit to southern shoreline of the lake, the RT observed extensive
stone mining sites, a short distance from the shoreline. Therefore, weathering of rocks as result
of mining activity and entering into the lake in the run-off from these sites may be responsible
for increased [Link] recently, Andualem Gezahagn (2013) investigated water of the lake for a
total of eight heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Mn, Cr, Ni, Cd, Co and Pb) and only three were detected
(namely Cu, Cr and Ni). A similar result was reported by Simachew Dires (2008) but, Mesfin
Mengesha (2009) reported additional four heavy metals, Hg, As, Pb and Se. According to
Andualem Gezahagn (2013), concentration of heavy metals detected in the water of the lake
generally followed the order of Ni > Cr > Cu. The concentration of Ni and Cr determined in the
water (Andualem Gezahagn, 2013) were greater than the standard of WHO (1993) and USEPA
(2006). But, the recorded concentration of Cu is far below the standards (WHO, 1993 and
USEPA, 2006).Zenebe Yirga (2011) and Andualem Gezahagn (2013) investigated the
concentration of heavy metals in water of Lake Hawassa sampled from different sites (Tikur
Wuha, Dorie Bafana and Hospital) selected based on potential sources of pollution. The Tikur
Wuha site contained significantly higher concentration of Cr and Ni compared to the other
sampling sites. Furthermore, the Metal Pollution Index (MPI) values calculated were highest for
Tikur Wuha (0.088) followed by Dore Baffena (0.075) and Hospital sites (0.071). This result
revealed that Tikur Wuha site had highest metal pollution (Andualem Gezahagn, 2013).

The three heavy metals (Cu, Cr and Ni) were also detected in samples taken from hospital site
(Andualem Gezahagn, 2013). Simachew Dires (2008) detected three additional heavy Metals

145
(Cd, Pb, and Zn) at the same site with Zn concentration being the highest and only Cd exceeded
the standard limit (0.01 mg/L) set for lake water (EC, 1998 and USEPA, 2002).

[Link].2. Pollutants in the sediment

The only available information about sediment constituent of Lake Hawassa is that of Girma
Tilahun and Tigist Amare (2011). They assess the potential accumulation of heavy metals in the
sediment and detected a total of five (namely, Hg, Cr, Zn, Cd and Pb). The average concentration
of each of the detected heavy metals was higher than that of the reference site, indicating
potential accumulation in the sediment. Among the metals, Zn concentration was the highest.
The concentration in the sediment followed the order of Zn > Cr > Pb > Hg > Cd.

[Link].3. Pollutants in fish

Fish occupies the highest trophic level in aquatic systems. According to Zhou et al. (2008), fish
attracted a lot of attention as bio-indicators for monitoring aquatic pollution, due to their
relatively large body size, long life cycle, position in the aquatic food chain and their use for
human consumption. Furthermore, Ahmed and Shubami-Othman, (2010) pointed out that fish is
a good bio-indicator of water quality because it has a potential to accumulate heavy metals and
other organic pollutants of water. Moreover, Pourang et al., (2005) reasoned out that exposure of
fish to elevated metal levels in an aquatic environment may cause them to take up metals from
their direct environment.

It is well known that fish in polluted water could accumulate heavy metals in their organs (e.g.
liver, muscle, gills, etc.) and muscle is considered in the discussion below from consumer’s
safety point of view because it is the principal edible fish section and can directly affect human
health.

Lake Hawassa supports at least six fish species (Elias Dadebo, 2000 and Zerihun Desta, 2003),
three of which are commercially important (the Nile tilapia or Oreochromis niloticus; the African
sharptooth catfish or Clarias gariepinus; and African big barb or Labeobarbus intermedius); the
other three species, although not directly utilized by the fisheries, have an important ecological
significance.

Different researchers (Abayneh Ataro et al., 2003; Zerihun Desta, 2007; Asrat Fekadu, 2013; and
Andualem Gezahagn (2013) have reported the presence of various metals in organs(muscle,

146
liver, gills, etc) common fish species in Lake Hawassa. But the reliability of these data needs to
be verified by further studies. Previous studies (Abyneh Ataro, [Link]., 2003 and Zerihun Desta,
2007) revealed the presence of less number of heavy metals in muscle of only two species (O.
Niloticus and C. gariepinus), most of which were below the limit.

The detection of large number of heavy metals with majority of them higher than the limit in
recent studies (Zenebe Yirgu, 2011; Asrat Fekadu 2013 and Andualem Gezahagn, 2013) is an
indication of increased pollution danger of Lake Hawassa if and only if confirmed by further
studies. This also has implications in terms of consumers safety point of view; survival of the
fish and other aquatic life; and biodiversity of aquatic life.

[Link]. Possible Adverse Effects of Pollution

As described in section 2.1 above, Lake Hawassa is under a serious pollution threat due to
anthropogenic activities from the Hawassa city and its surroundings. Although the effects of
pollution on Lake Hawassa are not noticeable at the moment, the long term effects are inevitable
unless mitigation measures are taken as early as possible.

There is no comprehensive study conducted in Hawassa to see the overall picture of

environmental impact caused by all kinds of pollution in general and the effluents discharged
from factories into the immediate vicinity of Lake Hawassa that eventually reach the lake. We
present here the potential effects of pollution on Lake Hawassa based on available information.

[Link].1. Effects of pollution on water quality

The quality of water is central to all of the roles that water plays in our lives and good water
quality is fundamental to the network of life and livelihood that water supports. Water from the
Boga and Boeitcha streams, near the residential area of rural community and water of the Tikur
Wuha River; have been used by the people for different purposes for a long period of time.
However, the waste water discharged from the factories into the stream has radically altered the
physical, biological and chemical quality of the stream water and its receiver, the Tikur Wuha
River.

According to the residents in the area, since the establishment of HTF, the waste water released
and mixed with the streams is turbid and this gave a bad appearance and foul odour. Due to the
altered physico-chemical parameters and high concentrations of some heavy metals in the waste

147
water, the water quality of Boga and Boeitcha streams and Tikur Wuha River are poor and not
safe for human and animal consumption. People in the area use the effluent for irrigation and,
according to Michel [Link]. (2007), the use of wastewater for irrigation also leads to risk of ground
water pollution through leaching and sorption of heavy metals.

Polluted water that cannot be used (for drinking, bathing, industry, or agriculture, etc) effectively
reduces the amount of water available in a given area. Therefore, the water quality of the streams
and the river has been severely affected since the establishment of HTF. Thus, people in the area
are in short supply of safe water primarily because of industrial pollution. Although
eutrophication in Lake Hawassa has not yet observed and not a problem now, with continuous
input of the pollutants, particularly with loading of nutrients and organic matter, eutrophication
may be a challenge in the future.

Even though, Lake Hawassa receives different kinds of pollutants from different sources,
including the factories, studies showed that its water quality has not been severely affected and
seriously disturbed in the past years apparently due to dilution of the pollutants.
Therefore, the present quality of the water of Lake Hawassa is suitable for both domestic
purposes and irrigation (Zinabu Gebremariam 2003). However, the future trends of the lake may
not continue to be as optimistic as they are now, as pollutants loading to the lake have still
continued with no pollution mitigation measures.

[Link].2. Effects on aquatic life

In particular when it contains pollutants and released into the system in partially treated or
untreated form. The threats imposed on aquatic life can be direct, affecting survival, growth and
reproduction of the organisms and/or indirect by making them unusable to humans.

Results of early experimental studies on aquatic biota (Zinabu Gebremariam and Zerihun Desta,
2002) has shown that the effluent from HTF kills fish of different species (probably due to the
toxicity from the heavy metals in the effluent). Similarly, a recent toxicity study on fish revealed
that effluent from HTF caused highest mortality on fry of Nile tilapia, followed by effluents from
ceramics and soft drink factories (Behailu Berehanu, [Link]. 2010). A more recent study by Kssaye
Balkew (2013) also confirmed the toxicity of the HTF effluent to Nile tilapia. The findings of
these studies strongly suggest that the effluent from factories is potentially hazardous to the

148
survival of fish. Therefore, the adverse effects of the effluent, from HTF and other factories in
the area, on the biota of the lake are the ultimate environmental concern.

Experimental studies (Zinabu Gebremariam and Zerihun Desta, 2002; and Behailu Berehanu
Berehanu [Link], 2010) to investigate the effect of effluents from factories on aquatic plants (algae)
revealed highest rate of algal growth compared to the control group at low concentrations of
effluent. According to Behailu Berehanu [Link]. (2010), high concentrations of plant nutrients
(particularly phosphate and nitrate) present in the effluents of factories might be responsible for
the observed excessive algal growth. This boost of algal (phytoplankton) growth is an indication
of the likely-hood of eutrophication in the lake.

On the other hand, Behailu Berehanu [Link]. (2010) demonstrated reduction in the rate of algal
growth with increasing concentration of the effluent and this may be explained by the toxic
effects of the effluent when the concentration reaches a considerable level.

Several studies (Zenebe Yirgu, 2011; Asrat Fekadu, 2013 and Andualem Gezahagn, 2013)
demonstrated accumulation of different heavy metals in organs (muscle, liver, gill, etc) of
commonly edible species of fish (O. Niloticus, [Link] and [Link]) in Lake
Hawassa. This is an indication that heavy metals are accumulating in aquatic biota. With
continuous input of pollutants into the lake, the level of heavy metal concentration is
expected to rise to levels that would affect the physiology of aquatic organisms that may lead to
reduction in the fitness of the natural population. As described by Farkas et al. (2002), the
progressive and irreversible accumulation of heavy metals in the various organs of aquatic life in
Lake Hawassa would ultimately leads to metal-related problems in the long run because of their
toxicity, thereby endangering the aquatic biota including fish.

[Link].3. Effect on domestic and wild life

According to Kumar et al. (2006), aquatic macrophytes can accumulate large amounts of heavy
metals in their tissues from polluted water. Birenesh Abay (2009) and Yadessa Chibsa (2011)
reported that macrophytes are growing along the waste stream discharge way of factories and
analysis showed that they accumulated heavy metals in concentrations more than that in effluent.
Observations revealed that domestic animals graze macrophytes and other species of grasses
grown near the wastewater discharge point and also drink out of the effluent. Therefore, the

149
heavy metals in aquatic macrophytes can be transferred through food chain and bioaccumulation
in livestock. Thus, this is a potential of health risk to livestock grazing these macrophytes and
drinking the effluent.

Wild animals, particularly birds, are observed feeding and swimming in treatment ponds of the
HTF and in the discharged waste, and also there are reports of other wild animals such as hyena
drinking out of the effluent. Although the effect of effluent from the factories to the immediate
surrounding has not been investigated, the birds and other wild animals in contact with effluent
(feeding and drinking) also may be in danger of harmful effects.

Yadessa Chibsa (2011) surveyed households in the industrial neighborhood to find out if there is
any health problem of livestock. According to the result, the most serious health problems
encountered by livestock were decrease in productivity, abortion, sickness and weight loss, and
even death. This is indicative of the effect of industrial pollution on domestic animals.

[Link].4. Effects on humans

As described in the previous sections, the factories located at the eastern edge of Hawassa city
discharge untreated or partially treated effluent into the immediate surroundings of the rural
residential areas. Observations made by Birenesh Abay (2007), Yadessa Chibsa (2011) and
currently by RT revealed that due to scarcity of tap water or other safe fresh water sources,
people in the area have no alternative but to use contaminated waste water from the factories for
different purposes. They use it for bathing, washing clothes, irrigation, etc. This suggests that
people in the area are directly or indirectly exposed to pollutants in the effluent, which some of
them may be at toxic levels. Exposure of the people in the area to pollutants in the effluent may
involve direct contact, consuming contaminated agricultural products (crops, vegetables, fruits,
etc), and livestock (milk, meat, etc), as well as fish in polluted water. These exposures may have
effects on human health and livelihood.

[Link].5. Human health risk

A range of pollutants in the environment are known to have direct and indirect impacts on human
health, including inorganic and organic contaminants. Among the pollutants, extended exposure
or exposure to high concentrations of metals can have serious consequences for humans as these
metals tend to bioaccumulate in tissues (UNEP GEMS 2007).

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Some heavy metals detected in water of Lake Hawassa tend to accumulate in the tissues of
important fish species. Therefore, in the long run, humans regularly consuming these fish can
receive high concentration of the toxic metals exceeding the maximum permissible (MPL) level
in the diets, depending on the amount consumed.

The human health risk assessment was determined in a study by Ermias Deribe (2012) where
consumption of a certain amount of fish from ERVLs including Lake Hawassa, could pose a
threat to health because of POPs and mercury present in fish. According to this study, children
and pregnant women of the local community, especially the subsistence fishermen and their
families are the most vulnerable population sub-group. Thus, the people in the area are at risk of
health problems related to environmental pollution.

The effluent from the factories is also used for irrigation to produce crops, vegetables and fruits
and the effluent has been reported to contain toxic heavy metals that contaminate soil. According
to Dudka and Chlopecka (1990), plants are known to accumulate heavy metals in their edible
portion as a result of cropping on contaminates fields. Moreover, there are reports that
consumption of metal contaminated crops may lead to many kinds of diseases in humans
(Oluwatosin [Link]., 2005; Zheng [Link]., 2007; Bosso and Enzweiler, 2008; Fu et al., 2008; Lim et
al., 2008; Agbenin et al., 2009). For example, high prevalence of upper gastrointestinal tract
cancer in Turkey has been linked to heavy metal pollution of soil, fruits and vegetable
(Turkdogan [Link]. 2003). Therefore, introducing heavy metals into the food chain through waste
water irrigation may have potential health risk for producers and consumers in and around
Hawassa city. Although there is very little information about the magnitude of human health
impact due to effluent pollution in Lake Hawassa, a survey conducted by Yadessa Chibsa (2011)
showed that people living in neighbourhoods of factories encountered different health problems
as a result of direct or indirect exposure to the effluent. The health problems reported includes
skin allergy, breathing problem, vomiting, and loss of appetite, fatigue, headache and diarrhoea.
Some of these symptoms are typical to heavy metal toxicity to humans reported by several
researchers (Jordao et al., 2002; ATSDR, 2004 and 2008; Rai & Tripathi, 2009; Rehman and
Sohail Anjum, 2010). As clearly indicated in the previous sections, effluents from factories and
Hawassa referral hospital, urban and agricultural storm run-off that enter Lake Hawassa contain
pathogenic organisms originating from human and animal wastes. These can contaminate Boga

151
and Boeitcha streams; Tikur Wuha River and finally Lake Hawassa and highly affect quality of
the waters. Because of the absence of adequate tap water in the area, many people in and around
Hawassa city use these contaminated streams, river and lake waters. It is obvious that using this
water contaminated with pathogenic organisms would have likelihood to cause water-borne
diseases. Although this has not been studied, it should be very seriously considered as the water
from streams, the river and Lake Hawassa is consumed by the people and their domestic animals.

[Link].6. Effects on livelihoods

Clean water and healthy freshwater ecosystems provide the basic goods and services upon which
many livelihoods depend, including irrigation water, fertile floodplains for agriculture and
grazing, and habitat for fish that may be eaten or sold. According to Husain, et al. (2010),
industrial wastewater and the resulting environmental pollution deteriorates the quality of water,
soil, crop and environment. And polluted water can reduce or eliminate the viability of many
livelihoods (Palaniappan, et al. 2010).

Farmers at the shoreline use Lake Hawassa and those near the factories use effluent in irrigation
agriculture. Using water of Lake Hawassa for irrigation may not be of great concern as
most of the pollutants detected were below the standard limit of irrigation agriculture. But using
effluent is a big concern because it contains several kinds of pollutants, especially, heavy metals,
some of which are above discharge limits. Soil and water pollutants that adversely affect
agriculture include sediment, out of place nutrients, inorganic minerals, organic wastes,
infectious agents, industrial and agricultural chemicals, etc. Most of these pollutants were present
in effluents from the factories.

According to Reddy and Behera (2006), contamination of soils from polluted irrigation water is
responsible for loss of cultivable land. And water and soil pollution affects the economic
productivity of agriculture by destroying crops, reducing food crop quality, and/ or diminishing
yields. A good example to show how much industries effluent irrigation affects agricultural yield
and livelihood is the yield loss projected by Kurnia et al. (2000) in India. According to this
researcher, after 20 years of textile industrial effluent contamination, the average rice yield will
be decreased by about 80% due to pollutions. A survey by Yadessa Chibsa (2011) indicated that
those people who used factories effluent for irrigation reported reduced fruits and vegetable
productivity, changes in their color and burning of their leaves. This suggests that farmers that

152
use effluent in agricultural production may loss yield and this would greatly affect their
livelihood. As describe in the section related to the effect of pollution on domestic animals
above, livestock were forced to depend on polluted drinking water due to inadequate supplies of
safe water to the people around the industrial area in Hawassa city. According to Yadessa Chibsa
(2011) drinking this effluent from the factories caused sickened livestock resulting in loss of
reproductive capacity and production of poorer quality milk and even it may result death. There
are people who depend on products of their livestock for income and the industrial pollution
could greatly affect livelihood of the people in the area. Commercially important and edible fish
species of Lake Hawassa were exposed to pollutants and some of them accumulated heavy
metals in their muscle in higher concentration than the water. Some of these heavy metals are
known to be toxic to fish and can affect their survival and reproduction.

Water pollution and associated accumulation in the organs of fish can cause a decrease in fish
production either by reducing or eliminating fish populations or by making fish unsafe or
undesirable for consumption. On top of the existing overfishing and faulty fishing observed in
Lake Hawassa, continued pollution of the lake would be a major threat to fishery in the future. If
mitigation measures are not taken, this would clearly affect the livelihood of fishermen that
depend on it.

4.2.3. Catchment/Watershed Situation Assessent of Hawassa Sub Basin

The lake Hawassa watershed is located in SNNPR and Oromia region which cover 80 and 20%
of the area, respectively. From the hydrological point of view, the watershed drains to Lake
Hawassa, a lake which is found within the Rift Valley basin. The watershed is found at 275km
south of Addis Ababa. Geographically, the watershed is found within 6045’to 7015’north of
latitude and 38015’ to 38045’ east of longitude.

The watershed comprises six woreda form SNNPR and four woredas from Oromia region, some
partly. The area coverage of each woreda presented on Table below:

Table 37: Administrative structure of Lake Hawassa watershed

Region Zone Woreda Area (Km2) %

SNNPR Sidama Awasa Zuria 254.8

153
 Boricha 94.6

Shebedino 39.8

Wondo Genet 227.4

Melga 150.4

Goriche 56.7

Hawassa City 155.5

Sub Total 979.2 69.5

Shashemene 188.3

Shala 74.8

Oromia West Arsi Siraro 51.9

Kofele 23.6

Sub-total 338.6 23.9

Lake Hawassa 93.8 6.6

Total 1411.2 100

The watershed comprises more than 120 rural kebeles which is the lowest government
administrative structure. Particular emphasis was given on kebeles found within Hawasa zuria
woreda which is found the western side of the watershed.

154
 Figure 17: Administrative map of Lake Hawassa watershed

Based on the reconnaissance survey results, particular emphasis was given for the western part of
the watershed. As it is observable on Figure below, the western side of Lake Hawassa watershed
is highly degraded compared to the eastern part.

155
 Figure 18: Location map of Lake Hawassa Watershed
[Link]. Topography

[Link].1. Elevation
The highest elevation found around the eastern escarpment of the watershed and the lowest
around Lake Hawassa. About 770 km2 of the watershed area is within the lowest elevation class
(1559-1859).

156
 Figure 19: Elevation class of Lake Hawassa Watershed

[Link].2. Slope
The slope of the watershed ranges from 0 -3, 3-8, 8-15, 15- 30, 30 -50 and > 50 %. The slope
categorization using the FAO classification scheme and is as per practice prevalent in Ethiopia
for soil and water conservation. The steep slope is found around Wondo Genet escarpment
(Abaro Mountain), the northern part of the watershed (chebi
(chebi hill) and the western part (Hurufa
ridge around Shamena Hurufa & Germama kebeles). According to this classification, the major
landforms in the watershed include flat to gentling slopping, undulating plain, rolling hills,
moderately step, steep and very
ery steep and, ountains. about 50% of the watershed is covered with

Flat to almost flat (0-3%),

3%), 34% gently slope (3-8%
(3 8% ) and around 1.2% steep to very steep slope.

157
Table 38: 12 Slope class of Lake Hawassa Watershed

No Slope class (%) Area(Km2) % Remark

1 0-3 692.48 49
2 3-8 483.04 34
3 8-15 133.16 9.4
4 15- 84.80 6
30
5 30- 17.16 1.2
50
6 >50 0.76 0.05
Total 1411.4 100

Figure 20: 13 Slope class of Lake Hawassa Watershed

158
 Figure 21: 14 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Hawassa watershed.
[Link]. Soil Assessement
Ethiopian Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise have classified the soil based on the
physical and chemical characteristics. Depth, color, structural development, texture and evidence
of profile development such as presence of diagnostic horizons, reaction to 10% HCl and PH
value are some of the classification criteria based on which soil map has been produced, Eutric
Vertisols, Chromic Vertisol, Eutric Fluvisols, Vitric Andosols, Mollic Andosols, Water, Humic
Glyesol, Pellic Vertisols, Chromic Luvisols and Orthic Luvisols.

The response of a river basin to rainfall events depends on the nature and conditions of
underlying soils (Shrestha et al, 2008). The soil textural and physicochemical properties required
by the SWAT model include soil texture, available water content, hydraulic conductivity, bulk
density and organic carbon content for each type of soil. These data were obtained from FAO
(1998, 2002) and Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy of Ethiopia.

The shape file which describes the distribution of soil in the study area was obtained from
(MoWIE). It was observed that, Eutric Vertisols, Chromic Vertisol, Eutric Fluvisols, Vitric
Andosols, Mollic Andosols, Water, Humic Glyesol, Pellic Vertisols, Chromic Luvisols and
Orthic Luvisols, are the most dominant soils in the catchment. The value of different soil

159
parameters (properties) for each soil which were collected from the above soil data sources will
be listed in (Appendix).

Table 39: 13 Major soil types in the Hawassa watershed.

SNo Soil Name Area ( ha) (%)of coverage

1 Eutric Vertisols 720.5 6.82

2 Chromic Vertisols 428.5 4.06

3 Eutric Fluvisols 2206.25 20.90

4 Vitric Andosols 1036.25 9.82

5 Mollic Andosols 1692.25 16.03

6 Humic Glyesol 385 3.64

Water 662.25 6.27

7

Pellic Vertisols 469.5 4.44

8

Chromic Luvisols 1083.75 10.27

9

Orthic Luvisols 1868 17.70

10

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 Figure 22: 15 Major type of soil in Hawassa watershed
[Link]. Land Use /Land Cover
The main land use of the sub-basin is rain fed agriculture of annual and perennial crop with small
area of mechanized farms at the shala and Hawassa state farms. Cheleleqa marshlands to the east
of Hawassa city serve as grazing land. Land use was demented by cultivation with open grass
land scatter trees on the plains and rolling plains, dense grass land on seasonal and
perennial marsh land wooded bush and woodland on the mountains and open shrub land and
grass land on the elongated escarpments (Halcrow, 2008).The eastern highlands are moderately
vegetation and low lands close to foot of the escarpment are relatively well covered with mixed
type vegetation, while poorly drained western and part of Watershed is devoted of vegetation and
it is several in the high lands. Northwest mountain area formed of obsidian rock formation is
converting with dense bush. Remotely sensed images are vital in the land use and land
cover classification specially when dealing with large and inaccessible study area.

The land use of Hawassa Watershed has been changed progressively due to extreme
deforestation as a result of increase in population, which results in replacement of
vegetation cover by Cultivation land. Agriculture is the main land use practice in the Watershed
and occupies most of the floor of the Watershed. Open bushy woodland with cultivated land
found on the floor and southern part of the area; Cultivated land with exposed bare rock and soil
found on southwest corner of the area; Open grassland covering the eastern escarpment western
caldera rims; Open grassland with open bushy woodland on the volcanic hills are land use land
cover condition of the area (as of 1998 surveyed by WWDSE). As the deforestation of the
natural vegetation cover continues soil loss due to erosion will result and it is aggravated where
the slope is higher especially on the escarpments.

Land use is one of the most important factors that affect runoff, evapotranspiration and surface
erosion in a watershed. Spatial distribution and specific land use parameters were required for
modeling. SWAT has predefined land uses identified by four letter codes and it uses these codes
to link land use maps to SWAT land use databases in the GIS interface. Hence, while preparing
the lookup table, the land use types were made compatible with the input needs of the model.
Hence the classified land use map and its attribute were adjusted to the SWAT model

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requirement format and database. Agricultural/Cultivated land and Woodland is the dominant
land use in the Hawassa lake catchment. The land use map (shape file) was obtained from
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy in the format of shape file (1998). The reclassification
of the land use map was done to represent the land use according to the specific land cover type.

Figure 23: Major Land use land cover in the Hawassa catchment

Table 40: Major land use land cover of Hawassa watershed

Land Use Area(ha) % of coverage

Bushy Wood land 3894 36.90

Cultivated Land 4496 42.61
Grass Land 674 6.39
Bare land 149 1.41
Urban Built-up 176 1.67
Swamp 447 4.24
Lakes 716 6.79
Lake Hawassa, which is the landmark of Hawassa city, is under serious threat of ecological
degradation caused by anthropogenic factors. The major factors contributing to this threat are: a)
dumping of untreated effluents from industries, b) dumping of untreated domestic wastes from

162
the growing urban population, c) massive siltation caused by degradation of the catchment, and
d) irrigation and use of agrochemicals (Proceeding of National workshop on Lake Hawassa,
2010).

The need to manage Lake Hawassa and its watershed is getting more crucial at this time than
ever. As noted by Gregersen et al. (2007), integrated watershed management can only be
effective if they are grounded in the technical realities of what is going on with the soil, water
and biophysical resources and the interactions between them. Thus fundamentally, an effective
interaction or combination of institutional and technical information is required for successful
watershed management that results in lasting benefits for the stakeholders living in the
watershed.

4.2.4. Risk Assessement and Uncertanities of Hawassa Sub Basin

[Link]. Assessment of Climate change and Variability
Temperature, precipitation, and soil moisture are important requirements for primary production
of natural ecosystems. These factors are expected to change because of global warming. Thus,
assessment of the likely impacts of climate change on drought through these factors is necessary.
The outputs of a modeling exercise employed (MT-IV) for the estimation of future precipitation
time series for the periods 2014–2040, 2041–2070, and 2071–20100 representing 2020, 2050,
and 2080s, respectively showed an Increase of temperature and precipitation in the Hawassa
Watershed as a result of increasing carbon dioxide. The projected annual mean precipitation,
minimum, and maximum temperature of Lake Hawassa watershed exhibited an increasing trend
for all the study periods (MT-IV). The dry and wet spell pattern of future period is almost the
same with current conditions. Even if the GCM (Global Circulation Model) simulation showed
increment in precipitation; it is compensated by increasing evaporation due to the global
warming anticipated in the future. As a result, the conditions of drought on Lake Hawassa
watershed will intensify in the future (MT-IV). Analyses on results of drought confirmed that
drought conditions of future periods will increase with respect to the duration, severity, and
frequency of the drought. The analyses of drought occurrence at different categories and time
series showed that the watershed is moderately prone to both mild and moderate droughts, but
less prone to severe and extreme droughts (MT-IV). The results indicated that climate change
will largely affect and increase drought duration, frequency, and severity in the watershed and

163
subsequently the design of future water resources projects. Thus, sustainable water management
measures should be planned to mitigate future impacts of droughts in the watershed.

The significant rising trend of Lake Hawassa water level is one of the main environmental
threats for the city of Hawassa, which has been established at the eastern shore of the lake. It is
still the subject of concern and center of debate among the stakeholders since the last few
decades especially in the aftermath of the 1998 flood that caused displacement of resident
population, destruction of properties and infrastructure by inundating vast areas along the lake
shore. According to WRDB (2007) and WWDSE (2001), the lake level rise and the associated
surface expansion affected about 162 urban and 2244 farmers‟ households, 13 different
organizations, water supply schemes, 10 ha of sand quarry, roads, and forestland. In monetary
terms, the total physical damage was estimated to be 43,490,524 Ethiopian birr (about € 5.4
million).
The hypothesis of "climate-hydrology link" was conceived in this study after the recognition of
coincidence between the lowest lake level record in the year 1975 with a strong La Niña year and
the maximum lake level in 1998 with the strongest El Niño year. La Niña and El Niño are
anomalies in ocean surface water temperature.
Improved understanding of the effects of climate variability on the water level of Lake Hawassa
can help in managing the hydrosystem in general.

"The water level variability of Lake Hawassa is linked to Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
anomalies. It is further studied, whether regime shifts occur in the hydro-climatic variables
corresponding to the occurrence of North Pacific climate shifts and El Niño/La Niña events".
The impact of climate shifts and ENSO phenomena on the hydrological status of Lake Hawassa
is to analyze the long-term trends (variation over-time) and sequential regime shifts (variation
across-time) for lake level, rainfall, stream flow, and lake-evaporation data series; and To
compare significant change points of the above hydro-climatic variables with the timing and
intensity of North Pacific climate shifts/El Niño/La Niña occurrences.
According to these sites, El Niño represents the warm phase of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) cycle and La Niña represents the cool phase of the cycle, and is sometimes referred to as
a Pacific cold episode.

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The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomena have a strong impact on the weather and
climate variability of Ethiopia (Haile, 1988). Farther to the north, Eastern Equatorial Africa-a
region that includes Kenya, Southern Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, and Tanzania - generally
experiences more rainfall during El Niño years. There, the deluge associated with the 1997 El
Niño was nearly unprecedented (Ropelewski, 1999). Similarly, Goddard and Graham (1999)
commented that the rainfall variability in Eastern and Southern Africa is the conjunction of two
competing effects of the Pacific and the Indian Oceans. Warming of the Eastern Tropical Pacific,
during an ENSO event, tends to alter the atmospheric circulation dynamics above Eastern Africa
and to reduce rainfall rate on this area. The effects of La Niña are generally less pronounced in
Eastern Equatorial Africa and tend to be the opposite of those of El Niño (Nicholson and Selato,
2000). The interval between the two strongest El Niño events occurred only 15 years apart and it
should be typically 30 to 40 years and these changes are unlikely to be due to natural variability
alone (Trenberth and Hoar, 1997), and natural atmospheric cycles such as the Pacific Decadal
Oscillation (PDO), the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) or the chaotic nature of the atmosphere
might also have a role to play (McPhaden, 1999).

The Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) has become the de-facto standard that NOAA uses for
identifying El Niño (warm) and La Niña (cool) events in the tropical Pacific. For the purpose of
reporting, for an event to be categorized as weak, moderate or strong it must have equaled or
exceeded the threshold for at least three months. The threshold is broken down into Weak (with a
0.5 to 0.9 SST anomaly), Moderate (1.0 to 1.4) and Strong (≥ 1.5) events (Null, 2013). It
indicate in hydrological insights for the region/sub basin the average annual recharge for 1998–
2010 reveals a remarkable decrease from the highland (410 mm/year) towards the rift floor
(25 mm/year). Both the spatial and temporal recharge variability is mainly controlled by the
climate. In the rift floor, recharge is found to occur only when annual precipitation exceeds a
threshold of approximately 800 mm. A sensitivity analysis reveals that annual recharge is very
sensitive to variations in precipitation and moderately sensitive to temperature changes. The
relative sensitivity increases from the highland to the rift floor across the watershed. Increases in
both precipitation and temperature, as suggested by climate change projections for Ethiopia,
appear to have an overall positive impact on recharge in the majority of the catchment. These
implications also for other catchments where recharge is spatially non uniform and provide a

165
basis for further investigations into the assessment of groundwater resources and their
vulnerability to climate change at the watershed and sub-watershed scale.
(AbrahamMechalThomasWagnerSteffenBirk [Link]

[Link]. Assessment of water use conflict

Population growth, increased economic activity and improved standards of living have led to
increased demand for water resources in the sub-basin. In the Sub-basin the main competing
water sector is irrigation development that supports the economy of the Sub-basin as well as the
country. In the Sub-basin which both small scale and large scale irrigated agriculture has
expanded rapidly. Due to population growth the water demand for domestic use increases over
time. Comparing to other Sub-basins in the basin, the Sub-basin infrastructure services
highly/fast development area. In addition to this it is found center of sub-basin and Capital city
of S/N/N/P/R which is a conducive environment for the market; these leads to the expansion of
different water demanding industries in the Sub-basin. Beside to these the environment by itself
requires water to sustain life.

Climatic change which characterized by low rainfall, low river flows, high demand for Industry
and irrigation water, water pollution, failure of water storage delivery and distribution systems
has accelerated water stress in the Sub-basin. In the Sub-basin there is a limited water resource
with an increasing demands of Domestic water users in rural and urban, Small and Large
Irrigated agriculture farmers, Private commercial Agricultural farms and servesies, Industrial
water users, Recreational and Tourism , different government institutes and NGOs .This leads to
scarcity of water, which in turn, inevitably lead to conflict over resources. The Sub-basin is
under a high risk of water use conflict. This conflict is further aggravated by high social inequity,
economic marginalization and limited non-land, non-water dependent sources of livelihoods.

[Link]. Geological hazards

Deformation due to magmatic activity within the Corbetti volcanic complex has been interpreted
from satellite interferograms by Biggs et al. (2011) suggesting magmatic activity underneath the
Corbetti Caldera. Prominent geological hazards in the Hawasa area are surface erosion, ground
fissures and hazards related to fluctuations in lake water levels. The rate of gully development in
the Hawasa area was studied by Moges and Holden (2008). Controlling factors of gully
development related to surface erosion were investigated by Carnicelli et al. (2009). Ayalew et al

166
(2004) report causations and processes related to the formation of ground cracks. Tadesse and
Zenaw (2003) and Ayenew (2009) note the causes of fluctuations of water levels in Lake
Hawasa and losses caused by the rise of levels affecting Hawasa city.

The Main Ethiopian Rift (MER) is a magmatic rift that marks the axis of continental extension
between the Nubian and Somalian plates. It represents the portion of the greater East African Rift
System that traverses through Ethiopia and is characterised by numerous magmatic segments and
volcanic centres that have assisted in accommodating extensional strain since ~2 Ma (Ebinger
and Casey, 2001; Casey et al., 2006). Seismicity in the MER is generally diffuse along the rift
basin, where earthquakes are typically of small to intermediate magnitudes (M < 6). However,
numerous examples of structurally damaging events have been documented over the past
century, such as:
 A M6.3 event close to Hawassa in 1960 that was felt 200 km away and produced 28
aftershocks (Gouin, 1979).
 AMW 5.3 earthquake on the eastern escarpment of the Hawassa basin in 1983 that caused a
rock slide and building collapse in Wendo Genet (Hofstetter and Beyth, 2003).
Despite improved monitoring over the past decades however, seismic hazard remains relatively
poorly constrained (Midzi et al.,
Earthquakes of low to intermediate magnitudes are a commonly observed feature of continental
rifting and particularly in regions of Quaternary to Recent volcanism such as in the Main
Ethiopian Rift (MER). Although the seismic hazard is estimated to be less in the Hawassa region
of the MER than further north and south, a significant earthquake occurred on the 24th January
2016 in the Hawassa caldera basin and close to the Corbetti volcanic complex. The event was
felt up to 100 km away and caused structural damage and public anxiety in the city of Hawassa
itself.
The resulting location is at 7.0404_N, 38.3478_E and at 4.55 km depth, which suggests that the
event occurred on structures associated with the caldera collapse of the Hawassa caldera in the
early Pleistocene and not through volcano-tectonic processes at Corbetti. We calculate local and
moment magnitudes, which are magnitude scales more appropriate at regional hypocentral
distances than (mb) at four stations. This is done using a local scale (attenuation term) previously
determined for the MER and spectral analysis for ML and MW respectively and gives magnitude

167
estimates of 4.68 and 4.29. The event indicates predominantly normal slip on a N-S striking fault
structure, which suggests that slip continues to occur on that have exploited weaknesses inherited
from the preceding caldera collapse. These results and two previous earthquakes in the Hawassa
caldera of M > 5 highlight that earthquakes continue to pose a risk to structures within the
caldera basin. With this in mind, it is suggested that enhanced monitoring and public outreach
should be considered

[Link]. Assessment of Risks related to industries

In Hawassa Sub-basin large and small scale industries has been booming due to various reasons.
The sectors in which these industries engage are Hawassa Industrial Park, Tabor Ceramic,
Chipud production, Blocket production, and Wondo Company, Textile, Soft drink, mineral
water, Floury, Soap, & BGI factories. Additionally, small scale industries including
metalworking, wood working, garages and fuel suppliers located within the city of that also have
little in the way of pollution control and dispose of effluent into the city drainage system which
is then pumped into the lake. These industries are mainly found in cities like, Hawassa &
Shashemen. ,
Based on different intellectuals, Textile & other industries in Sub-basin uses considerable
amounts of chemicals, in which most of them are pollutants and toxic. The Excessive and
uncontrolled use of such inputs currently disrupts the biophysical environment and affect the
wellbeing of humans. Lake Hawassa is one of the eight Major Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes and
the smallest among them which is situated in southern regional state; it is a closed basin system
and receives water from only perennial Tikurwuha River and runoff from the catchment areas. It
is an important source of water for surrounding rural communities for various uses like domestic,
irrigation, livestock watering, fishing and recreation. Quality of the lake water is vital for the
surrounding rural and urban communities for proper and safe use of the lake.

Lake Hawassa water quality has been threatened and becoming less suitable for the variety of
purposes being used. The recent abstraction of water for irrigation and, it is drastically changed
both with lake level and its hydrochemistry. Rather than the health and environmental effect of
Textile industry there is also a problem on the working conditions which characterized by low
wages, job insecurity and frequent violation of employees’ rights, and an absence of
social dialogue and poor safety measures.

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The main surface water resources in the sub-basin are concentrated in Lake Hawassa and the
Cheleleka wetlands which are fed by a number of streams and rivers from the eastern highlands.
These wetlands act as storage and this resource then feeds Lake Hawassa via the Tikur Wuha
River which has a flow of 6-7 m3/s throughout the year. There are very few surface water
resources in the west and north of the sub-basin. It is estimated that the surface water resources
have the capacity to irrigate a maximum of 500ha.

The rise in the level of Lake Hawassa during the late 1990s was a major issue since lake levels
rose significantly and flooded parts of Hawassa city impacting some 2,165 households, affecting
a total of just under 15,000 people and had cost ETB 43.5m in physical damage with an annual
loss to individuals and businesses of ETB 15.6 million. Much of the flooding in Hawassa city
was the result of lake water being forced water through, not over, the flood embankment
protecting the city.

Hawassa city has been and is continuing to grow rapidly and the urban and industrial areas are
encroaching onto agricultural land surrounding Hawassa. (Cheleleka marshland) where there is
little in the way of pollution control with effluent usually drained into the river systems
connected to the lake.
Wastewater quality data show that treatment lagoons (where established) are not functioning
properly and that industry and the urban area in general are major pollution sources to the
Cheleleka wetlands, the Tikur Wuha River and Hawassa Lake. Furthermore the city does not
have a proper sanitation system or a wastewater treatment plant compounding any pollution
problems. Solid waste disposal has not been cited as an issue in any sector but it will become an
issue with a growing population and particularly with the expansion of the industrial sector.
There are no specific interventions aimed at pollution control since this is under the jurisdiction
of the Hawassa municipality. Interventions aimed at increasing the industrial base of the sub-
basin include the establishment of micro-enterprises and infrastructure improvement as well as
increasing productivity in agriculture (including livestock) which will drive the development of
agro-processing industries (Source master plan ).

169
 [Link].1. Major Risks related to industries
Based on different assessments that undertaken by the Authority itself, scholars, researchers and
interested governmental and non-governmental organizations, the major risks related to
industries in the Sub-basin are listed as follows.
 Water shortage and Water use conflict
 Water pollution
 Soil pollution
 Air pollution
 Health impact
 Improper waste management
 Improper drainage system
 Improper irrigation system & utility

4.3. Abaya Chamo sub basins

4.3. 1. Assessment of Water resource in the sub-basin trends and current situation
[Link]. Surface water resources assessment

Surface water is the primary source of water for human use. Knowing the potential, availability,
and use of surface water would help to increase the productivity of agriculture, improved ways
and means of the traditional water management systems, increase drinking water supply and the
hydroelectric power generation in the coming future. The water resource in Abaya-Chamo sub
basin particularly the Rivers are used as an important source for food, drinking and agriculture
water, wildlife, grazing and water for livestock and as a repository for human and agriculture.
This makes the issue of water resource availability very crucial for effective water resources
management and improves livelihoods.

The total surface water resource of the Abaya-Chamo sub basin of the RVLB is estimated at just
over 3,018Mm3/year, calculated from total annual average River flow into the Lake systems
under ‘natural’ conditions - without human abstractions. Significant inflows in the Rivers Bilate,
Gidabo and Gelana produce estimated inflows of 830 Mm3/year, 550 Mm3/year, and 280
Mm3/year into Lake Abaya, respectively.

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 Table 41: Surface water resources of Abaya-Chamo Sub-basin
Lake Total Total contribution of the water resource
Sub-basin
system resource(Mm3) for RVLB (%)
Abaya 2,512 47.4 %
Abaya-
Chamo Chamo 506 9.6 %
Total 3,018 57%
Source: - RVLB master plan study, 2009

Table 42: Basic bathymetry of Abaya and Chamo Lakes

Location Elevation Drainage Surface Minimum Maximum Storage Salinity
area(km2) Area(km2 depth(m) depth (m) Volume [g/l]
Name Latitude Longitude (m.a.s.l)
(km³)
Abaya 37 º50' 06º15' 1169 16,342 1094 7 24.2 8.2 0.77
37º38' 05º50' 1110
Chamo 2,210 315 12 14.2 3.3 1.09

Source: JICA, 2010

Rivers

Most Rivers in the sub basin are categorized as non-perennial Rivers. Even though some large
Rivers can be classified as perennial Rivers, the amount of discharge in the dry season is quite
limited. Therefore, stable provision of water volume for irrigation and supply as drinking water
from the River is out of consideration. Except the Bilate, Kuflo and Gidabo Rivers, most of the
flow rates are less than 2m3/s in the dry season.

171
Mean monthly flow (m3/s)
A. Trends in Bilate Mean Monthly flow (m3/s)
100
Mean monthly flow (m3/s)
Linear (Mean monthly flow (m3/s))
50 y = 0.021x + 7.472

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420

Months (Jan 1971-Dec 2007)

35
Mean monthly flow (m3/s)

B. Trends in Gidabo Mean Monthly Flow (m3/s)

30
25
Q (m3/s)
20 y = -0.007x + 7.067
Linear (Q (m3/s))
15
10
5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250

Months (Jan 1985 up to Dec 2006)

C. Trends in Hare Mean Monthly Flow (M3/S)

10
Mean monthly flow (m3/s)

Mean Monthly discharge (m3/s)

8 Linear (Mean Monthly discharge (m3/s))

6
y = -0.002x + 2.308
4

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Months (Jan 1985-Dec 2006)

172
 D. Trends in Kulfo Mean Monthly Discharge (m3/s)

60
Mean monthly flow (m3/s)

50 Mean Monthly discharge (m3/s)

40 Linear (Mean Monthly discharge (m3/s)) y = 0.046x + 4.345
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Months (Jan 1985-Dec 2006)

Figure 24:1A, 1B, 1C and 1D: Trends in mean monthly flow of major rivers of
Abaya-Chamo basin

The above figure shows the trends in the historical flow in to lakes for the available time
horizon. In general, the observed historical flow from Gidabo and Hare river shows
decreasing trend. Whereas, the inflow from Bilate watershed has shown increasing trend.
Many scholars indicated that the historical trends of temperature (Tmax and Tmin) and
evaporation loss from Bilate watershed was increasing while the rainfall shows decrease.
Therefore, we can conclude that the rise in Abaya Lake water level is due to sedimentation at
the upper catchments. But this has to be proved via modelling and sediment analysis and
should be supported with concrete evidences. In general the trends in the Lake Abaya shows
dramatic increase in the lake water level which is against the observed historical inflow
volume in to the lake (See figure below).

173
 Trends in Lake Abaya Water Level (m)
5
Mean Monthly Water level (m)

4
Lake water level (m) Linear (Lake water level (m))
3 y = 0.003x + 1.118
2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250

Months (Jan 1986-Dec 2007)

Figure 25: shows trends in the Lake Abaya mean monthly water level
[Link]. Rainfall Distribution
Average precipitation amount will be important for the purpose of understanding the general
characteristics of water resources amount in a given area. Based on the Thiessen polgon
division, the total annual precipitation amount (T_rain) over the watersheds of Abaya-Chamo
Sub-basin is calculated in table below.

Table 43: Summary of Precipitation in Abaya-Chamo sub basin

Annual average
Watershed Area ([Link])
precipitation in (mm)
Billate 5409 1121
Gidabo 3491 1054
Gelana 3856 894
Hamassa 1125 1025
Kulfo 1302 849
Sille-Chamo 1429 886

According to (Abrham A., 2018) indicate that the spatial rainfall variability of the sub basin is
mapped using long term annual mean of 24 rainfall stations indicates the seasonal proportion
of 47%, 35% and 18% of annual rainfall in summer, spring and October to February
respectively fall in the basin. The variability in amount could be related to the difference in

174
 moisture sources and variation in elevation. Eastern highland of Abaya Chamo Lakes basin
gets bi-modal rainfall along its N-S transect from Morocho towards Hageremariam during
April and May. The second peak in these areas is in September and October. In the area, the
summer (JJAS) rainfall is relatively lower than the spring (MAM) and October peaks.

western highland stations north of 6.300 Rift floor stations North of 6.30 0
180
Humbo Tebela Bilate Farm Bilate Tena Bedessa
wolaita sodo Boditti shone Hossana 160
300
140
250 120

RF in mm
100
200
80
Ax is Title

150 60
40
100 20
0
50
Jan Feb Mar Apri May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

0
Jan Feb Mar Apri May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Eastern highland station along South to North

western highland stations south of 6.300 Morocho Yirgachefe
300 Dilla Hagere selam
400 Aleta wondo Yirgalem
chench Gerese Dorze
350 250

300 200
RF in mm

250
RF in mm

150
200
100
150
100 50

50 0
Jan Feb Mar Apri May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
0
Jan Feb Mar Apri May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Rift floor south of 6.30 0

160 Arbaminch Mirab Abaya Arfayde

140
120
100
RF in mm

80
60
40
20
0
Jan Feb Mar Apri May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Figure 26:Spatial distribution of annual rainfall amount in the sub basin

Rainfall stations along western highlands and escarpments of Abaya-Chamo sub basin get a
higher proportion of annual rainfall during summer (JJAS) (Fig... B) Than the spring season
(MAM) (Fig 4.3 A). The peak period is in July and August and sometimes extends into
September. To the south of 6.300latitudes along western highlands and the escarpment of the
basin, the summer rainfall is lower compared to north of 6.300latitudes related toorographic
effect. Summer rainfall is higher on Southwestern highlands, but it becomes less towards rift
floor and eastern highlands. The extreme low JJAS (summer) rainfall amount of southern and

175
eastern stations Arfaide, Burji and Amaro Kelle is related to the prevailing summer wind, the
low altitude and re-evaporation of the rainfall.

The October to February rainfall is less in proportion (18%) in the Abaya-Chamo sub basin and
its distribution is more or less similar except in some highland stations.

A B

Figure 27spring rainfall distribution (A) and summer rainfall (B) distribution

The west-east seasonal variability of rainfall recorded from meteorological stations in the sub
basin shows; from season to season summer ‘Kiremt’ rainfall is highly variable than spring
‘Belg’ rainfall whereas the rainfall in ONDJ ‘Bega’ season is more stable than the two seasons
(Fig 4.4).

176
 900
Seasonal variablity of RF in Abaya chamo sub basin MAMy
800 JJAS
700 OND

600
Rainfall in mm

500

400

300

200

100

Bilate farm
Wajifo Farm
Geresse
wol. Sodo

Mirab Abay

Morecho
Hassana

Dorze

Kebado
Fonko
chencha

Alaba Kul.

Hager mar.
Humbo.T

Arfaide

Yirgalem
Bedessa Tow

Hagereselam
Boditi

Burgi
Arbaminch

Ale. wondo
Shone

Abaya

Bilate Tena

Dilla
cheleclectu
Amaro Ke.
Durame

Yirgachefe
western stations Rift floor stations Eastern stations

Figure 28The proportion of seasonal variability of rainfall in stations of sub

basin

Abaya-Chamo sub basin gets rain during Sahel summer, spring and October to December
with the average proportion of 47%, 35% and 18% of annual average rainfall, whereas the
North Western Ethiopian Plateau (Addis Ababa areas) gets much of its rainfall during the
summer (JJAS) and little rain during spring (MAM) with the annual average of 75% and 25%
rainfall respectively (Kebede, 2004).

Analysis of Spatial and temporal rainfall distribution and climate change impact

Precipitation is the main driver of variability in the water balance over space and time and
change in precipitation have very important implication for hydrology and water resources.
Hydrological variability over time in a catchment is influenced by variations in precipitation
over daily, seasonal, annual and decade time scale. The catchments of both Lakes are
characterized by a humid to hot semi-arid tropical climate with a bimodal rainfall pattern
including two wet seasons (a first from end-March to mid-June, a second from mid-
September to late November) and two dry seasons (a first from December to mid-March, a
second from end-June to mid-September) (Makin et al., 1975; Wagesho, 2014). The average
annual rainfall ranges from 665mm at Bilate to 1240 at Chencha with average maximum
o o
temperature of 31.2C at Arbaminch and minimum average temperature of 13.9C at Chencha.

177
Rainfall travels in a catchment in different directions. Due to vegetation, part of rainfall is
intercepted by vegetation canopy. Interception is known as a loss function to catchment runoff
depending on vegetation type, vegetation density. The rest of rainfall moves down the
vegetation as stream flow, drip off the leaves, or directly falls to the ground as through fall.
The higher amount of suspended solids and the higher concentrations of nutrients during the
wet season compared with the dry season in both Lakes are indicative of their rainfall
dependency. Especially during the wet season when rainfall in the region is high and the
tributaries bring large volumes of water to the Lakes.

Lake Chamo and Abaya are getting water from River draining in to the Lakes. Lake Chamo
receives runoff from Sille and Sego Rivers which originating from the southern part of the
basin receiving rainfall once a year, which is very short. This partly explains why Lake
Chamo is more sensitive to climate change than Lake Abaya. One of the most significant
potential concerns of climate change is to understand changes in hydrological components
and subsequent change in water balance. Decrease in rainfall and runoff, and increase
evaporation, which is associated to climatic change. Global warming is direct influence on
precipitation. Increased heating leads to greater evaporation and thus surface drying, thereby
increasing the intensity and duration of drought. on the other hand, the water holding capacity
of air increases by about 7% per 1°C warming, which leads to increased water vapor in the
atmosphere.

The influence of temperature is not as great as that of precipitation from the viewpoint of
water resources management. However, still temperature affects evaporation amount and thus,
it is important to analyze its tendency of change. Since the amount of precipitation changes
every year, the amount of water resources that are formed by precipitation also changes from
year to year. Thus, it is necessary to analyze the probability of changes in precipitation
amount in addition to the analysis of its tendency in change and cyclic characteristics. One of
the objectives of this is to draw up a water supply plan in the sub basin area. Small amount of
rain usually brings about smaller surface water amount and lowered groundwater table in that
year. Thus, from the point of view of securing water supply, it is important to analyze the
probability of occurrence of dry years (JICA, 2012).

178
[Link]. Ground Water

Assessing the potential zone of groundwater recharge is extremely important for the protection
of water quality and the management of groundwater systems. Ground water has emerged as an
important source to meet the water requirements of various sectors including the major
consumers of water like irrigation, domestic and industries.

[Link]. Classification of Aquifer Units

The main aquifer units based on the geology were a rhyolitic welded tuff (G) and basaltic tuff
breccia-lapilli tuff (tb) of the Pleistocene in Quaternary. Those strata distributed in north area of
Lake Abaya and the fracture zones were formulated in the strata. The basaltic rock of Tertiary
(pgl) and rhyolitic lava are also the good aquifer in the southern area with fracture zone.

Most common groundwater source is extracted from Pleistocene tuff, tuff breccia and basaltic
rock units (81% of total borehole water source). The members of this aquifer are, pumice tuff,
welded tuff, tuff breccia and basalts (from upper formation). This aquifer is distributed from east
of Lake Abaya to north of Lake Ziway (JICA, 2012).The satisfactory water source shall be
Pleistocene tuff, welded tuff, basaltic rock units which are largely distributed in the northern part
of Lake Abaya. This aquifer satisfies the requirement of quality, quantity and location of
extraction. The extraordinary event of rift valley formation and followed by the creation of faults
made enough fissures and pore zones in these volcanic rocks for the storage of huge amounts of
ground water (JICA, 2012).

In Abaya-Chamo sub basin Groundwater is found extensively within lacustrine deposits

surrounding the Lakes. The hydrogeology elsewhere is complex because of extensive faulting
and groundwater tends to occur in pockets. In some situations adjacent to recent
lava flows the water is hot and highly mineralized.

[Link]. Ground Water Recharge

Groundwater is recharged by direct rainfall to permeable ground, (generally greatest in the basin
margins where rainfall is relatively high), via River systems and Lakes and from overlying or
adjacent groundwater bodies. Ground water discharge is from springs, either into surface waters
(supporting base flow), directly into Lakes, to the surface (e.g. wetlands, where

179
evapotranspiration losses may be high) and into adjacent (or overlying) groundwater bodies. The
movement between points of recharge and discharge, typically dominated by fractures and
fissures, is often limited in geographical extent. Groundwater movement through shallow
groundwater systems may be relatively rapid, as there is little groundwater storage available.

Table 44: Groundwater Recharge Amount in Lake Abaya and Chamo

Net Ground water recharge
Base flow Ground water
Evaporation amount used by all TotalGW
Name index recharge amount
amount in 3
other water Rin Mm3
(BFI) (GWR) in (Mm )
(Mm3) consumption (Mm3)

Abaya 585.1 0.62 362.8 14.6 377.4

Chamo 282.2 0.68 191.9 7.1 199.0

Source (JICA, 2012)

[Link].Ground Water Flow and potential

Abaya-Chamo Sub basin (including Hawassa, Chew-Bahir) is found in southern basin of the rift
valley. These three basins are not connected by surface water, but it is suggested that they may
be connected by underground faults running in NE-SW direction (Tenalem Ayenew, 2004). The
groundwater flow shows that the groundwater gradient is high at the escarpment of sub-basins of
Western Ziway, Bilate, Hawassa, Gidabo and Galena. The groundwater rapidly flows down and
becomes gentle at the valley floor. At the south of basin, groundwater runs down along the
Woito River and ends its flow into Chew Bahir( JICA, 2012).

The groundwater potential of the northern part of Lake Abaya and its surrounding area will be
able to expect a moderate to high production capacity except the northeast-east side of Lake
Hawassa in accordance with developed hydro-geological map (JICA 2012). On the other hand,
the basalt and tuff of Miocene of Pre-Tertiary and the gneiss and granite of Pre-Cambrian is
mainly distributed in the southern part from Lake Abaya and its surrounding area, so the capacity
of the aquifer is predicted to be poor to moderate in these areas. The Quaternary deposits
distributed in the lowland of above areas and the water potential is estimated as the moderate
productivity in those areas.

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The high priority small towns are located in the area of northern Lake Abaya and its surrounds,
which consists of Pleistocene deposits, and has a moderate to high productivity of water
resources. The aquifer depths of wells (screen depth) estimated by the hydro-geological map is
mainly 130m-150m, 50-70m in depth. Well drilling depth is estimated to be from100m to 200m.
The yield predicted is 3L/sec~7L/sec. The remaining high priority small towns are located in the
area south of Lake Abaya and its surrounds, and the aquifer capacity shows a low to moderate
productivity. The aquifer of wells assumed by the hydro-geological map is 80m-100m in depth
and well drilling depth is probably 150m. The yield is estimated to be about 2L/sec~5L/sec.

[Link]. Water demand assessment

A. Domestic demands

Domestic water demand (DWD) refers to water utilized for drinking, food preparation, and
washing, cleaning and carrying out other related domestic household tasks. The mode of services
is through public fountains (PF), yard connections (YC) and house connections (HC). Daily per
capita water consumption is generally very low throughout the country. DWD is suppressed in
almost all towns in the country because of supply shortages. Actual demand is expected to be
greater than present consumption if greater supplies were available to the community.

The water demand guide lines in Main Report Volume II produced by Ministry of Water
Resources, Water Sector Development program, Oct 2002. According to demand guide lines in
estimating DWD, general design standards were adopted: 30 to 50 liters per capita daily (lpcd)
for urban centers and 15-25 lpcd for rural areas. For both rural and urban areas, the per capita
water demand is assumed to increase over the program period. Since the majority of the urban
population uses public fountains, a ratio of 60% (of public fountain) to 40% (of house or yard
connections) is assumed. The urban DWD per day is thus projected as being: 30 lpcd for short
term, 40 lpcd for medium term and 50 lpcd for long term. Similarly for rural water supply, the
daily DWD is projected as being: 15 lpcd for short term, 20 lpcd for medium term and 25 lpcd
for long term. Water demand for small towns (with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants) was estimated
applying the rural standard.

B. Livestock Water Use

The Rift Valley Lakes Basin is endowed with a vast livestock resource. The diverse ecology and
vegetation cover has created conducive conditions for several livestock species and breeds.

181
Accordingly, cattle, sheep, goat, equines (horses, mules and donkeys), camels and poultry thrive
in the basin. However, the livestock resources of the basin are not being well used. While there
numbers are great, the livestock sector does not produce even close to its potential. There are
several reasons for this. One is cultural, with livestock being maintained regardless of the income
or food supply they produce. Another is that to date very little attention has been given to
changing attitudes and improving the way livestock are managed. There are both technical and
non-technical problems at play.

Ethiopia has about 173 thousand km2 of water bodies that include Lakes, Rivers, reservoirs,
small water bodies, swamps and flood plains and an estimated livestock population of about 35
million TLU. In many parts of the country, animals are trekked to distant watering points once in
two or three days. Assuming an average consumption of 25 liters of water/day per TLU (Peden
et al., 2006), the estimated daily water consumption is about 875 million liters. The water intake
by animals varies largely and depends on many factors, such as the prevailing climatic
conditions, the activity level of the animals, the amount and type of feed consumed, lactation,
and the salinity of water. Water consumption increases with increasing dry matter intake and
increasing temperature. Inclusion of legumes into tropical diets was found to cause an increased
water requirement (Zewdu 1991). It is assumed that the livestock in the central rift valley
consumes 15 L/day per TLU in the wet season (4 months) and 30 L/day per TLU in the dry
season (Van der Meer, pers. com.). The sub-basin was extensively utilized by the communities
for livestock grazing.

Sources of Water for Livestock: Water is one of ingredients for the survival of livestock,
constituting about 75% of body mass. In the RVLB water for livestock is obtained from Rivers,
springs, Lakes, pond, wells, swamps and others. In most cases ponds get contaminated with
urine, faeces, etc. and make the quality poor. Swamps are also sources, as water can accumulate
throughout the year. In most cases fodder is also available nearby. Other sources of water for
livestock are municipal main water supplies and motorized wells. Major Rivers like Bilate,
Gelana and their tributaries are dependable sources of water for livestock. Other intermittent
Rivers are accessible in parts of the year. Springs are sources mainly in the highland and mid-
altitude areas of the basin.

C. Industrial Water Use

182
Non-domestic water is used in commercial services, public services and industrial
establishments. Commercial services such as hotels, restaurants, private healthcare providers,
private schools and colleges are major consumers of non-domestic water. Public services such as
health care institutions, public schools, universities and colleges and public administration also
consume substantial amount water. Industrial establishments consume water as a necessary
component in the production process or for auxiliary purposes. Non-domestic water
consumption is shared among these sectors in differing proportions.

To reach reasonable figures on the respective share of non-domestic water demand among the
industrial and service sectors, their respective GDP contributions has been taken as the basis of
calculation in the absence of any other method appropriate to RVLB. Taking partial GDP
contributions of the above sub sectors in the RVLB at 2005 constant prices, the industrial sector
was contributing about 47% of the basin's partial GDP. The relative share of industry and
services is assumed to remain the same, and hence the share in water demand will also remain
the same. The existing industrial development is very low with the textile factory located in
Arbaminch city as a major industrial facility. Small-scale cottages exist such as tannery, cereal
mill plants, coffee processing plants, quarry, etc.

Arba Minch Textile Factory was established in 1989 as public enterprise. The factory uses cotton
lint from local sources, polyester fiber from import, local and imported starch, and water as
inputs to the production process. The small number of suppliers of cotton lint suggests their
prices may rise in the future.

The production process is basically labour intensive and is linked with the agricultural sector. It
employs about 900 to 1,100 workers including temporary workers, of which some 35% are
female and 10% are young people less than 31 years old. The firm has the capacity to take
12,000kgs of lint per day. The usual actual intake is, however, below capacity, in the order of
8,500kgs per day. The standard material efficiency of cotton in the textile industry is 88%; the
actual efficiency achieved in the Arba Minch factory has been greater than this (92%).
D. Irrigation Water Demand

Table 45: Irrigation Potential Identified in the 1992 Reconnaissance Master

Plan Study and in Earlier Basin Studies of the Abaya Chamo Lake system
Potential Potential
Location Constraints upon Development
Irrigation Irrigation

183
 Areas (1992 Areas
Study) (ha) (Previous
Studies) (ha)
Difficult topography in middle Bilate.

Bilate 6,000 6,000 Upper limit for run-of-River without

storage. Soil salinity Resistance to
creation of reservoir areas.
High infrastructure costs. Heavy soils
Gelana 7,000 16,000 and soil salinity. Live storage
requirement.
Limited water resources; live storage
Haro 2,000 10,000 required. Downstream water rights;
impacts on Lake.
Shafe 2,000 2,500 Ditto Hare River.
Limited water resources. Downstream
water rights; impacts on Lake Abaya.
Gidabo 5,000 27,000
30% abstraction required for 5000ha
development.

Source: (RVLB master plan, 2010)

This is the most important sub-basin, having the largest potential of all. The potential major
Riverin this sub-basin is discussed hereunder. The development potential in this sub-basin
from the major Rivers alone is over 30,000 ha, though again this would probably result in
unacceptable environmental impacts and unsustainable use of water resources. With the
exception of the Gidabo and Gelana Rivers which are not yet developed, most of the Rivers
flowing into Lakes Abaya and Chamo already support significant levels of irrigation.

I. Gidabo Irrigation Project

This potential project was studied previously by Tahal and MCE who suggested that 5,000ha
of potential development could be achieved using run-of-River diversion with no dam storage.
This was based on an estimated maximum demand of 2.23m3/s compared with a 4 in 5 year
River flow of 3.6m3/s. The water quality of Lake Abaya was determined as inferior to that of
the Gidabo River, and hence a 5,000ha run-of-River of the River scheme was proposed. The
potential of Gidabo River has been estimated as close to 10,000 ha. Irrigation development
can be expected to benefit both SNNPR and Oromia.

II. Gelana Irrigation Project

184
The original Gelana Feasibility Study in 1988 identified 11,000ha gross for consideration for
irrigation development. The current feasibility study has undertaken soil and topographic
surveys over 6,200ha gross and has identified a net irrigation command area of 5,356ha.

The proposed development would command both right and left bank areas from a 55m long
concrete diversion barrage structure diverting some 4.3m3/s flow, and with a flood discharge
capacity of 137m3/s and 234m3/s at 1:100 and 1:200 year periods respectively.
Total average annual releases from the reservoir for irrigation are estimated to be 89.6Mm3 to
provided 65.6Mm3 per annum for irrigation at the diversion barrage, with a guaranteed
20Mm3 released downstream for riparian use and the environmental requirements of Lake
Abaya. The project area occupies parts of both Oromia RS and SNNPRS. It is not expected
that there will be any private sector involvement in the project.

Traditional schemes, particularly in Amaro Woreda and the surrounding areas, can be
observed. Currently, about 6,200 ha are planned for development in this watershed, and can
be expected to benefit both Oromia and SNNPR.

III. Bilate Irrigation Project

Historically this area was developed as a series of state farms, commencing with the Abaya
State Farm (1,250ha) in the 1960s, followed in 1972 by the Tobacco State Farm, and from
1973 onwards by farms upstream and downstream. The 1974 LRDC report and plans prior to
1986, proposed a dam at Boyo aimed principally at the mid to lower Bilate areas of Alaba-
Kulito to overcome water scarcity on the Bilate River. The Boyo dam was abandoned in 1986
because of significant local resistance to the scheme. The current study is now considering a
dam at Dendo with a catchment area of 3,020km2. The total Bilate catchment is some
5,700km2 and the study divides this broadly into three sub-catchments;
 The upper catchment above Boyo swamp towards Guda and Wirra
 The middle catchment between elevations 1480 to 1880 m a.s.l.
 The lower catchment including the Bilate delta.
The current study is focused on the existing state farms (SF) in the lower Bilate, and is
considering a combination of:
 Rehabilitation and extension of farm SF1 by up to 900ha net, to be allocated to settler
farmers

185
 Rehabilitation of 3,015ha and new extension of 3,800ha of the existing Tobacco
 State Farm
 Rehabilitation of farms SF2 and SF3 and allocation to settler farmers.
The project aims at rehabilitation and extension of a total of 7,715ha with maize, haricot,
soya, groundnuts, etc., being cultivated by smallholders on farms SF1, SF2 and SF3, and
tobacco and cotton being continued at Tobacco Farm and Abaya State Farm respectively.
Farms 1, 2 and 3 have been used for re-settlement and are occupied by Peasant Associations.
Peak water demands are estimated for November of 8.51m3/s for 7,715ha, with a design
allowance for releases from Dendo dam of 2Mm3/month for downstream uses and
1.5Mm3/month for seepage losses in the River. The estimated average release from the dam is
9.99m3/s to which 10% has been added to allow for future expansion. Therefore total water
demand at Dendo is estimated to be 159Mm3 compared with an average annual yield of
286Mm3, representing 56% of total yield. The dam will be 41-42m in height with a live
storage of some 70Mm3; the very significant dead storage is to accommodate the estimated
27m of sediment deposition expected over the 50 year life of the structure.

Including proposed small to medium scale sites, the area identified for irrigation is over 8,200
ha, including the existing irrigated area of over 3,700 ha.

Distribution of Existing Schemes by Sub-basin: Lake Abaya and its major tributaries have
the largest currently developed area as shown in the following table
Table 46: Distribution of Existing Schemes by Sub-basin or River System
Existing Area (ha)
Sub-basin or River Total Existing
System Community Commercial or Area (ha)
Schemes Large Schemes
Abaya 4195 800 4995
Bilate tributaries 1446 2300 3746
Hamessa 206 0 206
Gelana tributaries 1579 0 1579
Gidabo tributaries 180 0 180
Chamo 950 900 1850
Source: (RVLB master plan, 2010)

Table 47: Estimated Yields for Rivers Identified in the RVLB

186
 Rivers Mean Annual Yield (Mm3)

Bilate 534

Gidabo 242

Kulfo 184

Gelana 131

Hare 64

Source: (RVLB master plan, 2010)

[Link]. Potential for Irrigation Development by Sub-basin

Table 48: Potential Command Areas and Water Requirements

River Sub- Qv Qv Demand Potential Irrigable Water %
3
name basin Mm adjusted l/s/ha command area(ha) requirement water
3
Mm area(ha) Mm3 use

Billate Abaya 618 525.33 0.35 10000 7715 85.16 16

d/s
Didalesa Gelana 58 40.37 0.35 1000 1000 11.04 27
Derba Billate 98 83.72 0.35 3000 2000 22.08 26
Gidabo Abaya 490 416.81 0.35 10000 9215 101.71 24
Hamesa Abaya 29 20.31 0.35 2000 750 8.28 41
Kulfo Abaya 87 61.19 0.35 2000 2000 22.08 36
Sile Chamo 64 44.92 0.35 3000 2000 22.08 49
Gelana Abaya 283 240.92 0.25 6200 5356 42.23 18
Bilate u/s Bilate 162 137.70 0.25 1000 1000 7.88 6
Sala Gidabo 162 113.24 0.35 200 200 2.21 2
Source: (RVLB master plan, 2010)
E. Environmental Demand

Environmental demand of the sub basin includes the water required to sustain aquatic
ecosystems, flows needed for ecological conservation, and water needed to maintain minimum
Lake Levels. Water allocation therefore, should include provisions for maintaining the

187
sustainability of freshwater ecosystems, including the need to maintain minimum in-stream flows
and to anticipate the impact of hydrologic modifications on downstream environments.

[Link]. Water Demand Management

The water resources of the RVLB are essentially unmanaged. In other words, water is used
without regulation and without monitoring. In other areas, this may work as the water resources
are in abundance. But the RVLB is a closed basin and therefore very sensitive to changes in the
water use regime. Increasing abstraction without understanding its impacts and without
regulation simply cannot continue. The problem to date has been that there is no organization
within the MoWE structure or within the regional bureau of water resources which has the
responsibility to control water use and manage water at a basin level according to the basin
principles of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM).

Water demand management aimed to conserve scarce water by reducing its consumption rates.
This is an important and relevant issue in the industrial, domestic and agricultural sector because
of the rapid growth in water demand in densely populated areas. There is an increase for
irrigation water competition in Abaya-Chamo sub basin. For example the irrigation water
demand is greatly increasing in the upstream and downstream of Sille River. Gidabo dam project
is irrigation project in the sub-basin which has a great advantage in solving the problem for
irrigation water competition. Therefore, there is a need of water demand management in the sub
basin.

There is a limitation on demand and demand managements to be in place these are:-

 Limited data on historic actual water use

 High levels of uncertainty in establishing efficiency of water use, with significant losses
likely in irrigation and urban water use
 Uncertainties in the basic economic, social and demographic assumptions required for
water demand forecasts.

So that if demand management system applied on irrigation demands, it can maximize the
irrigation land without any additional water abstraction and increase the economic value of
water resource in the Sub Basin.

The recommended demand management will be:-

188
  Awareness creation and capacity building on water use
 Establish water user Association (WRUA’s) to use common water pumping and
canal.
 Implementing water rationing specially during drought time
 Carrying out old irrigation system maintenance
 Promoting water fees
 Shifting water use trend from Flooding and Furrow irrigation system to sprinkler/drip
irrigation systems by developing the capacity of WRUA’s

4.3.2. Water Quality Assessment

[Link]. Lakes Water Quality
The water quality of Abaya and Chamo Lakes is moderately to strongly alkaline
alkaline-saline.
Salinity concentrations vary between the Lakes and also seasonally, with increasing salinity
during dry periods. The most saline Lake monitored was Lake Chamo (EC 2104 μS/cm) and
Lake Abaya (EC 1,319 μS/cm). Lakes Abaya and Chamo are moderately saline. They also
contain high levels of fluoride
fluoride (8.2 and 94 mg/l respectively), sodium (246 and 430 mg/l
respectively), and pH (9.05 and 9.55 respectively).

Dominant ions in the Lakes waters are Na+, HCO3- and Cl-. The water type is Na
Na-HCO3 and
Na-HCO3-Cl
Cl in Lakes Abaya and Chamo respectively. But the main differences in the waters
of the two lakes are that the concentration of major ions in Lake Chamo is higher than that of
Lake Abaya.

1000 811.91
Lake Abaya
517.4
318.1
[Link]
206
concentration in mg/l

99.93
100
38.5 53.25
28.98
20.5
16.1 14.17
10.4
10

1
Na K SIO2 CO3 + HCO4 Cl SO4

Ions in Lakes

189
 Figure 29Average concentrations of ions in Lakes Abaya and Chamo
The concentration of Na+ ranges 177.1mg/l to 239.66mg/l in Lake Abaya whereas in Lake
Chamo it ranges from 209.3mg/l to 420mg/l. Bicarbonate in the waters of Lakes Abaya and
Chamo ranges (384.3mg/l to 603.9mg/l) and (573.4mg/l to 1004.06mg/l) respectively. The
water of Lake Chamo has a Cl- concentration almost double compared to Lake Abaya (Fig. ---
).

The PH value of the rift Lakes ranges from 8 to 10 and have higher sodium, bicarbonate, and
chloride (Tenalem, 2009) and the two southern rift Lakes (Abaya and chamo) are also in these
ranges. Generally, the measured values of the physical parameters and the sum of ions of
Lake Chamo are relatively higher than that of Lake Abaya.

This could be linked to the tertiary and Quaternary basaltic formations of the area, higher
bicarbonate concentrations of the low lying Rivers (Fig.---), increased exchange of Cations
(Sodium, Calcium, and Magnesium), residence time of the waters in Lakes reservoir, the less
amount of inflow/outflow to/from the Lakes, the length, and area of the Lake, mixing of
inflowing waters, higher evaporation from Lake surfaces and Lake waters contribute to the
higher ion concentration and salinity of the Lakes in common compared to Lake Abaya
(Table ---).

Table 49: Average chemical parameters of the Lake waters

Lakes PH Salinity Ca Mg Na K SIO2 HCO3 Cl SO4
EC Sum sum
(µS/cm) cationic anions (g/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
[Link] 8.86 1015 10.3 10.95 0.825 14.3 3.76 206 16.1 38.5 517.4 53.25 28.98

[Link] 9.2 1567.9 15.25 15.6 1.27 11.5 10.4 318.1 20.55 14.17 811.91 99.9325 10.416

[Link]. Rivers Water Quality

Abaya-Chamo Sub basin consists of major Rivers such as Bilate, Gidabo, Gelana, Hare, Baso,
and Hamesa (that flow into Lake Abaya) and Kulfo, Sille and Sego Rivers flow to Lake Chamo.

The chemistry of stream/ River water mainly depends on processes including: anion retention of
catchment soils, Weathering of minerals in catchment soils as a source of base cations (calcium,
magnesium, sodium, potassium), adsorption and cation exchange in soils, buffering of soil
solution pH by weak organic acids (e.g. humic and fulvic acids) and by weak inorganic acids
(e.g. Al hydroxides and carbonic acid), formation of Al complexes with fluoride (F) and sulfate

190
ions and with organic compounds, biologically mediated transformations and uptake of cations
and anions, generation of acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) by dissociation of carbonic acid with
subsequent exchange of hydrogen (H) ions for base cations (B.J. Cosby et al, 2001). The River
water chemistry is, therefore, can be understood as an input-output process of the catchment
through atmospheric inputs (rainwater), hydrologic processes and anthropogenic /human-induced
processes which respond differently under changing catchment conditions (Ababu, 2005).

To understand the catchment processes in the basin, major ion chemistry data of some 15 Rivers
samples are used from laboratory of Arbaminch University and south water bureau. The river
water samples indicate that there are three major groups and are mainly Calcium, Magnesium,
Sodium, and Bicarbonate rich. River water samples designated as 11 to 35 (Fig.---) are calcium,
Magnesium, Sodium, and bicarbonate dominant consisting water types of Ca-Mg-HCO3, Ca-Na-
HCO3, Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3, Ca-Na-HCO3-SO4, Mg-HCO3, Mg-Ca-HCO3, Mg-Na-HCO3. Na-Ca-
HCO3, Na-Ca-HCO3-SO4, Na-HCO3,and Na-HCO3-SO4.

The Ca, Mg and HCO3 rich Rivers water samples (11, 12, 14, 21 and 22) could be related to the
weathering of basaltic rock minerals in catchment soils around highlands or escarpments.
Streams and Rivers from highland areas of the basins (Gidabo, Gelana, Kulfo, and Hare)
escarpments/lowlands of (Hamessa and Gelana) are originating and flowing over basaltic basic
formations have a percent ionic composition of Ca+2 (30% to 53%), Mg+2 (14% to 41%), Na+1
(4% to 37%) and HCO3- (60% to 99%). The higher proportion of HCO3- in River samples of the
highlands is attributed to dissociation of carbonic acids in soil (B. J. Cosby et al, 2001). The
samples show lower EC but as in the samples (14), the EC is higher (440µS/cm) due to the
mixing of hot springs along Gidabo near Yirgalem. The bicarbonate and chloride content at the
same site is also elevated as result mixing of thermal waters.

The proportion of magnesium is higher in River water samples (21,22) of Sile area in the
southwest of Chamo Lake compared to Calcium content. The laminar flow and relatively more
residence on the less sloppy flat channel of Rivers over basaltic formations facilitate evaporation
at lower reliefs resulting in higher EC (540 µS/cm) and alkalinity.

191
 Figure 30Chemical composition and water types of River waters
700
physical and chemical parameters ions in mg/l

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
TDS 1050C
EC (μS/cm) Ca Harness NH3 Na K Ca Mg Cl HCO3 Alkalinity
(mg/l)
Gidabo at Dila Legdara 40 80 12 0.01 2.15 3.2 4.8 2.673 0 39.04 32
Gidabo at Dale 70 140 20 0.22 5.85 4.3 8 4.617 0 64.66 53
Gidabo at Aposto 214 440 160 355 64 9 64 14.58 12.5 600 570
Gelana at Burji 230 460 114 0 45.6 45.6 23.328 18 281.82 231
Sile 452.2 540 242.4 20.6 3.2 12.6 50.7 19.2 232 190.1
Bilate at Alaba 290 35 15 12 4 5

192
 Figure 31Variations in the chemistry of representative Rivers samples
The major ionic content of the tributaries to Lakes Abaya and Chamo is shown in Table 4.9.

Table 50: Major Cation and Anion Concentration of tributary Rivers to Lake
Abaya and Chamo
TDS EC TSS Na K C Mg HCO3 Cl SO4 SAR
Rivers Date a
mg/l µS/cm Mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
Bilate Apr. 1014 2120 168 450 21.5 16.8 2.43 980 5.5 44.65 59.2
Aug. 64 135 1390 12 8.1 15.2 2.43 58.56 4.5 0.18 0.87
Baso Apr. 51 108 452 5.5 1.74 10.4 2.92 56.12 2.0 4.76 0.39
Aug. 39 83 501 6.6 2.9 35.2 12.6 36.6 2.0 14.2 0.46
Hare Apr. 25 54 127 3.6 1.0 11.2 2.43 26.84 2.3 4.23 0.21
Aug 154 324 350 12.5 2.4 35.2 12.6 148.84 8.5 1.79 0.46
Kulfo Apr. 52 110 649 5.2 1.2 14.4 1.94 56.12 2.3 3.6 0.18
Aug. 60 128 1480 6.0 1.3 13.6 4.86 48.8 7.5 5.1 0.25
Sille Apr. 69 145 450 7.9 1.5 14.4 5.35 68.32 2.0 0.85 0.30
Aug 74 156 542 7.7 1.5 15.2 4.86 68.32 4.5 0.62 0.30
Gidabo Aug 36 76 210 4.0 1.2 4.6 1.94 26.84 2.5 9.4 0.32
Gelana Aug 67 140 348 7.0 1.9 14.4 4.37 61 6.0 0.6 0.29
Source: RVLB master plan, 2010
Summary of River Water Quality: The key points regarding River water quality are as
follows

 In general, chemical composition of River water varies with elevation and distance from
the source, with short highland Rivers tending to have low levels of mineralisation while
the longer Rivers in the central valley are more likely to have higher levels of
mineralisation.
 Seasonal variations in River water are observed, especially for total suspended sediments.
 The River water is fresh, with very low salinity concentrations.
 Most Rivers are suitable for drinking water following treatment, with the exception of
River Bilate due to fluoride levels.
 Most Rivers are suitable for irrigation, with the exception of during the dry season and
other low flow periods on the River Bilate.

[Link]. Ground Water Quality

Successful groundwater resources location, development, and management are possible when
the aspects of groundwater recharge sources, mechanisms and dynamics of flow in the aquifer
are well understood (Kebede et al. 2005, B. B. S. Singhal and R. P. Gupta 2010). Analysis of
hydrogeological systems using hydrochemical signatures complemented with environmental

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isotopes is used as a tool that provides sources and mechanism of the recharge and the flow
systems in aquifers (Ayenew et al., 2008, Kebede et al. 2005, Kebede 2013). Various scholars
conducted scientific studies in main Ethiopian rift Lakes using hydrochemistry in the analysis
of hydrogeological systems of central Ethiopian rift lakes basin and geothermal resources
(Ayenew, 1998; Berhanu, 1996: Fikre, 2006; UNDP, 1973; Craig et al., 1977; Mackenzie, et
al., 2001; Teclu, 2007; and Chernet, 1993).

350000 400000 450000

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 Figure 32Groundwater sampling sites
The PH value of representative groundwaters samples in the Abaya Chamo Lakes basin is the range of
5 to 9.6.

850000
800000
750000
700000
650000
600000

0 50000 100000 150000 200000

Figure 33Electrical conductivity and Alkalinity maps of ground water in Abaya

Chamo sub Basin.
4.3.3. Catchment /Watershed/ Situation Assessment

[Link]. Land Cover and Land Use

According to Ashebir et al. 2017, the landscape of Abaya-Chamo Sub basin has changed
considerably during the past 25 years between 1985 and 2010. The main changes observed imply
a rapid reduction in shrub land (28.82%) and natural grassland (33.13%), and an increase in
arable land (59.15%). The basin has become more fragmented and formed less connected
patches in 2010 compared to 1985. Rapid population growth, internal migration, policy shifts,
and regime change were identified as the key driving forces of LULC changes in Abaya-Chamo
sub basin. The LULC changes and related trend of increasing landscape fragmentation in the
basin increased soil erosion, the volume of surface runoff and sediment transport in the
landscape and, consequently, affected the levels and water quality of the Lakes found in the rift
floor. Furthermore, the destruction and fragmentation of shrub land and natural grassland led to
the decline of wild plants and animals previously prominent in the basin. Therefore, protective

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 measures that take into consideration the economic, social, and ecological dynamics of the basin
are urgently needed to save the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems of the basin from further
damage.

Table 51: LULC changes of Abaya-Chamo sub basin in 1985, 1995, and 2010

LULC Changes between the

Periods with Relative to the
Absolute Area Cover (km2) Basis * (%)
1985 1995 2010 1985- 1995- 1985-
LULC Class Area (%) Area (%) Area (%) 1995 2010 2010

Inland waters 1432.4 7.48 1432.8 7.48 1434.1 7.49 0.03 0.09 0.12
Forests 531.6 2.78 530.9 2.77 522.5 2.73 -0.13 -1.58 -1.71
Shrubland 4478.9 23.39 4076.5 21.29 3188.2 16.65 -8.98 -21.79 -28.82
Arable land 4454 23.28 6043.4 31.57 7088.6 37.02 35.75 17.24 59.15
Heterogeneous
2519.1 13.15 2312.1 12.08 2162.1 11.29 -8.22 -6.49 -14.17
agricultural areas
Coffee
2226.3 11.63 2144.3 11.2 2216.8 11.58 -3.68 -3.38 -0.43
agroforestry
Natural grassland 3205.7 16.74 2264.6 11.83 2143.8 11.2 -29.36 -5.33 -33.13
Inland wetlands 291.2 1.52 328.5 1.72 365.5 1.91 12.82 11.26 25.52
Built-up areas 7.5 0.1 10.6 0.14 25 0.33 40 135.72 230.00
Source: Ashebir et al. 2017

Abaya-Chamo sub basin has experienced a substantial and increasing rate of LULC changes and
landscape fragmentation over the past 25 years between 1985 and 2010. Both arable land and
shrub land were the major LULC classes that account for almost half of the landscape in the first
time period between 1985 and 1995. However, the situation changed in the second period
between 1995 and 2010, with arable land becoming a major LULC class dominating the
landscape of the Sub basin. Many farmers, particularly from the highlands of Gamo-Gofa, Kore
and part of Derashe and Guji areas, seized the opportunity and migrated to the area either to find
new land to cultivate or generate income from sales of charcoal, firewood, and construction
materials to support their livelihoods. As an increasing number of people moved into this part of
the Sub basin, the need for more farmland and requirement of wood for fuel and construction
increased rapidly, and caused significant reductions of shrub land and expansion of cropland and
settlement in the landscape. Additionally, the establishment of new regional boundaries which

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divide the Sub basin based on ethnicities, and the emergence of new market opportunities for
cash crops like banana, cotton, and chat played an additional role for LULC changes in the
second period. The expansion of banana and cotton production by both small-scale farmers and
commercial farms was one of the main causes for the reduction of shrub land cover in Arba
Minch Zuria, Mirab Abaya and Bilate areas.

Figure 34Land use map of Abaya-Chamo sub basinSource: RVLB Master Plan
[Link]. Ecosystem Service

The Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in the sub basin provide a multitude of benefits to
humanity. The vegetation, Wetlands, Lakes, Rivers and other functional landscape units provide
various services and they are important components which serve as a biological pool, soil
formation, nutrient and water cycling. The Abaya and Chamo Lakes with their tributary Rivers
used as sources of water and food. The Lakes have been the major source of fish supply to the
large consumer market in Addis Ababa and towns nearby the Lakes.

The sub-basin also provide cultural services which include recreation, spiritual, educational and
research services. Ecotourism potential of the sub-basin is immense and still untouched. Lakes
Abaya and Chamo provide all the necessary amenities for Eco-Tourism including scenic beauty
comparable to anywhere in Ethiopia, rich wildlife resource in Nechisar National Park and Nech
Sar Plain, rich bird fauna, sport fishing for Nile Perch and Tiger Fish, the ‘Azo gebeya’
(Crocodile Market) and bird watching.

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Currently many of these benefits are under severe threat from man-made pressures. Habitat
degradation, over-exploitation, invasive alien species, pollution and climate change are all
affecting ecosystems across the sub-basin. The conservation of these ecosystems warrants eco-
tourism activities for conservation and sustainable use and generates income to the community
(Tibebu kassawmar, 2007).

[Link]. Livelihood

Crop production is the main livelihood of communities, supplemented by modest livestock

production. Communities located on the fringes of the farming system neighboring the agro
pastoral communities tend toward rearing livestock rather than being totally depending on crop
production for their livelihoods. Landless and poor households in the farming system generate
most of the necessary income for their family sustenance from casual, mostly non-farm
labor and petty trade.

In the sub-basin livestock husbandry is an integral part of the farming system supplementing the
crop production. There is a huge amount of livestock population in the Sub-basin. According to
different studies common animals kept by smallholders are Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Horses,
Donkeys, Mules and Poultry. The holding size and rate depend on the status of individual
farmers.

The rural areas of the Rift Valley Lakes Basin are characterized by low agricultural productivity
and small landholding size. Population growth therefore places an ever-growing pressure on
already inadequate farm sizes. Most farmers in the Basin have only small plots of farmland
producing food primarily for subsistence and are therefore not market oriented. The average farm
size per household is about 0.80 hectare, but this falls to 0.40 ha per household in the densely
populated highland areas of RVLB like Sidama and Gedeo. Many households therefore need to
meet their basic food and household requirements through off-farm and non-farm activities.
However, current employment opportunities in non-farm activities are limited for most
households.

It can be concluded that the agriculture in the SNNPR and Oromia region is small scale
subsistence farming, producing products mostly for family consumption. Farmers own land area
cultivated with cereals, pulses, oilseeds, stimulant cash crop, vegetables and root crops with

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hand-made wooden plows and a pair of oxen. The livestock sector is also central to the
economies of the region’s population.

The commercial farming system involves agricultural crop production businesses where the
overall crop production principles and management are tuned towards producing industrial
and high value crops for local and foreign markets. Commercial farming could be classified into
large scale private commercial farming enterprises and small scale smallholder commercial
farming.

Most people in rural areas are dependent directly or indirectly on the natural resources of the area
for their livelihood. Most rural planners, and especially agricultural planners, recognize this, and
thus emphasize the importance of agricultural development activities. However, they do not
always realize the intricate nature of the relationship between the people and their environment,
which has evolved over centuries and is reflected in all aspects of life, not merely those directly
related to agricultural production. Since agricultural projects and programs almost inevitably
involve some change in this relationship between people and environment, they will only be
successful if all aspects of the present relationship are taken into consideration in the planning
stage.

With regard to the relationship between education and agricultural innovation, it is claimed that
education increases people's receptiveness to new ideas, makes it easier for them to understand
extension messages, and increases their ambition and therefore their willingness to embark
onnew income-generating activities. And many people see education as a means of getting non-
agricultural employment. Many development projects need to increase the agricultural
component of education, especially at primary level and in adult education programs, in the hope
that this will encourage people to use their education to improve agricultural production. Iit is
hoped that increasing crop and livestock productivity will make a substantial contribution
towards improving rural livelihoods, but there is also an urgent need to develop alternative non-
farm employment and income generating activities.

Cash cropping is generally regarded as a means of increasing income, and thus of reducing
poverty. However, its effects are not always so positive. In the first place, the benefits only
accrue to those who are able to participate, either directly by growing cash crops or indirectly by

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being employed as wage laborers. Second, an increase in cash crop production may result in a
reduction in the resources available for food crop production, which may mean that most of the
additional income earned is spent on food which would otherwise have been grown. Third, and
perhaps most significantly, the benefits which do accrue are unlikely to be distributed equally
among everyone in the area, since some people will inevitably be in a better position to benefit
than others. For example, those who grow their own crops will benefit more than those who
work as wage laborers, and those who own more land will be able to grow more crops and so
earn more money than those with limited resources. In other words, cash cropping is likely to
increase the gap between the rich and the poor.

Erratic and unreliable rainfall, recurrent drought, floods from torrential rainfall, crop insect
pests, crop diseases and poor road infrastructure in the area are all major threats to the
livelihood base of communities located in the fringe areas of the system bordering the
agro-pastoral areas. On the other hand out of the eight development zones (DZs) in the RVLB
DZ (3, 4, 5, and 6) are fully or partly found in Abaya Chamo sub basin. There are also 4
Development Strategies associated with the basin as a whole and with each DZ. These DZs with
their main farming system and Development Strategies are listed in the following table.

Table 52: DZs with their main farming system and Development Strategies
DZ Legend Main Farming System Watershed Development Strategy
3 North West lowland and Highland Bilate and Strategy C: Market Orientated
mixed farming Cereal Based Mixed Hamessa-Guracha Economic Development - Strategy D:
zone Farming watersheds Accelerated Industrial Development
4 Eastern ‘Enset’ /Coffee and part of Gidabo Strategy C: Market Orientated
‘Enset’ and Lowland Cereal Based and Gelana Economic Development Strategy D:
coffee zone Mixed Farming watershed Accelerated Industrial Development
5 Eastern mixed ‘Enset’/Coffee and part of Gelana Strategy B: Integrated Socioeconomic
farming zone Lowland Cereal Based watershed Development Strategy A: Subsistence
Mixed Farming Based Agricultural Development
6 Southern Lowland and Highland part of Kulfo and Strategy C: Market Orientated
mixed farming Cereal Based Mixed Sille Economic Development Strategy B:
zone Farming Chamowatershed Integrated Socioeconomic
Development
Source: (RVLB master plan, 2010)
[Link]. Land Degradation

Environmental degradation due to human pressure and land use has become a major problem
in developing countries because of the high population growth rate and the associated rapid
depletion of natural resources. Land degradation is an important issue because of its adverse

200
impact on agronomic productivity, the environment and its effect on food security and quality
of life (Eswarn and Reich, 1998) and out migration in rural areas. Land degradation is the
process by which the productivity of land declines over a period of time, eventually leading to
loss of land value in being able to support agricultural activities.

The causes of land degradation processes are invariably a combination of loss of vegetation
cover, overgrazing and agricultural malpractices which are exacerbated by the pressure of the
increasing population. The effect of land degradation and its steady annual expansion are
hardly noticed, since it is a long-term and pervasive process. It is only during disastrous
droughts when human suffering becomes so manifest that the effects of degradation attract
outside attention (Mensah, 1984). The most common and widespread form of land
degradation, particularly in the low potential cereal zone of the steep slopes of the Ethiopian
highlands, including many parts of Rift Valley, is erosion by water.

A. Soil Erosion
Land degradation of Rift Valley Lakes’ basins of the country is severe on the uplifted high
lands at Western and Eastern escarpments of the Rift. The 1992 RVLB Reconnaissance
Master Plan Study identified some areas as being devastated by erosion with a significant
expansion of the land area being lost to erosion each year. Such areas include the Bilate
watershed, north of Hossana, north of Lake Abaya and between Dilla and Lake Abaya. Apart
from these specific areas that are severely affected by gully erosion, the study identified sheet
erosion stripping-off the topsoil over a great deal of the rest of the area, particularly the
eroded north-east area of Lake Abaya, where poorly consolidated volcanic ash forms the
structurally weak topsoil. Abaya-Chamo Lakes’ Sub basin, is part of Rift Valley Lakes’ basin
where land degradation is more severe than any other Lake basin in the Rift [Link] land
management and plowing up of steep slope without erosion control measures is resulting
sheet and rill erosion and severe gulley formation, locally developing badlands.

Moreover, land sliding at steep slopes of the watershed is another cause of land degradation in
the area. Severe soil erosion and landslides at highlands and escarpments of the rift yield vast
volume of sediments that cause huge off site damages on irrigated agricultural lands at rift
valley floor. Given the steep slope of topography, the sediment transport connectivity to the
shores of Abaya Lake, which is situated at the rift valley floor, is high.

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In the lower reaches of the Western part of the basin, sediment deposition is causing huge
pediment cones. The Rivers that debouch from highlands change their course occasionally at
alluvial fan due to poor irrigation diversion structures and cause great havoc in low-laying
irrigation schemes and the trunk-road which is connecting Wolaita Soddo to Arba Minch. Part
of the runoff of the Rivers draining the highlands is used to irrigate the lowland plains
(banana, mango, food crops) but poor irrigation water management causes complete flooding
of the cropland and severe gulley formation in the lowlands during flash flooding.

Land degradation in the watersheds of ephemeral and intermittent Rivers in the area has also
caused the River water quality decline. A simple look at the brown water color of Abaya Lake
already tells the severity of land degradation and water quality in the area.

The Bilate watershed is one of the most degraded areas in the Abaya Chamo. Soil erosion by
water is threatening very extensive areas of the highlands. The EHRS showed that the major
watershed is characterized by moderate to very severe erosion, with some localized
intolerable levels of erosion due to very shallow soil depths. Humbo, extensive areas of
Damot Weyde, Angecha, Limo, Azernetberbere and the western and south western areas of
Alaba show risks of soil erosion. The main factors contributing to such levels of erosion over
much of the area have been identified to be:

 loosely structured-highly erodible volcanic ash derived topsoil

 increasing land pressure that is leading to deforestation and the cultivation of steeply
sloping marginal land
 lack of fuel wood leading to the degradation of woodland and the use of crop residues
and animal dung as fuel
 more intensive use of land for arable production with resultant shorter fallow periods, and
hence resulting soil nutrition depletion, and reduction in grazing land without a reduction
in livestock numbers leading to over grazing and destruction of vegetative cover.
B. Deforestation

Deforestation because of extracting wood for fuel, fencing and construction of houses is
higher in low land areas than high [Link] important reason for forest clearing is the
need to produce charcoal and to collect firewood for sale and home consumption. Cutting of
trees for construction material is also another reason for deforestation. Woodland clearing for

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agriculture involves a complete change in land cover from shrubland, woodland or forest to
“non-forest land” or bare land by the almost complete removal of wood in the cleared areas.
Wood removed for fuel does not involve a complete and instant change in land cover. In a
study conducted by WBISPP (2004), shrubland, woodland or forest may remain as those land
cover types for a number of years showing gradual erosion of wood stocks.

The situation can also be correlated with livestock population and size of available grazing
areas. Grazing in the basin varies in quality and quantity, with different livestock species each
utilizing different types of natural vegetation. This was observed on land highly dissected by
gullies in Derashe, Silte, Mareko, and on the hills in Boreda and Humbo. Source master plan
2010

Increase in small-scale irrigated agriculture from rainfed cultivation or grassland/ shrubland,

Changes in irrigated area boundaries and increased areas have been noted on the Wajito,
Birbir and Mele deltas to the west of Lakes Abaya and Chamo. Small scale farming is
occurring in valley bottoms in the plans of South Omo and Gamo Gofa where there is
evidence that agro-pastoralists are adopting a sedentary way of life. Source (master plan
2010)

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 Table 53: Degraded mountains areas in Abaya- Chamo sub basin
Degraded
mountains area Elevation
Location Class Name Region Place Name Slope Rainfall Area in Hector
AbayaChamo in meter
sub basin
37°57'49.815"E
Mugo Crop land 3340 SNNPR Bilalo 4.56-7.82 522-762 241.48
7°48'52.721"N
37°53'8.172"E
Hambericho Crop land 3059 SNNPR Durame 1.91-16.6 522-762 10.0034
7°16'34.547"N
37°45'46.469"E
Damote Settlement 2884 SNNPR Sodo zuriya 4.08-14.31 762-996 0.490
6°54'19.445"N
37°32'38.45"E
Negasa Crop land 3273 SNNPR Chencha 1.26-12.43 522-762 693.52
6°17'45.87"N
37°22'4.433"E
Gughi Crop land 3568 SNNPR Wecha 522-762 522-762 17578.6
6°14'1.699"N
38°10'56.143"E
Debeka Settlement 2132 SNNPR Kore 1.73-5.40 522-762 30.23
6°1'30.661"N
38°12'13.52"E
Reco Grass land 2310 SNNPR Reco 2.75-10.04 522-762 4.48
6°2'54.661"N
38°11'35.371"E
Gore bota Grass land 2140 SNNPR Konga 3.48-6.2 522-762 15.49
6°7'52.394"N

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 [Link]. Buffer Zone Protection

All Lakes and major Rivers do not have any buffer zone protection /demarcation/. Hence
different anthropogenic actions like household settlement, Small scale agriculture, grazing, urban
construction and enclosure for private purposes are prevalent situation of Lakes shores and River
beds in Abaya-Chamo Sub [Link] to lack of buffer zone protection the size of the Lakes is
continuously declining. For instance, surrounding Lake Chamo and Abaya there is intensive
small scale agriculture at the Lakeshore and cattle herding. This is especially common in districts
like Arbaminch zuria, Derashe, and Amaro, Mirab-Abaya and Humbo. In these districts siltation
from tillable land and the use of chemicals affected the water quality and biodiversity of the
Lakes.

From this point of view the Lakes and some major Rivers in Abaya-Chamo Sub basin that might
intensively require Buffer Zone demarcation are sited in the following table with their watershed
location

Table 54: Lakes, some major Rivers and watershed location to demacarate
buffur zones
Lake serving as an inlet to
No Perennial River watershed
the River
1 Bilate Abaya Bilate
2 Hamassa Abaya Hamassa-Guracha
3 Kulfo Chamo Kulfo-Gina
4 Sile Chamo Sille-Chamo
5 Gelana Abaya Gelana
6 Gidabo Abaya Gidabo
Source: RVLBDO Assessment report, 2013

On the other hand RVLBDO has taken the initiative to prepare a draft document, input to the
national regulation on buffer zone demarcation to be implemented around the major water bodies
(Lakes, Rivers, wetland and others). Though it is not still finalized, the draft document
incorporates the different types of water bodies, legal and socio-economic dimensions and
implementation modalities.

[Link]. Wetlands

According to Tibebu et al. (2010), Wetland change and biodiversity in Abaya-Chamo sub
basin is very rich in wetland diversity and has extensive wetlands vary in size, form and

201
 character which are important with respect to biodiversity and source of income. Lakes Abaya
and Chamo are very prominent in having large number of both invertebrate and vertebrate
animals but the presence of huge and long crocodiles is the most distinguishing aspect of the
two Lakes. These wetlands range from River, Lake, marsh, pond, and channels to the Lakes.
Their main water sources are precipitation, storm water drainage, and runoff from agricultural
fields. These serve the purposes of irrigation, fisheries, water storage and resting, feeding and
roosting places for the migratory birds and resident waterfowls. The water birds from
different places of the world, mainly Europe, migrate and fly to spend their winter in the
wetlands of Abaya and Chamo wetlands as resting, staging, and feeding grounds.

The reduction of the area of wetland in a landscape often reduces biodiversity because many
organisms depend on the wetlands and riparian zones with which they are frequently
associated. The tremendous availability of well-liked crocodiles with these two Lakes
including wetlands is the chief factor that elucidate the number of wild life that breed at the
wetland areas. If these areas are affected, there is no doubt that it harshly affects them. The
threats to Wetlands of Abaya-Chamo Sub-basin are:

 Draining for agriculture: The conversion of wetland pastures into cultivated land engenders
conflicts between livestock and crop farmers expanding their private landholding. The
cultivation at the edges of wetlands by farmers with plots adjacent to the wetland seems to be
a more silent form of continuous encroachment. The conversion may be more obvious when
parts of formerly uncultivated wetland encroach. Due to land scarcity, all eyes focus on the
redistribution of wetlands for cultivation. Consequently, conflicts are seen between various
parties. Long term draining interferes with the ecological recovery of the wetland system and
will fasten its drying up. Agricultural activities are expanding to the edges of Lakes Chamo
and Abaya and many of the Rivers. Wetlands enclosing the Lakes are drained by farmers.
Many areas of wetland have been lost due to the increase of irrigation practice in the area.
 Over grazing: - Along with an increase in livestock numbers and encroachment, this entails
overstocking of communal pastures which aggravates overgrazing. Consequently,
competition over fodder sources arises between livestock farmers. Wetlands are often taken
as destination for grazing during the dry season. Overgrazing is a threat when year round

202
 grazing excludes ecological recovery period of the wetland which implies loss of
biodiversity.
 Over exploitation of wetland resources:-Over-exploitation of wetland resources is now a
major threat in several wetland areas of Ethiopia. Too little attention is given to the
conservation and sustainable use of wetland resources. A good example of over-exploitation
is the fishery resource from Lake Chamo and Ziway in the RVLB. Lake Chamo water level
is reduced as a result of excessive water use (for irrigation) from its feeding Rivers and
subsequent excessive degradation of the wetland.
 Deforestation of the watershed (i.e. Poor land use practice), cultivation of wetlands (on the
Lakeshore) and Sedimentation due to very inadequate soil and water conservation measures
put in place on the catchments of the Rivers flowing into the wetlands. Conservation based
crop production; management practices on farm adjacent to the Lakes are non-existent.
 Insufficient awareness among policy makers, planners and general public about the
economic, biological and scientific significance of the resources of the wetlands.

Therefore, urgent action is needed now, because the longer we wait, the more difficult it will
be to bring the wetlands and their complex web of life back to their former magnificence.
Problems of Wetland Protection and Conservation in the Sub basin are

 Inadequate policy framework, inadequate enforcement of regulations,

 Illegal settlement
 Lack of appropriate demarcation for wetland management,
 Lack of awareness, absence of regular and frequent monitoring of wetlands of the Sub
basin
 Lack of well-organized information database about wetlands of the Sub basin

[Link]. Invasive Species

Invasive species, particularly the exotic species are the main challenges to the water bodies of
Rift Valley Lakes Basin. Some of the invasive species affecting the basin include prosopis
or mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), giant sensitive tree or catclaw mimosa (Mimosa pigra)
and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) (Ethiopia’s Fifth National Report to the CBD).

Invasion of the water hyacinth

203
Invasion of the water hyacinth one of the difficulty unenthusiastic ecological impact of the in
Lake Abaya such as disarticulation of biodiversity through deprivation of water quality and
smothering of habitat by wide-ranging, permanent water hyacinth swathe The water under the
internal of widespread stationary mats of water hyacinth was nearly devoid of oxygen,
predominantly late in the nighttime and early in the sunup. Water hyacinth has invaded fresh
water systems in over 50 countries on five continents. It is especially pervasive throughout
Southeast Asia, the Southern United States, Central, East and Western Africa and Central
America. Invasive water hyacinths are of a large apprehension in Ethiopia, affectation
exacting problems lakes, rivers, power dams, water ways, roadsides and urban green spaces
with great economic and ecological consequences. It is prevalent in tropical and subtropical
water bodies where nutrient levels are often high due to agricultural runoff, deforestation and
insufficient waste water treatment. Water hyacinth was perceived to affect fisheries through
reduced levels of production, a reduction in species diversity, poor quality fish, rising cost of
operation resulting in lower income to fishers and higher prices to consumers. The enlarged
water hyacinth invasion has, therefore, obstructed damagingly on the water quality and
amount, fishing activities, plankton life, farming and health. Rapid growth rate and infestation
on large water area is causing different problems. The weed affects solar light penetration into
water bodies, reduces oxygen through decomposition, alters chemistry of water and
substantially increases water vapor transpiration. The plant is now considered as a serious
threat to biodiversity. The environmental hazards associated with these plants are degraded
water quality and drastic changes in the plant and animal community, light and oxygen
diffusion are severely curtailed reduction in water movement etc.
Water Hyacinth is one of the alien species invaded seriously the western part of Lake Abaya
and its shore land. According to assessment report of SNNPR’s environmental authority more
than 1570 hectares of the Lakeshore is invaded by the water Hyacinth. These invasive weed is
known to have harmful impacts to the Lake habitat and could cause important economic,
environmental and social losses.

Impacts of water Hyacinth

204
Water hyacinths are considered as nuisance species because they multiply rapidly and clog
lakes, rivers and ponds with uncounted thousands of tons of floating plant matter. This makes
boating, fishing, irrigation and almost all other water activities impossible. It also degrades
water quality by stimulating decomposition, which greatly reduces oxygen levels in the water.
According to (Raynes, 1964), 1 hectare water hyacinth can deposit approximately 1250 tons
of rotting plant material each year. It affects the growth of other native aquatic plants by
blocking sunlight penetration and photosynthesis. This creates a cascading effect by reducing
other underwater life such as fish reproduction and significant reduction in fish stock. Water
hyacinth also reduces biological diversity, impacts native submersed plants, alters immersed
plant communities by pushing away and crushing them, and also alter animal communities by
blocking access to the water and/or eliminating plants the animals depend on for shelter and
nesting. Water hyacinth increases water losses from the lake, wetlands and tributary rivers
because of the plant's high transpiration rate, calculated to be almost eight times the
evaporation rate of open water surfaces (Parsons, 1992).
Water hyacinth will cause water availability of Lake Abaya and its
surrounding wetlands, if it is not controlled timely.

 It can quickly dominate a water way or aquatic system because of rapid leaf production,
fragmentation of daughter plants, and copious seed production and can germinate.
 It degrades habitat for waterfowl by reducing areas of open water used for resting, and
when decomposing it makes water unfit for transport and Livestock.
 It displaces native aquatic plants used for food or shelter by other animals and wildlife
species. It kills fish and other aquatic animals.
 The protected water with in mats of water hyacinth makes ideal breeding sites for
mosquitoes and other vectors like snail this increases the danger of malaria,
schistosomiasis, and other diseases.

Water hyacinth control and management

Water hyacinth is enormously difficult to eliminate once established. Recent literature on management
of water hyacinth focuses on techniques to remove the weed, however, little has been done to assess
the full extent of ecological changes that may occur in response to the establishment of this weed.
Efforts have been made by various countries to control or manage the water hyacinth.

205
 These method choices from mechanical and material elimination of the hyacinth, biological control to
substance utilize, but no method has completely succeeded in controlling the menace. There are three
main method of manager of this infamous weed that is physical, chemical and genetic.

[Link]. Existing Watershed Management Practices and experiences

[Link].1. Soil and Water Conservation Activities and Experiences in the Abaya Chamo
In Ethiopia, as well as in the RVLB, soil and water conservation practices have a related history
with agriculture. All types of soil and water conservation interventions are practised in the sub
basin. It is well known that a long tradition of stone bunds and hillside terraces are in existence
in the Konso and Humbo areas. These traditions were reinforced by some modern physical and
biological techniques through a support from UNDP environmental rehabilitation programme
over the last 10 years. Other than these, recent efforts were envisaged by the government under
the regular extension and package programme, focussing mainly on composting and household
water harvesting. Since 2005, development of small community watersheds have been reportedly
in place in all food in-secure weredas in the basin, most of which are still at the planning stages.
From all the weredas visited, it was learned that attention given to this sector is insignificant
compared with other agricultural development sectors. World Vision Ethiopia, Concern and
WFP have made some efforts in the past. However, there were no data available with the
respective target weredas and elsewhere. The wereda staff for natural resources conservation
stated that almost all the soil and water conservation measures implemented in the past have
been destroyed.
Some of the soil and water conservation measures and water harvesting techniques are discussed
below:
1. Structural Measures
Soil bunds are structural soil and water conservation measures which are used to slow down and
accumulate runoff water, consequently holding some soil sediments on the upslope side of the
structure channel, and to protect soil against erosion. There are also some emerging methods for
carrying out soil and water conservation activities through a sub-watershed approach. These
efforts need to be strengthened in the future.

2. Vegetative and Agro-forestry

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These measures, which include seedling production, planting on bunds, grassland improvement,
compost making, grass strips and bund stabilization, are carried out mainly as an integral part of
structural interventions and gully rehabilitation. Almost all the soil and water conservation
measures practised in the basin are carried out by the Safety Net Programme.
3. Water Harvesting
Water harvesting is undertaken in the basin but is carried out irrespective of moisture levels.
Surface ponds, trenches, contour bunds, hillside terraces and hand-dug wells are some of the
water harvesting interventions observed in the basin. However, except in the moisture deficit
areas of Konso and micro-basins developed in Alaba, most of water harvesting structures have
been found to be unsuccessful. This is attributed to poor design of the structures and
development of water harvesting measures where should have not been required. For example,
concrete lined surface ponds are seen in high rainfall areas in the highlands of Boreda, Dalacho
and Warabe where there is adequate moisture throughout the year. Incorrect location of the
ponds is another important factor for lack of success. Ponds are observed to be weed infested
rather than storing water.
4. NGO Involvement
Some NGOs have been involved in supporting soil and water conservation activities in the sub
basin, but most of the emphasis has been on physical measures. In Alaba FHI International is
involved in structural measures, plantations and road construction. Similarly, World Vision
Ethiopia is working in Damot Gale and Mirab Abaya on physical measures, plantations and area
closure. The UNDP Environment Support Programme was also involved in implementation of
physical and biological measures such as seedling production and distribution to the community
in Mirab Abaya Wereda.
5. MERET Project
The project supports land rehabilitation, natural resources conservation and protection, and
development schemes supported by MoARD and WFP. Project schemes involve soil and water
conservation, nursery development and afforestation for community based groups and
individuals. The project supports rural infrastructure development, homestead development,
water harvesting, soil fertility management, crop productivity and intensification, income
generation schemes, HIV mainstreaming and other integrated rural development practices
through community based participatory development approach. The project strives to increase

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the capacity of the rural poor through the Local Level Participatory Planning Approach
(LLPPA). Thus, it has the objectives of reducing poverty and ensuring food security of the most
vulnerable, particularity households headed by women through the rehabilitation of degraded
areas, and promotion of natural resources conservation and income generation. The project
operates in six weredas (Alaba, Damot Gale, Damot Weyde, Humbo, Chencha, and Sodo) in
SNNPRS. (Source RVLB master plan 2010)

[Link].2. Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation Practices in the Basin

Farmers' reasons for using these indigenous soil and water conservation techniques are to
cultivate steeper slopes, drain off excess water and/or the desire to harvest runoff water and
diversify their production, and cope with the risks in the cases of mixed cropping patterns. Agro-
forestry practices in Konso, for example, are related to income diversification, and
socioeconomic needs such as firewood and livestock feed.

Characteristics of ISWC measures are that they are site-specific; complexity; gradually
developed components of farming system; multifunctional; short and long term benefits;
integration of several techniques; reduced labour inputs and risks; involvement of indigenous
institutions; and heritage of ancestral traditions.

In highland areas of Wolaita and Hadiya, agro-forestry and multiple cropping are very common.
Most of the traditional measures are agronomic and vegetative aimed at diversifying and
integrating the benefits from both annual and perennial crops. Trash-lines are commonly used
throughout the basin, particularly in the lowlands, for the reasons mentioned above. Farmers in
enset farming areas traditionally develop soil heaps around enset plant as a means of storing
adequate quantities of water for the plant, and protecting the land from erosion.

[Link].[Link] Sequestration
In recent years, many developed countries have been trying to reduce their carbon emissions
through investment in afforestation and reforestation projects (or agro-forestry) in developing
countries, the latter being able to sell their sequestrated carbon to the developed countries as an
offset. The largely degraded mountains and hills, especially in Gamdofa, Silte, Bonke and Konso
areas of SNNPRS, could benefit significantly from carbon trading initiatives and could lead to a
win-win situation: more income (carbon and timber revenue) and a sustainable environment.

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This could be used as new opportunity to scale up soil and water conservation interventions. The
landless members of communities could also gain if the benefits are distributed among all
community members. Project funds might be secured from the World Bank and the Global
Environment Facility (GEF). Recently, the World Bank has carried out a prefeasibility
assessment of the Humbo (Wolayita Sodo) reforestation carbon project (Gete et al, 2006).
Rift valley lakes basin development office is also implementing integrated watershed
management which helps to rehabilitate the degraded natural resources and as a result of this silt
accumulation in the water bodies will be reduces. By providing financial and technical support
for Woreda’s agriculture and natural resources offices it works in collaboration. At present
integrated watershed management activities are undertaken on 65,000ha of degraded land in 21
Woreda's and two city administrations. In Abaya Chamo sub basin the total land that is
rehabilitating is around 20,000ha in six Woreda's and a city administration (Loka Abaya, Abaya,
Amaro, Humbo, Mirab Abaya, Chencha and Arba Minch city Administration).

4.3.4. Risk Assessment and Uncertainties

[Link]. Data issue:

Water resources development without sufficient and reliable as well as good quality hydro-
meteorological data is impossible. Now a days, many Ethiopian river basin lacks good
hydrological and meteorological networking and hence Abaya-Chamo sub-basin. Beside this,
lack of sufficient length historical data with good quality is often challenging. Therefore, this
basin plan should give due attention to data and device verification techniques.

[Link]. Sedimentation:

The sediment inflow in to both Abaya and Chamo lakes basin has been increasing from time
to time. The main reasons for this might be deforestation to expand irrigation lands at the
upper catchments. For instance, in the year 2019, more than 12,000ha forest and shrubs land
in Gidabo basin, the main tributary of Lake Abaya, was changed in to agricultural land
(Taweke et. al., 2019).

[Link]. Agricultural land expansion and land degradation:

Agriculture being the mainstay for the community around the basin, many farmers have been
escalating their agricultural land from time to time. The main crop cultivated in the basin

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includes Banana, Cotton, Maize and cereals (Wubalem, 2018 and Kussia, 2016). Unlike other
crops, Banana farmland, the main crop and dominant commercial commodity in the
catchment, which is intensive water user, has been growing rapidly. The available water has
been diminishing and water theft and selling is becoming common. As an example, large
volume of water is absorbed by Amibara state banana farming. The local farmers do not get
sufficient water for their irrigation land and forced to break canals on the main river to their
own farm land.

[Link]. Lake water level increase:

Many studies conducted in the Abaya-Chamo Basin indicate decrease in inflow in to both
lakes (Ayana and Hawas, 2014 and Pingale et al., 2017). However, for unidentified reasons,
the water level of both lakes is increasing. This in turn will increase the evaporation loss from
open the water resources. An empirical study in eastern abaya-Chamo sub-basin shown that
expansion trend of wetlands is attributed to upstream woodland degradation and subsequent
flood induced siltation (Temesgen& Wu, 2018)

[Link]. Water hyacinth:

Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic plant (or hydrophyte) native to tropical and
sub-tropical South America. It is one of the most popular invasive species. Water hyacinth
reproduces extremely quickly (a population can double its biomass every 6–18 days). It is
highly invasive and forms monospecific mats on invaded lakes and rivers. This leads to a
number of ecological impacts, including reduced light and oxygen levels in the water column,
which in turn reduces native macrophyte diversity and can lead to fish kills, and to the loss of
water bird habitat. Water hyacinth populations have large negative impacts on human
society by clogging lakes and waterways and impeding navigation and fishing, by providing
breeding areas for mosquitoes and thus exacerbating vector-borne diseases, and by reducing
opportunities for recreation. It is considered one of the world's most costly and damaging
species (Keller & Lodge, 2009).

[Link]. Blue and green algae existence:

Some part of the lakes was covered by blue and green algae which is the main threat to the
lake water quality and ecosystem as well. Natural eutrophication was originally identified as
an inevitable natural process (Deevey, 1942; Lindeman, 1942). However, in recent decades,

210
due to human activities, (anthropogenic factors such as nutrient pollution from industry, urban
effluents and agricultural practices) this natural process is speeded up and become an
indisputable fact, as we can clearly observe extensive harmful algal blooms worldwide
(WHO, 1999; UNEP, 2005). There are several factors that influence the freshwater bloom
dynamics in Abaya-Chamo sub-basin. Among this nutrient enrichment play the most
important role in fresh water algal bloom (Teffera, 2009). Anthropogenic eutrophication
caused by excess nutrient input from industry (e.g. Dilla flour mills, coffee washing plants
etc), agricultural and municipal wastewater discharges has detrimental effects on the aquatic
ecosystem.

[Link]. Climate Change and Variability

The impact of climate change on the water resources of the basin has been assessed using a climate
change scenario based on output from the Global Climatic Model (GCM), together with scenarios
used in other climate change studies for Ethiopia (Kinfe, 1999, Deksios et al., 2000, Zeray et al.,
2002). The change is essentially an increase in temperature of +2oC resulting in a 10% increase of
evapotranspiration, and a 10% decrease of rainfall over the Master Plan period of 30 years; a relatively
high impact scenario. Overall, these results in a reduction in total annual surface runoff of 24%
compared to present day runoff.

Presently, the total available surface water resources of the RVLB is estimated at about 5,183
Mm3/year calculated from total average River flow into the Lake system under ‘existing’
conditions with abstractions for irrigation and water supplies for domestic and industrial use.
The water balance modelling shows that climate change reduces the total available surface
water resources of the RVLB to approximately 3,939 Mm3/year, a decrease of 1,244
Mm3/year.

The impact of climate change on Lake Abaya is of the same order of magnitude as that caused
by developing all planned irrigation within Lake Abaya catchment. Reduction in flows
entering Lake Abaya cause a decline of 1.75m in long term average (LTA)Lake levels,
decreasing by 2.77 m by the end of year 2034, Because Lakes Abaya and Chamo are
connected; most of the impact is on Lake Chamo. The Lake level changes in Chamo in
response to climate change follow the same pattern and magnitude as those experienced when
all future planned irrigation is development in both Lake Abaya and Chamo sub basins.

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 Table 55: Lake level at the end of year 2034 in response to climate change
Lake Climate Change
*
Abaya -2.76
Chamo* -12.11

Table 56: LTA Lake level response to climate change

Lake Climate Change

*
Abaya -1.73
*
Chamo -6.87

Source: WEAP water resource model for the Lake Abaya and Lake Chamo catchment, MoWIE
[Link]. Water Use Conflict

According to master plan RVLB there is essentially no water resources management or planning
being carried out. This means little or no coordination between water users including irrigation
schemes. This will lead to increased conflicts over water use as development proceeds. Water
management will become the mandate of the River Basin Organizations which are to be
established in all River basins. This important institutional work needs to be fast tracked to keep
pace with development. Population growth, increased economic activity and improved standards
of living have led to increased demand for water resources in the Abaya Chamo sub-basin. In the
Sub-basin the main competing water sector is irrigation development that supports the economy
of the Sub-basin as well as the country. In the Subbasin which small scale, medium scale and
large scale irrigated agriculture has expanded rapidly. Due to population growth the water
demand for domestic use increases over time.

The main development area in this subbasin is in the Sille area. The Sille and Sego Rivers flow
across a common alluvial plain. Sille area both state farms and community farms exist in the
command area (conflicts between State Farm and smallholder’s large command area Conjunctive
use with groundwater). Because of water shortages, conflicts arise between different users.
Groundwater is a possibility for exploitation. The Sego dam site is considered an ideal site
located on highland about 150m above the potential command area. As the dam site is quite
narrow and the River is less sediment laden, a pressurized irrigation scheme could be considered
and expansion and rehabilitation; conjunctive use of groundwater, wetland development. In

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particular the Arba Minch Farm which uses the Kulfo River reports no water shortages; instead
land is the limiting resource. If the Kulfo River were to be regulated then some of this water
could be transferred to adjacent lands to the north where water shortage exists.

The Hamassa River in Wolaita Zone is fully utilized as a source of water in its upper reaches
before reaching farms in the low-lands. Thus the existing farm area on the lower Hamassa is no
longer irrigated due to water shortage. This leads to scarcity of water, which in turn, inevitably
lead to conflict over resources. There is however potential to construct small dams on the
Amessa, Bongie and Guracha Rivers to regulate flows and provide water for irrigation in the
lower reaches.

The Gelana River in Borena, Segen and Gedio Zones has small and medium scale irrigated
agriculture during a dry season the River is reduce. Due to this reason the flow reduces before
reaching farms in the low-lands. Because of water shortages, conflicts arise between different
users' upper catchment and lower catchment farmer (RVLBA assessment report, 2016).

[Link]. Geological Hazard

Ethiopia straddles the East African Rift. This zone of intense active volcanism and seismicity
represents a significant hazard to the local population. For example, a recent World Bank
assessment of global volcanic hazard showed that 49 Ethiopian volcanoes were categorized as
having the highest level of uncertainty in terms of their hazard level. Earthquake hazard is known
to be high within the rift valley itself, but a recent deformation study showed that strain is also
accumulating on the high plateau, suggesting there could be significant underestimated hazard
away from the rift, including for major cities. Rift Valley Lakes Basin is tectonically rather
unstable.

Earthquakes in the basin have generally shallow foci within the upper part of the crust.
Earthquake energy release, supported by local geology and water saturated soil conditions may
contribute to surface fissuring, even though the overall mechanism of previously observed
surface fissuring is today poorly understood. Landslide hazard is another crucial environmental
constraint for the development of Ethiopia, representing a limiting factor for urbanization and
infrastructures.
 On 16-12-2010 earthquake happened in Hossana with a magnitude of 5.1 in which
many injuries occurred and many houses were damaged.

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  4.7 magnitude earthquake 32km from Arbaminch on Tuesday, January 05, 1999 at
18:27 PM in which no death was occurred.
 4.9 magnitude earthquake 14km from Boditi on Wednesday, June 7, 1989 at
11:24 PMwhich no death was occurred.
 A land slide occurred in Dara Malo locality, Gamo-Gofa Zone, Southern regional
stateon May, 2018 in which 9 people were killed and 17 injured in the landslide.

[Link]. Flood Risk

According to Rift Valley Lakes Basin Integrated Resources Development Master Plan (2010) in
Parts of the Middle Bilate are incised into bedrock with the River banks, where out-of-bank
flooding is unlikely or limited while other sections such as the delta area are little constrained.
Also the RiverGelana, lie in shallowly incised channels within a broad floodplain. The years
2006 and 2007 were relatively wet over much of Ethiopia. The Department of Disaster
Prevention and Preparedness has prepared a map of flood affected areas as of 24 August 2006 for
the 2006 rainy season which shows flooding on the middle Bilate River affecting about 4,700
people, in Shashego woreda affecting about 8,600 with two dead, on the Lower Bilate and
Guracha Rivers affecting 11,900 people, and flooding in the Arba Minch area with a record of
two deaths.

The Rivers that debouch from highlands change their course occasionally at alluvial fan due to
poor irrigation diversion structures and cause great havoc in low-laying irrigation schemes and
on the trunk-road connecting Wolaita Sodo to Arba Minch. Part of the runoff of the Rivers
draining the highlands is used to irrigate the lowland plains (banana, mango, food crops) but
poor irrigation water management causes complete flooding of the cropland and severe gulley
formation in the lowlands during flash flooding.

According to National Disaster Risk Management Commission (April 2016), Flood is likely to
happen in flood-prone areas with high probability in the southern and south-eastern parts.
As of 2007/2008 E.C. due to El-Nino (East Tropical Pacific Ocean Dipole) most parts of our
country were affected by Low rain fall. This resulted in a decrease Lake water level and
emergence of drought. However from April 2008E.C. on wards due to a decrease in El-Nino
signal and a positive west Indian ocean dipole our country received moist air and the 'Belg'

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season got rain fall above the normal level and even in some areas this extreme rain fall resulted
in flooding. Especially in Seasonal flash floods occur in Shashego woreda on the Middle Bilate,
on the Lower Bilate and on the steep, short Rivers in the Abaya-Chamo sub-catchment. These
floods result in small numbers of deaths, the temporary displacement of people, and damage to
infrastructure, especially to irrigation works and property.

According to the flood prone area assessment report conducted by the basin development office
in 2008E.C, the frequently flood affected areas included Kemba Woreda of Gamogofa Zone;
Humbo Woreda of Wolaita Zone; Hula, Dale, Shebedinoworedas and Hawassa Town in Sidama
Zone; Shashigo woreda in Hadiya Zone; AlichoWoriro, Dalocha, Lanfaro, Siltee, Sankura in
Silitee Zone; and Halaba Special Woreda. People in these affected areas are often settled in high
risk areas which are prone to landslides and erosion due to shortage of farm land. The frequency
and extent of out-of-bank flooding will depend on the flow levels and River morphology, while
the flood-related damages will depend on the density of population and land use in flood prone
areas. Fluvial flooding is associated with flash flooding from mountain streams and Rivers,
which can cause infrastructure damages, loss of life, temporary displacement of large numbers of
peoples, and loss of crops. The flood prone area assessment report indicates the high and very
high flood hazard threats are in the down-stream part of the sub basin. Due to the high intensity
of rainfall at the upper catchments, sediment deposit and River morphology of River caused
flood affecting upper, middle and lower Abaya-Chamo sub basin. Based on the assessment
report a total of 26 Woreda's in the RVLB were stricken by flooding.

[Link]. Drought Risk

According to master plan of RVLBA 2010 Severe droughts have occurred in Ethiopia in 1965,
1969, 1973, 1977, 1978-1979, 1983-1984, 1987, 1989-1992, 2000 and 2002. Most recently,
below average rainfall between 1999 and 2002 has resulted in four years of limited food
production and severely depleted the asset based of the population across much of the country.
The worst year was 2002 when below average spring ('Belg') rains in March to May were
followed by delayed and sporadic main rains from July to September which led to widespread
food insecurity.

The SNNPRS Livelihood Zone (LZ) Study provides information on the main environmental
hazards found in different agricultural systems in Abaya-Chamo sub basin was:

215
 Halaba-Mareko Lowland Pepper Livelihood Zone. This is a relatively food secure area in
the north of the RVLB with a mixed farming system. Even though, recent droughts have
been the main cause of production failure.
 Badewacho-Halaba Maize LZ. Cultivation is entirely rain fed and recurrent drought has
caused frequent production shortfalls in recent years. Hail storms in August–October can
damage crops.
 Kedida-Badewacho Coffee LZ. There is a chronic shortage of water for human and livestock
consumption, which restricts livestock production, and the coffee processing plant pollute
nearby watercourses.
 Bilate Watershed Agro-Pastoral LZ. Heavy rainfall causing flooding along the River, but the
main hazard is drought, followed by livestock diseases, malaria and soil erosion.
 Wolaita Maize and Root Crop LZ. This area around Damot Gale, DamotWeyde and Humbo,
is characterised by chronic poverty and food insecurity. These problems are exacerbated in
bad years by rain failure, crop pests and malaria. Despite this, there are seasonal food
shortages from February to June in most years, and from November to June in a bad year.
 GamoGofa'Enset' and [Link] area is mountainous and densely populated. Most of
the population is self-sufficient in food, but a small percentage of households are chronically
food insecure. The main hazard comes from erratic rainfall, which can delay the harvest and
cause severe hunger.
 Gamo-Gofa Maize and Root [Link] is a highly food insecure due to erratic rainfall,
land shortage, livestock disease and poor market access. Failure of rain causes periodic
drought and food aid for the poor has been a regular feature.
 Southern Lowland Cereal zone covers four food deficit weredasAmaro, Dirashe, Burji, and
Konso. Repeated droughts and erratic rainfall during both rainy seasons cause severe
moisture stress. The main hazards affecting this area are drought and / or inconsistent rains,
which result in crop failure. This problem has been marked in the early 2000s.

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 4.4. Chew Bahir sub basins

4.4. 1. Assessment of Water resource in the sub-basin trends and current

situation
[Link]. Surface water resources potential assessment
Chew Bahir sub basin is found in the southern most part of the RVLB, the main perennial rivers
in this sub basin are the Weito and Segen, with a combined annual flow of about 700 Mm3/yr,
which flow into the salt flats, wetlands, and open water of Chew Bahir. The rivers are fresh water
with low levels of minerals and fluoride. From the total Rift Valley Lakes Basin surface water
resource, 11% is found in chew bahir sub-basin and it is 598 Mm3/year. The two rivers (Weito
and Segen) are major tributaries of Lake Chew Bahir and wetland. Haru Shet River originates its
flow at the east of Lake Chamo and Abaya, and flows west between the mountain range of
Soyama and Yeterara Senselet and finally intersects with the Segen River. This area is defined as
Segen watershed. Other small stream networks south of Lake Chamo are defined as Konso
localized watershed, and the area of tributaries along the Weito River is defined as Bezo Weito
watershed (JICA, 2012).

The initial storage for Lake Chew Bahir was set to be 380 Mm3 (corresponding to a lake level
8 m below estimated top water level) to ensure the mass balance between inflows and
evaporative losses. Evaporative losses from the wetlands in the Lake Chew Bahir catchment and
Chew Bahir are approximately same as the inflow from the Weito River (RVLB Master Plan,
Phase 2 Final Report, 2009).

Table 57: Mean Monthly Flow of the Major Rivers (Dry and Wet Season)

Mean Monthly(m3/s) Flow of the Major Rivers (Dry and Wet Season)
S/No River Name M. Location Low Flows High Flows
Month Mean Month Mean
1 Weito Weito Bridge February 7.881 May 23.17
2 Segen
3 Konso Localized
Source: (RVLB MP Phase 1 Final Report, 2008)

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 Figure 35Generated daily and mean monthly flows from 1990 to 2007
Source: (RVLB, 2008)
In general, total water potential of the sub-basin is summation of annual and projected rainfall
volume estimated from meteorological data; flows of all rivers in the sub basin estimated from
hydrological data and estimated available ground water storage in the sub-basin. The daily flow
for this part of the basin has been determined using SWIM hydrological modeling. According to
the result the mean annual flow contributed from these parts of the catchment to Chew Bahir is
(17+8) = 25m3/s and it attains its peak discharge at 12 and 26m3/s in the month of May and
November respectively.

This sub-basin must be analyzed differently, as Chew Bahir is not a lake, but a salt pan that
occasionally has a small amount of water in it. Chew Bahir is subject to substantial changes in
area as a result of variations in river discharge. It often dries out, but the lowest point in the
northeast is always moist. Over the past century, Chew Bahir has varied from swamp to shallow
open water with a maximum recorded depth of 7.5m and a surface area of up to 2,000 km2 in the
1960s. Of greater importance is the significant wetland upstream of Chew Bahir. This wetland is
a fragile ecosystem and is also sensitive to changes in river flows ('Important Bird Areas of
Ethiopia, EWNHS 1996).

Chew bahir sub- basin is a closed basin; hence there is no inflow and outflow of surface water.
There is also no evidence of (significant) groundwater inflow or outflow. As a result, all water

218
resources in the area eventually originate from rainfall. Rainfall is intercepted by the vegetation,
temporarily ponds in surface depressions, or infiltrates into the soil, from where it can directly
evaporate or be utilized by crops (evapo-transpiration). If the rainfall exceeds the infiltration
capacity of the soil, surface runoff can occur. In the case of relatively large infiltration rates,
apportion of the rainfall can recharge the groundwater; then groundwater recharge can eventually
discharge into the lakes and rivers as base flow, be temporarily stored (in aquifers), or be
utilized. So assessing the amount of current water potential and projecting the future water
resource potential depends on the current and future climate condition of the basin. In general,
Chew Bahir/Chelbi/ is actually not water body. Some part of it is wetland and majority of it is
dry land. It starts at 2-5km from the Buska Mountain and extends to North Kenya. It is deep low
land area which was known by its wildlife diversity but according to the local community,
currently this wildlife has been migrated to Kenya.

According to the assessment made by the expertise team of the office, the upper catchment of
Weito-Bezo macro watershed has good water potential sources like springs, streams, Feeder
Rivers and ground water at shallow depths. There is no modern irrigation technology in the sub
basin. Highly water extracting exotic trees like eucalyptus is expanding in the upper Bezo
catchment. This caused the rivers and springs to be reduced and dried in some areas. Even
though there is high extraction of water by eucalyptus, there is still high potential of water
resources around Gamo highlands. Scarcity/shortage of clean water is happening in the Gerese
town due to lack of water development infrastructure. The upper tributary rivers such as Dancha
and Bezo Rivers seemed to have good potential; however feasibility and potential studies on
them have never been studied till.

Most rivers in the Chew Bahir sub basin are categorized as non-perennial rivers. Even though
some large rivers can be classified as perennial rivers, the amount of discharge in the dry season
is quite limited. Therefore, stable provision of water volume and supply as drinking water from
the river is out of consideration. Furthermore, most of the perennial rivers are randomly used by
the surrounding community without any rules for different uses such as washing, bathing,
irrigation, and cattle feeding. Therefore the water quality of these rivers in the dry season will not
be considered as potable water.

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 [Link]. Ground water resource potential assessment
There is also no evidence of (significant) groundwater inflow or outflow. As a result, all water
resources in the area eventually originate from rainfall. Some portion of rainfall is always
infiltrated into the soil. In the case of relatively large infiltration rates, apportion of the rainfall
can recharge the groundwater; then groundwater recharge can eventually discharge into the
rivers as base flow, be temporarily stored (in aquifers), or be utilized. So assessing the potential
of groundwater resource potential depends on infiltration rate of rainfall. Identification of the
aquifer type is bases to estimate and forecast the availability of groundwater in the given basin.
The investigation of groundwater potential shall be clarified by the distribution of good aquifers,
as well as its quality and quantity as an aquifer unit.

Figure 36Groundwater Potential Map (Bezabih Bereket, 2017).

The groundwater potential map is developed in Arc GIS’s spatial analyst weighted overlay
analysis tool. The resulting maps is reclassified to five qualitative groups described as excellent
very good, good , poor, and very poor, fig below.(Bezabih Bereket, 2017).

Master plan of RVLB states that the interrelationship between the different components of the
groundwater balance demonstrates the difficulty in estimating the available ground water

220
resource, particularly as it is not possible to realistically estimate most of these components.
With no data with respect to most of the components of the groundwater balance, and with no
other means available, it is necessary to base the estimate for the basin on the direct groundwater
recharge from rainfall. On this basis and given the overall lack of management of the
groundwater resource, a conservative estimate is needed. It is suggested that initially just 5% of
the direct groundwater recharge from rainfall is considered as the available groundwater resource
(RVLB MP Phase 2 final report, 2009).

Table 58: Estimated direct GW recharge and GW resource availability of Chew

bahir sub- basin by development zone

Local areas included in the zone Estimated annual Estimated GW

direct GW resource
Development
recharge(Mm3/ availability
zone
yr) (Mm3/year)
DZ 6:- Southern comprises 9 weredas in SNNPRS, 133 7
Mixed Farming namely: Amaro, Bonke, Burji,
Zone Derashe, Kemba, Konso, Uba
Debretsehay and Zala
.
DZ-7: comprises 4 weredas in SNNPRS, 65 3
Pastoral namely: North Ari, South Ari,
Zone – Benatsemay, Hamer
SNNP

DZ-8; Pastoral comprises 3 weredas in Oromiya 65 3

Zone – Oromiya National state, namely: Dugida
Dawa, Teltele, Yabelo

Total 263 13

Master plan of the basin indicates that chew bahir sub basin coincided completely with
development zones seven and eight and some parts of development zone six are also included in
this sub basin. In development zones six, seven and eight, the estimation of groundwater
recharge and groundwater availability of 16 (sixteen) woredas’ coinciding with the sub-basins is

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considered from the master plan. As it is indicated in the Table 9, Total estimated Groundwater
water availability in Chew Bahir sub basin is about 13Mm3/year.

[Link]. Surface Water quality Assessment in the sub basin

The water quality analysis results are shown in Table 7 and the Ethiopian standard of drinking
water of the parameters of major concern are shown in Table 7. The river water in the dry season
shows some concentration of toxic parameters such as fluoride, but it reduces in the wet season
to drinkable levels. Although, the turbidity of the river water is very high, it will not affect
human health. It is categorized into “Parameters that may give rise to complaints from
consumers”.

Table 59: Water Quality of Major Rivers (Major parameters only)

SNO Parameters Weito

April Aug

1 PH 8.04 8.03

2 TDS (mg/l) 98 91

3 DO (mg/l) 4.1 6.8

4 EC(SS/cm) 206 193

5 TSS(mg/l) 1474 1036

6 Turbidity(NTU) 546 720

7 Na(mg/l) 11.6 13

8 K(mg/l) 3.1 2

9 Ca(mg/l) 19.2 19.2

10 Mg(mg/l) 6.8 5.83

11 HCO3(mg/l) 68 78.1

12 Cl(mg/l) 5.5 8.5

13 F(mg/l) 0.53 0.65

14 SO4(mg/l) 2.33 0.09

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15 SAR

Source: (RVLB MP, 2008)

Table 60: Guidelines of Major Substances and Parameters (Ethiopia 2002, WHO)

Parameters Ethiopian guideline WHO guideline

PH 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5

Fluoride(mg/l) 3 0.6 – 1.57
Nitrate(mg/l) 50 45
Chloride(mg/l) 533 250
Iron (mg/l) 0.4 0.3
TDS (mg/l) 1776 1000

As aforementioned, the rivers in the sub basin do not have capacity to provide the stable potable
water supply, and the water quality is not satisfactory for drinking. The potential of river water as
a drinking water source is low.

4.4.2. Water demand assessment

Chew Bahir and the large wetland upstream have been demonstrated already to be sensitive to
changes in upstream river flow, and will respond to any change in water use in the upstream
Development Zones (DZ) 7, 8 and 6. The Lower River Segen is the boundary between DZ 8 and
DZ 6 and contributes about 26% of total flow to Chew Bahir. The model results show that the
total annual averaged flow to the wetland and Chew Bahir will decrease by 0.3% to meet the
water demands for urban water supply predicted in the Master Plan development scenarios. This
is not surprising as the urban population is very low in DZ 7, DZ 8 and along the River Segen
bordering DZ 6 and DZ 8 has few urban centres to develop along its course. Also there are few
towns in the River Weyto catchment, which contributes 51% of total river flow. The conclusion
is that there will be little hydrological impact from water supply demands. However, when the
5,600 ha of proposed irrigation is phased into with water demands for future urban development,
total flow decrease by 3.3% (RVLB MP Phase 2 final report, 2009).

Chew Bahir sub-basin (19,029 km2) is the catchment of the dry lake, Chew Bahir, mostly
comprising the Weito and Segen River catchments. For the southern sub-basins of Segen and

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Weito Rivers, which join and flow into the wetlands adjacent to Chew Bahir, the total planned
irrigation is 47,000 ha. Chew Bahir sub basin is known as water scarce area. Ground water is
obtained above 100m depth in some areas of the sub basin and the people need to travel more
than eight hours to fetch water for house consumption. There are many irrigation schemes
following the rivers like Segen, yanda and kemaga. In addition, farmers also use water for
irrigation by traditional ways. In the sub basin, there is water scarcity and water use conflict is
frequently happening among investors and pastoralists/semi-pastoralists and between upper
stream and downstream users (for example; between Konso and Benatsemay woredas, between
Benatsemay and Hamer woredas, between Hamer and Erbore Community). In some parts of
Hamer woreda, the societies are using ground water around wetland and sandy areas which is
locally called “Chirosh”. But the majority of the area is water scarce. Rivers are covered by silt,
breaking its course, flooding the farm land is very common (RVLBA Assessment Report, 2016).

The population projection data given in Table 10 are based on the results of Ethiopian population
and housing census of 2007. The base population for the projection was obtained from the 2007
population and housing census for each of the woreda and adjusted to the mid of the census year,
1 July 2007 (CSA, 2013).
Table 61: Projected populations for different woreda administrations

Zone Woreda Year Urban population Rural population Total

(E.C) populatio
Male Female Male Female
n
South Hamer 2006 3020 2784 31758 31716 69278
Omo
2007 3187 2937 32360 32332 70816
2008 3367 3104 32944 32926 72341
2009 3544 3269 33549 33542 73904
Benatsema 2006 2219 1655 28752 28477 61103
y
2007 2341 1746 29297 29030 62414
2008 2474 1845 29826 29564 63709
2009 2604 1944 30374 30116 65038
Male 2006 794 862 47822 46536 96014
2007 838 910 48727 47439 97914
2008 885 962 49607 48312 99766

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 2009 932 1013 50518 49214 101677
Gamo Zala 2006 2009 1851 41064 40289 85213
Gofa
2007 2120 1953 41841 41071 86985
2008 2239 2064 42596 41826 88725
2009 2358 2174 43379 42608 90519
Ubadebrats 2006 3993 4050 36795 36048 80886
ehay
2007 4213 4273 37491 36747 82724
2008 4451 4516 38168 37423 84558
2009 4687 4756 38870 38122 86435
Kemba 2006 4082 4441 86732 83648 178903
2007 4307 4685 88374 85271 182637
2008 4550 4951 89969 86839 186309
2009 4791 5215 91623 88462 190091
Bonke 2006 5422 6090 85682 86344 183538
2007 5721 6425 87304 88019 187469
2008 6044 6791 88880 89638 191353
2009 6363 7152 90514 91313 195342
Segen Burji 2006 5307 6077 27233 27411 66028
Area
2007 5600 6411 27748 28962 68721
people’s
Zone 2008 5916 6776 28249 29495 70436
2009 6228 7137 28768 30046 72179
Konso 2006 8685 8336 122237 131917 271175
2007 9164 8794 124551 134476 276985
2008 9682 8295 126800 136949 282726
2009 19193 9789 129130 139509 288621
Derashe 2006 11297 12613 71721 74210 169841
2007 11920 13306 73078 75650 173954
2008 12593 14063 74397 77041 178094
2009 13258 14812 75765 78481 182316
Source: (JICA, 2012)

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 Acknowledging human water requirements as a human right, the water supply for each person
must be sufficient and continuous for personal and domestic uses (UNDP, 2004). According to
Turner etal. (2004), water demand ranges 30-300 litres per person a day for domestic purposes,
while 3000 litres per day are needed to grow their daily foods, considering irrigation
requirement. In this regard, despite its poor and largely rural population, and despite a historic
legacy of low investment in infrastructure, Ethiopia has been making substantial progress in
increasing water supply coverage (AMCOW, 2011). Although the basis is not obvious, given the
very different climates and terrains of different parts of the world, international organizations
such as WHO suggest that 20 liters of safe water per person per day is “the minimum amount
needed to satisfy metabolic, hygienic and domestic requirements”. And, this water should be
available within a convenient distance (mostly 200m) from the user’s dwelling. Another study by
Gleick (1998) estimates that 25 liters per day is enough for personal consumption and sanitation,
but that another 25 liters per day is needed for bathing and food preparation, producing a total
daily requirement of 50 liters per person. According to Rosen and Vincent (1999), if the
households were to use their domestic water supply to irrigate kitchen gardens or support
livestock, two activities that provide nutritional and income benefits, far more than 50
liters/person/day would likely be required. Based on the above recommendations, the human
water supply requirements of different woredas which partly or fully lie in the Weito watershed
have been calculated.
Table 62: Woreda-level human water supply requirements in the Weito
watershed
Woredas Minimum human water Sufficient human water supply
requirement limits
supply requirements
(MMC/YEAR)
according to WHO
(MMC/YEAR)
Lower Upper
Hammer 0.5 1.3 2.7
Benatsemay 0.5 1.2 2.4
Male 0.7 1.9 3.7
Zala 0.7 1.7 3.3
Ubadebratsehay 0.6 1.6 3.2
Kemba 1.4 3.5 6.9

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Bonke 1.4 3.6 7.1
Burji 0.5 1.3 2.6
Konso 2.1 5.3 10.5
Derashe 1.3 3.3 6.7
Total 9.7 24.7 49.1
Source: (JICA, 2012)

[Link]. Agricultural or Irrigation demand

The WEAP water balance model built for the Master plan is used to assess the impact of
abstraction of water from upstream rivers for planned irrigation on the flow regime at Chew
Bahir and its upstream wetland. The results in table 12 show that if all 47,000ha of planned
irrigation were to be supported in the Weito and Segen River catchment, then there would be a
reduction of 21.5% in the Long Term Average (LTA) of total flow arriving at Chew Bahir and
wetland. Such a large decrease in flow would have a significant effect on the ecosystem of this
area, especially during dry years. This level of planned irrigation is not sustainable (RVLB MP
Phase 2 final report, 2009).

Table 63: Changes in total annual flow for Chew Bahir and upstream wetland

Chew Existing All planned Planned Planned Water Planned

Bahir sub conditions irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation &
supply
basin (47,000 ha) (15,600 ha) (5,600 ha) water supply
(5,600 ha)
Total
flow
(Mm3/Yr) 1006 790 928 975 1003 972
Change
in flow
(%) 0 21.5% 8% 3% 0.3% 3.3%
Source: (RVLB MP Phase 2 final report, 2009).
Since Chew Bahir and wetland are both fragile environments and are both sensitive to any
changes in flows, the theoretical level of new irrigation would likely be zero. A decision would
have to be made about what is an acceptable loss of area of Chew Bahir and its wetland, if any,

227
when planning new irrigation. However, 3% reduction of river flow was assumed to be
acceptable as an impact threshold, and would result in a similar impact on Chew Bahir and
wetland as future climate change, which reducing total annual flow by about 3%. Therefore,
assuming a 3% loss in water flow into the wetland is acceptable then 5,600ha is the upper limit
of new irrigation development in this sub-basin. If 10% water loss is assumed, just more than
15,600ha may be possible. However, any reduction of flow would result in more loss in Chew
Bahir and wetland area. It is also important to assess the changes to seasonal water levels within
the wetland as a result of increasing abstraction of water upstream for planned irrigation to be
able to assess the impact on plant habitats, individual plant species, and wildlife such as aquatic
birds (RVLB MP Phase 2 final report, 2009).

Mostly, only a small change in water depth within a wetland eco-system is required to have a
dramatic effect on the plant habitats. Although plants can adapt to changes over time, they are
less able to adapt to rapid changes in water depth which could occur if abstractions for irrigation
were too large or were phased in too quickly. Overall, it is clear that this ecological system is
complex, and even a small loss of water could result in significant damage to this vulnerable
ecosystem. The analysis allowing a 10% threshold for lake level decline from long term average
suggests that a total of 18,350ha of new irrigation may be possible. However, it must be stressed
that this 10% threshold is arbitrary and used for illustration only. Because of the sensitivity of the
lakes and the serious environmental and economic losses which may occur due to a 10% decline,
the precautionary principle must be adhered to in considering any future irrigation development.

[Link].1. Current Irrigation status in Chew Bahir Sub basin

Irrigation by far is the largest consumer of water in the Weito watershed. There are different
irrigation schemes which grow vegetables, cotton and fruits at the water source regions of Weito
watershed. These schemes abstract water from un-gauged tributaries of Weito river such as
Zenti, Bezo, Bato and Lomate rivers. For instance, in 2015/16, the total areas under irrigation in
Zala, Uba Debretsehay, Kemba and Bonke woreda is 2250, 1935, 4469 and 7598 hectares,
respectively. Although there is no detail information about irrigation practices of these schemes
such as, water use, cropping pattern and irrigation methods, it is believed that a significant
proportion of water is abstracted by the schemes from the flow that supposed to join the Weito

228
River. Hence, the negative impacts of water abstractions for irrigation at the water source regions
on the middle and the lower sections of the Weito watershed are inevitable. Likewise, there are
numerous irrigation farms in the middle and lower parts of Weito. The commercial farms are
growing cotton, while the local farmers dominantly producing maize using the irrigation.
However, it is not clearly known the quantity of water which has been diverted and consumed by
the commercial farms and local irrigation landholders in the basin. Moreover, there is lack of
adequate long-term meteorological data.
Thus, knowing irrigation water requirement is crucial to determine demand-supply relationships
and further perform water allocation in the basin. To materialize this, the Blaney-Criddle formula
(Blaney and Criddle, 1962) is employed to calculate the net-irrigation water requirement of
different farms. This formula estimates potential evapo-transpiration (PET or consumptive use)
by correlating it with sunshine durations and air temperature. Sunshine duration at a place is
dependent on latitude of the place and varies with month of the year.

Table 64: Existing irrigation status in the chew bahir

Irrigation Irrigated Major crop Growing periods Water shortage

scheme area (ha) status
Omo Sheleko 3800 Cotton Mid-May to mid-Oct Low
Agro-industry

Nasa Farm 1000 Cotton Mid-May to mid-Oct High

Enchete 550 Maize Mid-Jun to mid-Oct Low
Kebele and
farmers Mid-Nov to mid-Mar

Duma Kebele 590 Maize Mid-Jun to mid-Oct Low

farms and
Mid-Nov to mid-Mar
Gisma, Bola 228 Maize Mid-Sep to mid-Jan High
and Bura and
Kebele Mid-Mar to mid-Jul
farmers
Babo Kebele 430 Maize Mid-Sep to mid-Jan Low
farmers and

229
 Mid-Mar to mid-Jul
Masoya 1970 Maize Mid-Sep to mid-Jan Low
Kebele and
farmers Mid-Mar to mid-Jul
Gete Kebele 431 Maize Mid-Sep to mid-Jan Very high
farmers and
Mid-Mar to mid-Jul
Zegerma 25 Maize Mid-Sep to mid-Jan Extremely high
Kebele and
farmers Mid-Mar to mid-Jul
Cherkaka 22 Maize Mid-Sep to mid-Jan Extremely high
Kebele and
farmers Mid-Mar to mid-Jul
Arbore 14 Maize Mid-Sep to mid-Jan Extremely high
Kebele and
farmers Mid-Mar to mid-Jul
Total ha 9,060
Source: (JICA, 2012)

Estimates of current irrigation were derived from feasibility studies and design documents. The
future water demands for the proposed projects were assumed to be same as current and weighed
based on project situation (e.g., for irrigation projects water demand was weighed based on
future command area). Monthly gross irrigation water requirement was derived from the Rift
valley Lake Basin Master plan and feasibility study documents based on their availability.
Furthermore, in this current study, prefeasibility study has been carried out for a dam located on
the Lower Segen River to provide water for a command area of 7,000 ha some 15 km
downstream.
Table 65: Irrigation water requirements of various schemes around the Weito below
the bridge
Months Net irrigation water requirement (netIWR) in MMC/month netIWR_t GrossIWR
otal MMC/mon
OS_far Nasa_fa Enchet Duma GB Bab Masoy Gete_fa
m rm e_farm _farm B_f o_f a_farm rm MMC/mo th
arm arm nth

January 0.91 0.98 0.17 0.31 1.42 0.31 4.1 9.75

230
Februar 0.99 1.06 2.0 4.87
y
March 0.3 0.32 0.04 0.08 0.35 0.08 1.2 2.77

April 0.03 0.05 0.24 0.05 0.4 0.89

May 0.75 0.2 0.30 0.56 2.57 0.56 4.9 11.77

June 4.05 1.07 0.16 0.17 0.40 0.75 3.43 0.75 10.8 25.64

July 6.23 1.64 0.73 0.79 0.16 0.32 1.40 0.32 11.6 27.59

August 7.34 1.93 0.85 0.91 11.0 26.28

Septemb 5.13 1.35 0.86 0.92 0.04 0.08 0.38 0.08 8.8 21.07
er
October 2.13 0.56 0.31 0.33 0.24 0.44 2.04 0.45 6.5 15.47

Novemb 0.12 0.13 0.30 0.56 2.56 0.56 4.2 10.08

er
Decemb 0.66 0.70 0.41 0.77 3.52 0.77 6.8 16.27
er
Total 172.45*

Source: (JICA, 2012)*2.07BMC/year

[Link]. Livestock water demand

The livestock data for the year 2008 have been collected from different offices of the South-Omo,
Gamo-Gofa and Segen people zones. These livestock counts did not differentiate among different
age-groups of the animals. Thus, we treated all livestock’s presented in Table 15 as fully-grown adult
animals. The woreda-level livestock population is also expressed in terms of the Tropical Livestock
Unit (TLU); a single TLU corresponds to 250kg live weight of the animal. According to FAO, the
TLU conversion factors are: cattle = 0.7, sheep = 0.1, goats = 0.1, horse = 0.8, mule = 0.7, donkey =
0.5 and poultry =0.01.
Table 66: Woreda level population sizes of livestock species in numbers and in
TLU (2008 E.C.)
Woreda Livestock species TLU
Cattle Sheep Goat Horse Mule Donkey Poultry
Hamer 656918 472865 1022043 - - 15246 49170 617448
Benatsemay 516759 186987 490185 58 29740 148173 445841
Male 341793 114367 500954 46 4314 25675 331245 319994

231
Zala 287000 36747 66257 - 237 6989 106160 215922
Ubadebratsehay 148136 65911 70239 3619 2604 2691 116490 124539
Kemba 162845 112533 59462 16450 12832 101858 152000 205782
Bonke 139949 252551 57695 13920 12926 10886 136232 155978
Burji 329201 24320 215714 1010 370 19283 466713 269820
Konso 413049 168941 184513 - - 4751 120355 328059
Derashe 134056 47404 83660 297 1021 13740 161544 116383
Source: (JICA, 2012)
Water represents 60 to 70 percent of the body weight of livestock and is essential for animals in
maintaining their vital physiological functions. Reduction of water intake results in lower meat,
milk or egg production. Deprivation of water quickly results in a loss of appetite and weight loss,
with death occurring after a few days when the animal lost between 15 to 30 percent of its weight
(FAO, 2006). A wide range of interrelated factors influence the livestock water needs, including
for instance the animal species and its physiological condition, the physical form of the animal
diet, water quantity and quality, and climatic condition of the area.

[Link]. Ecological water demand/environmental flow

The concept of environmental flows was initially focused on the concept of a minimum flow
level. This is based on the idea that the survival of flora and fauna at the downstream of a river is
associated with low flows and that, as long as the flow is kept at or above a critical level, the
river ecosystem will be conserved (Acreman and Dunbar, 2004). However, it is increasingly
recognized that all elements of a flow regime, including floods, medium and low flows are
important. In the case of Weito river, floods and medium flows are not a serious concern from
ecological benefits perspective, as there is no dam reservoirs and the ratio of abstractions to river
flows during high/medium flow seasons are very small. Thus, natural high/medium flows
continue to happen in this river as long as there is no significant hydro-meteorological change.
However, low flows have already become very critical especially at the downstream parts of the
Weito, mainly due to very high water abstractions by irrigations farms (commercial and local)
both in the upper and lower parts of the watershed. Especially, the downstream areas below
diversion weirs, which were constructed by the Southern Water Works Enterprise (SWWCE),
such as Erbore, Cherkaka and Zegerema are suffering the most.

232
The field visit carried on the first week of January 2017 revealed that there was no water on the
river course; the only thing that was clearly seen was dry sediment. This has far reaching
devastating impact on the ecology, river geomorphology and most importantly on the societal
livelihood. A rule-of-thumb based on simple indices is one of the multiple approaches to define
environmental flow. The flow which is equal or exceeded for 95% of the time (a.k.a. Q95) has
been employed to define the environmental flow requirement in the Weito River. The Flow
Duration Curve (FDC) for the Weito river has been created using the daily flow data from 1994
to 2006 (i.e. 13 years data). Thus, more than 4700 flow data points were analyzed for this
purpose. Through initial screening, we have noticed only few missing data during these years
and the missing ones have been filled using the appropriate method. All daily data were sorted in
decreasing order and ranked. Then, the Weibull method is employed to calculate the probability
of the sorted daily flow data being equaled or exceeded (p).
The Weibull method is expressed as,

=
( +1
Where, m is rank and N is the total number of daily flow data (for this case N = 4748)
The Q95 value can be read from the FDC shown in table 16 and it is approximately 2 cumecs.
Thus, the environmental flow requirement in the Weito is about 2cumecs daily discharge or
5.25MMC/month (63 MMC/year) interms of volume (JICA, 2012).
Table 67: Summary of water demand in the sub basin by water use

Water use type Annual demand in BMC/Year

Domestic water supply 0.247
Livestock water demand 1.26
Ecological water demand 0.063
Irrigation water requirements 2.07
Total demand 3.64
Source: (JICA, 2012).

233
4.4.3. Catchment /watershed situation assessment

[Link]. Assessment of existing watershed management practices

[Link].1. National Experiences

In Ethiopia, soil and water conservation practices were started about a decade earlier than the
watershed management approach, following the 1971 drought, under the food assistance
from World Food Programme (WFP) (Rift Valley Lakes basin Integrated Resources
Development Master Plan Study, 2009).

Since 1974, the previous government gave much attention to implementation of soil and
water conservation measures as a means of abating land degradation and established the
Community Forest and Soil Conservation Department (CFSCD) within the Ministry of
Agriculture (MoA) to plan and oversee conservation and community forestry projects by
watershed countrywide. The soil and water conservation and community forestry programmes
were then implemented on watershed basis from 1980 up to 1991. During this period, the size
of watersheds considered as development unit varied from 20,000 to 40,000ha (BCEOM,
1998).

Firstly, the planning of watershed works was top down, being decided by technical experts;
secondly, the size of watershed for planning was large, 20,000-40,000ha and thirdly, the
watershed management interventions were biased towards soil and water conservation
measures emphasizing degraded communal and hilly areas with little attention to individually
held farmlands. The lessons learned from these experiences pushed the Ministry of
Agriculture (MoA) and support agencies like FAO to initiate pilot watershed planning
approaches on a bottom-up basis, using smaller units and following community-based
approaches.

The new paradigm shift in natural resources management in Ethiopia follows a ‘participatory
integrated watershed development and management’ approach. The approach is coordinating
frameworks that integrate biophysical and socio-economic aspects through continuous and
close contacts as well as participatory processes that involve community and stakeholders and
aim at improving their livelihoods while ensuring sustainable conservation of natural

234
resources for future generations. It focuses mainly on raising agricultural productivity, water
recharging, reducing siltation of lakes and dams, improving livelihoods and addressing gender
and equity issues along with the protection of the environment and biodiversity conservation
by implementing sustainable land management practices and potential livelihood options.
Although the new direction and its packages are interesting, the actual implementation on the
ground needs much more concerted, integrated and collaborative efforts.

This resulted in the introduction of minimum planning and a sub-watershed approach,

initiating a shift from larger to smaller watershed as a planning unit. This approach was tested
at pilot stage through FAO technical assistance under MoA during 1988 – 1991. During the
last two decades, with support from different projects and organizations, the FDRE has
worked with communities within micro-watersheds to develop and implement natural
resources conservation and community watershed management plans. To reinforce such
efforts guidelines on watershed management planning have been published by the MoARD
and are generally accepted by almost all practitioners. This would give a favourable condition
for implementation of watershed management programmes at community level.

In the early 2000s, community-based integrated watershed development was introduced to

promote watershed management as a means to achieve broader integrated natural resource
management and livelihood improvement objectives within prevailing agro-ecological and
socioeconomic environments.

Different studies revealed that across the country watershed management has had a positive
impact on natural resource conservation, crop-livestock production and productivity,
socioeconomic conditions and livelihoods. The watershed management has improved farm
incomes and food security by an average of 50% and 56%, respectively.

However, several challenges were also threaten the success of watershed management. These
include the lack of technical advice and information to support the selection of interventions
suitable for the local context; uncoordinated interventions, institutions and actors within a
watershed; and, importantly, the uneven distribution of the water management costs and
benefits. To address these challenges and support the scaling up of best practices,
recommended by different scholars are:-

235
 (i) Linking physical and biological conservation activities with income-generating and
livelihood improvement activities;

(ii) Tailoring technologies and implementation approaches to prevailing agro-climatic,

biophysical and socioeconomic conditions;

(iii) Co-managing surface and subsurface water resources to improve water productivity;

(iv) Strengthening institutional mechanisms to foster partnership among stakeholders, and

ensure the fair and equitable sharing of costs and benefits;

(v) Supporting community participation with adequate technical and financial support;

(vi) Improving access to markets; and

(vii) developing/updating guidelines for the collection of baseline data, and monitoring and
evaluation of water management interventions.

[Link].2. Activities and Experiences of Watershed in the Chew bahir sub basin

In Ethiopia, as well as in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin (RVLB) including chew Bahir sub basin,
soil and water conservation practices have a related history with agriculture. All types of soil and
water conservation interventions are practiced in the sub basin. In spite of efforts to investigate
and acquire information on the past interventions in the sub basin, no adequate data could be
obtained. The land use in the parts of Chew Bahir sub-basin is intensively cultivated land/steep
slope farming. Agricultural communities of the sub-basin have developed their own agricultural
practice based on their cultures, socioeconomic conditions and natural resources endowments.
Some parts of the sub basin community are Pastoralists and Agro-Pastoralists.

Ministry of Agriculture together with the regional and woreda Agriculture and Natural Resources
Bureaus/offices has been implementing watershed management to reduce soil loose and to
increase productivity and then to ensure food security. On the other hand, Ministry of Water,
irrigation and electricity and the then Rift Valley lakes basin Authority, now Rift Valley lakes
basin development office has been implementing integrated watershed management in the sub
basin to save lakes and other water bodies from sedimentation and siltation.

236
These activities were mainly physical measures (soil bunds, stone bunds, stone-faced soil bunds,
cut-off drains & waterways and gabion check-dams), water harvesting structures focusing on
watershed rehabilitation. Biological/Vegetative/ measures include area closure and vegetative
check-dams for gully control in addition to on-farm forestry, agro-forestry plantations,
reforestation of degraded forests, and afforestation of bare communal lands. On top of this; they
focus on community’s livelihood improvement/diversification by creating income generating
activities.

But, the success of SWC interventions is constrained by the free grazing of livestock, a lack of
maintenance of physical structure, Farmers lack the commitment to implement and maintain
implemented measures, lack of communal understanding on the importance of these measures
and a reluctance to include soil and water conservation measures in farming practices coupled
with a lack of land management enforcement.

It is well known that a long tradition of stone bunds and hillside terraces are in existence in the
Konso area. These traditions were reinforced by some modern physical and biological techniques
through a support from UNDP environmental rehabilitation programme over the last 20 years.
Other than these, recent efforts were envisaged by the government under the regular extension
and package programme, focusing mainly on composting and household water harvesting. Since
2005, developments of small community watersheds have been reportedly in place in all food in-
secure weredas in the sub basin.

Water harvesting is undertaken in the sub basin but is carried out irrespective of moisture levels.
Surface ponds, trenches, contour bunds, hillside terraces and hand-dug wells are some of the
water harvesting interventions observed in the sub basin. However, except in the moisture deficit
areas of Konso, most of water harvesting structures has been found to be unsuccessful. This is
attributed to poor design of the structures and development of water harvesting measures where
should have not been required.

Steep slope area framing is common in Segen area. In konso Average land holding is 0.25-0.5
hectare/household. Konso people are known by cultural soil and water conservation/konso
landscape management/ and registered by UNESCO as cultural heritage. But according to our

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informants from the Zone and community elders, currently the new generation is not actively
participating in cultural landscape management because of:-

 Urbanization is influencing the attitude of the community and changed the livelihood of
the community
 They are using stone for commercial purpose following the highway and near the towns
 Earlier, the farmers use traditional working tradition called “Debo” but currently this
tradition is weak and they cannot afford labor cost to construct trance on their farm land.
To maintain this tradition the government is supporting watershed management.

However, recent developments and particularly the issue of land user certificates, has increased
farmers’ awareness in the judicial management of their land. This is clearly demonstrated by the
area closure of degraded areas which are then managed by individuals or groups of farmers.

Indigenous soil and water conservation measures are most apparent in Konso, Derashe and
Humbo weredas. Farmers in Konso are very innovative in overcoming the problems of low and
erratic rainfall, constructing stone terraces, tied ridges, trash lines, and applying crop
diversification and agro-forestry techniques on their farmland. Techniques are related as much
cultural inheritance as to protection, and are site specific and often complex in nature, a variety
of them being used on the same plot. Secure land use rights favour their application.

[Link]. Major Watershed in the Chew bahir Sub-basin

The Chew Bahir Sub-Basin was delineated and river networks were generated from Digital
Elevation Model (DEM). A 30m by 30m resolution DEM was taken from the MoWIE. The
DEM was used to delineate the sub basin and to analyze the drainage patterns of the land surface
terrain. Sub-Basin parameters such as slope gradient, slope length of the terrain, and the stream
network characteristics such as channel slope, length, and width were derived from the 30m by
30m resolution DEM. Elevation of the sub basin ranges from 450 to 3417 m m.a.s.l

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 Figure 37: Digital Elevation Model of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin.
There are four major watersheds in Chew Bahir sub basin. They are Bezo-Weito watershed;
Konso localized watershed, Segen watershed and Burji Amaro Mountains Watershed. The detail
characterization of each these major watersheds is described as follows:-

Bezo-Weito Watershed

The Bezo-Weito watershed extends from the southern tip of the basin bordering Kenya in the
south to the northern tip in Kemba. It borders Sile-Sego, Konso Localized and Segen watersheds
on the North West and eastern side. Some parts of Teltele, Hammer, Bena, Bako Gazer, Kemba,
Gelila, Uba Debretsehay, Gofa Zuriya and Zala Weredas, and Konso and Derashe Special
Weredas are included in watershed. It covers an area of 12,043 km2.

The majority of the watershed is lowland with predominately pastoral farming. South of Lake
Chew Bahir, the area comprises salt flats, bare rock and bare eroded soil with scattered shrub and
grassland. Areas along the Weito River valley are characterized by open grazing and open to
dense bush land. Deep to very deep Fluvisols are distributed along the steeper sides of the river

239
valley. West of the Weito and Bezo Rivers, the areas stretching to the north comprise Vertisols at
flat to gentle slopes and Leptosols on steeper slopes. Moreover, Nitisols and Cambisols are
distributed over the majority of the eastern watershed.

Chemical degradation through increased concentration of alkaline and saline substances is

relatively very common in this watershed, which comprises both midland and highland terrain.
The main food crops are a mix of grains (maize, barley, and sorghum together with beans) and
root crops (enset, yams, sweet potatoes, taro, and cassava). Maize and beans are sown twice in
the year, using the Belg and Kiremt rains, which have been reliable and abundant over the years
in the highlands. Most of the watershed is a food secure area, and the economy achieves a good
balance between crop and livestock production.

Konso Localized Watershed

The Konso localized watershed covers portions of Konso and Derashe Special Weredas. Most of
its area is hilly and steep sloping terrain with areas of small plains in Derashe. These areas
belong to the lowlands with altitudes less than 1,500 masl. It covers an area of 1685 km2.
Relative to other watersheds within the basin, it is intensively cultivated. Bare eroded soil with
scattered shrub and grass vegetation that is used as livestock browsing and seasonal grazing is
also common in the upper central portions. Areas towards the Segen River valley are dominated
by slightly dense bush land. The soils are predominantly shallow to very shallow Cambisols in
the most eastern and southern sides of the watershed. Luvisols are distributed over small areas in
the northern parts. Moisture shortage is also one of the key constraints to agriculture. The
watershed is known for having a wide coverage of long aged traditional soil and water
conservation schemes such as stone terraces, hillside bench terraces, trash lines, mulching and
well developed agro-forestry and intercropping practices. It is food insecure, and even in
ordinary years all but the most affluent of the population receive significant food aid. The
essential problems are land shortage, soil infertility and erratic rainfall which repeatedly brings
severe moisture stress to crops (and periodically outright drought), especially serious in the
spring or Belg season upon which most of crop production in a year depends. The staples are
maize and sorghum, whilst teff is grown in few localities as the main cash crop. A large number
of trees, such as Acacia species, are found in the in Konso.

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 Figure 38: Traditional Konso conservation practice

Women play a substantial role in agriculture and soil water conservation practices. In periods of
drought, when men migrate in search of employment, women undertake all agricultural
activities, including the maintenance of the stone terraces and irrigation. Women are also
involved in petty trade and sale of fuel wood. Despite limited resources, the Konso people
struggle successfully for survival (through their traditional intensive SWC practices) on their
poor and degraded lands. Therefore, it would be wise to encourage them and also replicate these
indigenous practices to other degraded resource-poor parts of the basin.

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 Figure 39: have a look at architectural buildings by erosion at konso

Segen Watershed

The Segen watershed includes areas draining to Segen River from the left bank. Areas to the
middle right of the river channel of the Segen Wenz are not included. This part is separately dealt
under Konso localized watershed. The Segen River watershed covers an area of 4725 km2. The
average population density is estimated to be 43 persons/ km2, which is one of the least
populated areas in the basin. In the southern part it is predominantly under open and dense bush
land and is mainly used as pastoral livestock grazing areas. The upper most part is bush and
shrub grassland, a few woodlands, and some patches of mixed upland arable, viz., barley and
wheat with some teff, maize, pulses and potatoes, and with enset around homesteads. The major
soil types include Fluvisols, Vertisols and Leptosols (EHRS, 1986). Despite this, the hilly
midland to lowland zone has many production advantages, viz., fertile soils, rainfall in two
seasons allowing both long and short cycle annual food crops as well as enset and cassava as
perennials, and a good ecological niche for coffee production. The chief food crops are maize

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and haricot beans, supplemented by enset and cassava grown in the midlands. Teff is the main
cash crop from the lowlands.
Burji Amaro Mountains Watershed

They are not independent watersheds but are part of the divide of Gelana, Segen and other
watersheds formed from several micro-watersheds. They have been selected for independent
treatment because its mountain chain has a high population (over 200,000) when compared with
other mountainous ranges in the RVLB. They have a combined watershed area of 1050 km2. The
Burji Amaro area is a food deficit and highly degraded one, which is over cultivated as people
attempt to improve their livelihoods. The SNNPRS livelihood zones analysis has identified the
area as being structurally food deficient and severely moisture stressed, and affected by drought
and erratic rainfall. Despite being a high potential hazard area much of the land has been over-
cultivated and has become infertile with the result that people are moving from upland cereal and
root crop areas to mixed lowland farming ones using plough oxen on land that was previously
used only for grazing.

[Link]. Assessment of land use land cover

The Global Land Cover Network (GLCN, 2000) defines Land Cover as the observed (bio)
physical cover, as seen from the ground or through remote sensing, including vegetation (natural
or planted) and human construction (buildings, roads, etc.) which cover the earth's surface.
Water, ice, bare rock or sand surfaces also count as land cover.

Land Use is based upon function, the purpose for which the land is being used. The definition of
land use establishes a direct link between land cover and the actions of people in their
environment. Thus, a land use can be defined as a series of activities undertaken to produce one
or more goods or services. A given land use may take place on one, or more than one, pieces of
land and several land uses may occur on the same piece of land. Definition of land use in this
way provides a basis for precise and quantitative economic and environmental impact analysis
and permits precise distinctions between land uses, if required.

Land cover types are divisions and sub-divisions of land covers used to describe an area. There
are a number of global land cover classification systems of which the best known have been

243
developed from the USGS Land Use/Land Cover Classification System and the FAO Land
Cover Classification System (LCCS) as used in AFRICOVER and promoted by the GLCN.

A land cover type may be defined as a land surface area in which a cover type shows a relative
degree of homogeneity in terms of type, distribution characteristics, and relations to human
practices and other environmental parameters. This homogeneity of a cover type is dependent on
the working scale of the imagery and/or derived mapping.

South of Lake Chamo towards Konso the land is a mixture of intensive cultivation around
Soyama, and moderate cultivation with shrub land and woodland in the hills around Karat
Konso. The Segen river valley is largely dense and open scrublands with riverine vegetation
close to the river. South of Konso the land cover is mainly scrublands, though with bushed
grassland on the basin boundary north of Yabelo and appreciable areas of moderate cultivation
around Teltele. The lower Weito valley is dominated by shrub land in the north and on the flanks
with a large area of marshland and the salt flats of Chew Bahir in the south. North from Weito
State Farm the land cover is a mixture of mainly dense scrublands and open woodland on the
valley floors with dense and open woodland on the hills.

The Land Use of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin has been changed progressively due to extreme
deforestation as a result of increase in Population, which results in replacement of Vegetation
Cover by Cultivation land. As the Deforestation of the natural vegetation cover continues soil
loss due to erosion will result and it is aggravated where the slope is higher especially on
the escarpments. This erosion could be one of the reasons for the disappearance of Lake Chew
Bahir.

Spatial analysis was carried out to describe LULC change pattern and overall land use changes
with time. This is done after image classification of the three land use land cover maps 2007 and
2013 whose results for each analysis can be expressed as follows:

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 Figure 40: Land Use Land Cover of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin in the year 2007

Table 68: percentage of land use land cover of Chew Bahir sub basin in the year
2007
No Major Cover Percent of Total (%)

1 Exposed Surface 2.15

2 Forest 1.98

3 Grassland 2.47

4 Intensively Cultivated 1.88

5 Marshland 2.20

6 Moderately Cultivated 14.61

7 Riparian Vegetation 1.55

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 8 Shrubland 61.74

9 Water Body 5.85

10 Woodland 5.57

TOTAL 100

The Land Cover map of 2007 in Table 17 shows that about 2.15 % of the Chew Bahir catchment
was covered by Exposed Surface, 1.98 % by Forest Land, 2.47 % by Grass Land, 1.88 % by
Intensively Cultivated Land, 2.20 % by Marsh Land, 14..61% by Moderately Cultivated Land,
1.55 % by Riparian Vegetation, 61.74 % by Shrub Land, 5.85 % by Water Body, and 5.57 % by
Wood Land.

Land Use Land Cover Map of 2013

Figure 41: Land Use Land Cover Map of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin in the year 2013.

Table 69: Land Use Land Cover of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin in the year 2013

No Major Cover Percent of Total (%)

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 1 Agricultural land 15

2 Forest 30

3 Grassland 7.6

4 Cultivated land 12

5 Marshland(wetland) 6.5

8 Shrub land 12

9 Water Body 7

10 Settlement 9.9

TOTAL 100

The Land Cover map of 2013 in Table 18 shows that about 15% of the Chew Bahir catchment
was covered by Agricultural Land, 7.6% by Grass Land, 30% by Forest Land, 6.5% by Wetland,
12% by Cultivated Land, 12% by Shrub Land, 9.9% by Settlement (Urban) Area, and 7% by
Water Body.

During this period, mainly the Forest Land in the Western and Southeastern, Wetland at Central,
Lake Chew Bahir was completely changed in to Wet (Marsh) Land, Grass Land in Southeastern
and Central and Shrub Land Northeastern part of the catchment was reduced. On contrast the
Cultivated Land and Agriculture Land at most part and Settlement (Urban) in the Central and
Eastern part was expanded in the catchment.

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 [Link]. Assessment of Soil Type and Distribution

[Link].1. Soil Physical Characteristics

Figure 42: Location Map of Chew Bahir Sub-Basin Soil.

There exists no detailed information on the soil data of the watershed. Therefore, data collected
from the basin area recently by GIRDC (2010) has been adopted. According to this study, the
major soils of the area are categorized as Fluvisols and Cambisols as per the FAO classification.
The majorities of the southern uplands, including the Gamo Gofa hills and around Konso are
Cambisols with small patches of Nitisols around Karat Konso itself and areas of Vertisols around
Teltele. The Weito and Segen valleys are Fluvisols and Aerosols while there is a large area of
shallow Leptosols to the east of Key Afer. The lower Weito valley is dominated by the
Solonchaks (saline soils) of Chew Bahir with the wetlands of the Weito river delta to the north
and sodic Solonetz and shallow Leptosols to the south and east.

The Fluvisols of the study area are developed from recent fluvial deposits on a periodically
flooded alluvial plain. The profiles are highly stratified characterized by very deep; dark brown,
brown or dark yellowish brown; fine to coarse texture; weakly to moderate fine and medium sub-

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angular blocky and on some layers massive structure; loose or very friable moist; non-sticky to
sticky and non-plastic to plastic wet; dominantly well to moderately well drained and poorly to
very poorly drained caused by flooding. On the other hand, the Cambisols are characterized by
well to moderately drained; deep to very deep; dark brown; clay or silty clay texture; weak to
moderate medium and coarse sub-angular blocky structure; friable moist; very sticky to sticky
and very plastic to plastic wet (GIRDC, 2010).USDA textural classification has also been
identified from the data of particulates collected by the same study. USDA classification
provides an easy understanding of soil textural classification in that it offers a range of sandiness,
siltyness or clayness characteristics.

[Link].2. Soil Chemical Characteristics

Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise have classified the soil based on the physical
and chemical characteristics. Depth, color, structural development, texture and evidence of
profile development such as presence of diagnostic horizons, reaction to 10% HCl and PH value
are some of the classification criteria based on which soil map has been produced. Andosols,
Vertic Cambisols, Pellic Vertisols, Orthic Luvisols, Mollic Andosols, Leptosols, Leptosols and
Regos, Humic Glyesols, Eutric Vertisols, Eutric Fluvisols, Chromic Vertisols, Chromic Luvisols
and Calcic Xerosols are some of the soil types described by W.W.D.S.E with respect to their
position in a different relief intensity and slope. Generally based on their dominant
characteristics these soils of the study area are classified in to four groups as clay loam, fine
sand, fine sandy loam and salty loam.

[Link]. Assessment of Existing Forest cover and wildlife Forest

Combretum-Terminalia Woodland:
This vegetation is found in relatively higher rainfall areas; usually a mean annual of above 700
mm. It is dominantly occurs in the Zala wereda in the North Omo Zone and Benatsemay wereda
(Olka, Ango and Duma PAs) in the South Omo Zone. The vegetation is subject to frequent fires
and in some places replaced by patches of grassland. As a result, the herbaceous flora is very rich
in both cover and species composition. The characteristic woody species include
Combretummolle, Terminaliabrownii, Terminaliaglaucescenus, Dichrostachyscinerea,
Bosciacoriacea, Balanitusrotundifolia, Acacia orfota, Acacia etbaicaetc. Currently the forest of

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the sub basin is degraded because of expansion of farm lands owned by farmers and investors.
However, the remaining of forest in Segen area is dominated by shrub especially following
Segen river watershed and artificial forests are found around Derashe wereda, church areas and
traditional funeral places.

Around Amaro and Burji areas there is also Natural forest. In konso, the current forest cover is
6.6%; timber business was banned forest land ownership license/certificate has been issued for
farmers to conserve forest in konso, Benatsemay and Hamer woredas. In Benatsemay wereda
deforestation is high due to expansion of farm land owned by huge investments like southern
selected Varity farm 5,000ha, Nasa farm 975ha. Sagila 1500ha. Birhanu 14,000ha. (Total 21,475
ha of land) and the newly established organized 2,000 hectare of pastoralists village who are
currently practicing farm. Earlier, deforestation is not common or it was taboo in pastoralist
community. But now they are practicing cutting of forest for fire wood business and charcoal
production. In general, forest cover of the area is decreasing due population growth followed by
expansion of farm land (both individual and huge investments).

Shrub/Bush Land

This vegetation type is found in the south western lowland surrounding hills of Lake Chew Bahr.
The areas in between Arba Minch and Konso, Kemba and Gidole, Benatsemay, Konso and
Teltele, Amaro and Burji are dominated by shrub lands. The vegetation is intact, occurs on rocky
steep slopes where moisture is limiting. The shrub or evergreen scrub vegetation type is not
economically utilizable and usually not exploited, except for fuel wood. The undergrowth is
herbaceous but very thin cover. The woody vegetation consists of species such as
Dodoniaangustifolia, Dodoniaviscosa, Carissaedulis, Rhamnusstaddo and
Pterolobiumstellatumm.

Vegetative and Agro-forestry

Vegetation cover is relatively sparse. Salt tolerant species such as grasses (Sporobolusconsimilis
and S. spicatus) and sedges (Cyprus spp.) are found throughout the area and freshwater springs
and wetlands support swampy vegetation, amphibians and snails. Fish are reported to be found in
open water. The Weyto valley supports very open, dry Acacia savannah with Acacia Senegal and
A. polyacantha with A. mellifera forming dense stands. Ground cover is sparse. Some geophytes

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grow after good rain. EWNHS (1996) identified Lake Chew Bahir as an IBA based on the
following criteria:
Category 1 – Globally threatened species
 Near Threatened - Lesser flamingo
Category 2 – Biome-restricted species
 Somali-Masai biome assemblage
Category 3 – Congregations of 1% or more of the population
 Open billed stork
 Lesser flamingo.
The site holds in excess of 20,000 water birds (based on observations reported in the 1970s).

[Link]. Assessment of sub-basin ecosystem service

The natural resource of the sub-basin has immense economic and cultural values. It is well-
known for its biodiversity and contribute enormous role in ecosystem services. The flora and
fauna, Rivers, wetlands and minerals in the sub-basin provide the different type of ecosystem
services. Ecosystem services in the sub-basin can be classified in to provisioning services,
regulating services, supporting services and cultural services.

Provisioning services:

In the sub-basin the identified provisioning services are grouped into: food, water resource, raw
materials and medicinal resources. The water bodies, flora and fauna in the sub-basin
used for a source of food in the form of fruits, fish, crop cultivation, and honey from Bee hive
keeping. The raw materials provided are grouped in to wood products, animal fodder (use of
grasses, leaves and fruits of trees and grazing land) and thatching grass.

Regulating services

Regulating service include climate regulation, water resources regulation, flood regulation,
erosion control and waste regulation. Some of the major ecosystems in the sub-basin include the
dominant woodland, shrubs, Rivers, Wetlands and other functional landscape units like konso
cultural landscape.

Supporting services

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The main supporting services in the sub-basin are soil formation, nursery services, nutrient and
water cycling, archeological study. Wetlands and the Chelbi Wildlife reserve (4212ha)
which was designated as Wildlife Reserve for the Grevy’s Zebra. Other wildlife includes Beisa
Oryx, Ostrich and Grant’s gazelle serve as a supporting service in the sub-basin.

Cultural services

The Sub-basin cultural services can be identified as recreation and ecotourism, spiritual,
educational and research services. The konso Cultural landscape, wetlands, National Park,
Sanctuary and Controlled Hunting Areas has a remarkable use in recreation because of
their unique landscape views, hot springs, large number of bird and wildlife. In many
rural areas of the sub-basin peoples use the natural resource (Trees, Rivers and Wetlands) for
Spiritual purpose. There have been also a number of researches and educational activities
conducted in Sub-basin especially in tourism sector, Anthropology, sociology,
archeology, geology and etc…

[Link]. Assessment of Livestock population and range land situation

The livestock sector is an important and integral component of the agricultural sector
supplying draught power for cultivation, food and income to households, and insurance
against risk of crop failures. In smallholder mixed farming system, livestock uses to produce
meat, milk, egg, cheese and butter, which supply the required protein that contribute to
improvement of the nutritional status of the people. Livestock also play a significant role in
producing export commodities such as hides and skins, live animals and bee wax to earn
foreign exchange to the country. Furthermore, livestock produce manure to improve soil
fertility and serves as a source of rural energy. It also gives increased economic stability to
farmers. Small ruminants serve in part as a cash buffer and large animals as capital reserves.
In mixed farming systems, livestock can also serve as a form of insurance to coup up the
risk associated with crop failures by providing alternative sources of incomes. In the Chew
Bahir sub basin, farmers kept livestock for multi-purpose i.e. for draught power, milk, meat,
transport services, earning cash income, risk aversion in time of crop failure and as well
indirectly to get manure and compost. The major livestock types found in the sub basin are
Cattle, Sheep, Horse, Goat, Mule, poultry, donkey. The total livestock in the sub basin is

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6,974,294 and from this, goat 37%,cattle 35%, sheep 14%, chicken/ poultry 11%, and others
3%.

[Link]. Rangelands situation in the sub basin

The rangelands are generally found below 1,500m altitude in the Chew Bahir sub-basin in the
SNNPRS, and parts of Teltele, Dire and Yabelo Weredas in Oromia Region. According to the
master plan; range lands cover about 22,730 km2 or 42% of the total area of the RVLB. This is
the driest, warmest part of the area. Mean annual rainfall lies in the range 500-1000mm, with two
rainfall maxima occurring in April (small rains) and October. Rainfall is increasingly less
dependable from north to south, with high standard variations between months and years. The
mean annual temperature lies in the range 25-30°C. The pastoral regions of chew bahir, as
elsewhere in Africa, have a fragile environment and unpredictable weather. Usually found below
1,500 meters, these areas are known as ‘arid and semi-arid’ land and are often described as
marginal. Pastoralist areas are frequently susceptible for climatic shocks, like drought and
shortage of rainfall, which have aggravated the environmental degradation and led to lower
productivity. Due to these environmental and economic shocks, the livelihood conditions and
resilience capacity of pastoralist community have been deteriorating.

In Benatsemay and Hamer woredas, there is a good rangeland management practice. In this case
they are promoting area closure practices with some soil and water conservation structures and
provide fodder seeds for the pastoralists and then finally they provide the ownership certificate to
the community in group and individually to conserve the rangeland and to use it sustainably.

Therefore, improving the current condition of the common natural resources especially water and
grazing land is the solution for the existing problems. The solutions recommended by key
stakeholders are listed below:
 Area enclosures allied with plantation of grasses
 Rehabilitation of the depleted grazing lands and introduction of improved pasture
management: grazing lands are among the resources depleted due to drought and are the
causes of intra and inter-ethnic conflicts. Recovering the exhausted natural pasture lands
and maintaining the existing pasture lands through the introduction of improved grazing
practices are the solution to shortage of pasture.

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 [Link]. Assessment of soil erosion and River siltation in the sub basin
The problems of land degradation are linked to the development of civilizations. Soil erosion is
the most important cause of land degradation in the sub basin. Some of the adverse effects of soil
erosion are loss of soil fertility which affects crop production, streambed and riverbed
aggradations which reduces their conveyance which leads to flood plain inundation, silting of
reservoirs and canals reducing their capacities and useful life, and damage to agricultural lands,
roads and other important infrastructure due to soil deposition in the lower areas.
The existence of soil erosion in the basin is reflected by the decline in the productivity level of
cropped areas, lands dissected by gullies, existence of abandoned lands on steep slopes,
sedimentation of the lakes, exposure of subsoil and bedrock, and the increase in the coarser soils
in some areas. Erosion affects soil productivity to varying degrees, depending, for example, on
whether it concerns a deep homogenous soil or a soil in which fertility is confined to the surface
horizons (FAO, 1979).

The Konso localized watershed covers portions of Konso and Derashe Special Weredas. Most
of its area is hilly and steep sloping terrain with areas of small plains in Derashe. Owing to the
shallow soil depths and the erodible nature of the major soils, most of its areas are characterized
by moderate to extremely high erosion, with very localized areas identified as having none to
slight erosion. Previous studies show that in the middle central part of Segen River watershed,
soils are shallow in depth and so cannot tolerate any further soil erosion (EHRS, 1986). The
majority of Bezo-Weito River watershed is lowland with predominately pastoral farming. West
of the Weito and Bezo Rivers, the areas stretching to the north comprise Vertisols at flat to gentle
slopes and Leptosols on steeper slopes. Potential erosion damage is restricted to the highlands of
the most north-western sides. In general, soil erosion in this part of the basin varies from none in
wetlands to very high in the cultivated highlands, with the majority of the area characterized by
moderate erosion. The assessment conducted by RVLBDO office and SNNPRS Water and
Irrigation development beaurow indicated that unwise construction of irrigation schemes and silt
deposition on the course, diverted the Segen River flow from its original route and inundated
surrounding community and investment farms. Moreover, its flow to Weito River is ceased.

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 4.4.4. Risk Assessment and Uncertainties

[Link]. Climate change and water resources management

Climate change affects the hydrological cycle, through changes in precipitation, maximum and
minimum temperature and evapo-transpiration. As it is clearly known that evapo-transpiration is
one of the main components of hydrological cycle, as the evaporation rate changes it has a direct
impact on the hydrological regimes of a specific watershed.

The relation between water resources and evaporation can be explained as follow: water
molecules are always moving. At the water surface some molecules are bumped by molecules
below them and gain enough speed to break free and escape it to the air as gas (water vapors).
This escape of surface molecule is called evaporation. Evaporation takes place in all times and at
any temperature. The higher the temperature the higher the rate of evaporation, when the
temperature of the water or the surrounding air increases the water molecule will gain more
energy to escape at a faster rate. This indicates that in addition to the changing pattern of the
rainfall due to climate change there will be a direct influence on evaporation and ultimately on
water resources potential.

Complex impacts of climate change affect all sectors of society. In many cases and in many
locations, there is compelling scientific evidence that climate changes will pose serious
challenges to the water systems (Biggs et al., 2012). It is very important to understand how
current climate change affects the availability and variability of regional water resource as well
as the frequency of extreme cases such as floods and droughts.

So far especially in Africa quantification of climate change on basin scale is not studied in detail.
Meeting the new challenges on water resources management, implies the quantification of
climate change impact on basin-scale hydrology (Varies et al., 2004). Certain aspects of water
resources are very sensitive to both climate and to how the complex water systems are managed
(Gleick and Adams, 2010); therefore, the complexity of the impacts of climate and socio-
economic changes should be addressed by looking at the combined impacts of changes on
hydrology and on the human and environmental use of water. It is now well accepted that
modeling seems to be the only resort to address this complex problems (Xu et al., 2005).

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Therefore, the regional scale simulation of hydrological consequences of climate change has
received increasing attention.

Pastoralists in Ethiopia face a number of challenges that threaten the sustainability of their
traditional practices. Trends indicative of climate change, such as increasingly recurrent drought,
floods, erratic rainfall patterns, and high temperatures are adding significantly to these stresses.
Climate change has direct effects on livestock productivity as well as indirectly through changes
on the availability of fodder and pastures.

Climate-related hazards in Ethiopia include drought, floods, heavy rains, strong winds, frost, heat
waves (high temperatures) and lightning. Although the historical social and economic impacts of
all of these hazards are not systematically well documented, the impacts of the most important
ones, namely droughts and floods, are widely discussed (Kidane et al., 2010).

Hazard (H) means the probability of occurrence, within a specified period of time in a given
area, of a potentially damaging natural phenomenon.

• Vulnerability (V) means the degree of loss to a given element at risk or set of such elements
resulting from the occurrence of a natural phenomenon of a given magnitude…

• Elements at risk (E) mean the population, buildings and civil engineering works, economic
activities, public services, utilities and infrastructure, etc., at risk in a given area.

• Risk (R) means the expected degree of loss due to a particular natural phenomenon Risk
analysis can be defined as “a systematic use of available information to determine how
often specified events may occur and the magnitude of their likely consequences” (Ken
Granger, 2002).

Rainfall variability is frequently happening in the Chew Bahir sub basin; i.e. the onset and end
date of the seasons are varying frequently. The seasons are becoming shorter and shorter. Dry
spell is becoming frequent and causing disaster on crop production. Flood is not frequent in the
sub basin but there is erratic flood disaster.

[Link]. Gender issues and Climate change

Gender is primarily a social construction and as such embodies in it social norms, expectations
and roles which men and women fill in the society. Whether climate change affects women

256
differently than men, there is mounting evidence (Denton 2002; IPCC 2007; UNFCCC 2007)
suggesting that women suffer more from climate change related problems than men do. A
number of issues underscore the different impacts of climate change on women, particularly in
pastoral communities. First, women usually take the role of caring for children, the elderly and
sick, and weak livestock. When severe drought occurs, men travel long distances in search of
water and pasture for the cattle, leaving children and women back at home. This leaves women
with the burden of taking care of children, the elderly and the sick, as well as the cattle single
handedly. Second, women are highly dependent on the natural environment because they are
involved in the procurement of food for the family. UNFCCC (2007) revealed that increased
frequencies of drought and associated heavy precipitation may undermine the availability of food
for the family and consequently increase the burdens on women. As Dankelman (2002: 23) aptly
put it, “every down brings with it a long march in search of fuel, fodder and water”. These
critical resources are becoming scarce and the long march is becoming longer and may even
reach beyond women’s physical endurance (Dankelman 2002). Finally, climate change has
adverse impacts on women because of the cultural burdens in which women in many rural
societies have no access to or control over productive assets such as livestock and land (Röhr
2007). Such situations of pastoral women make them more vulnerable to the adverse impacts of
climate change. It is therefore not surprising that gender also plays a role in relation to climate
change. Yet the topic has not been explored sufficiently, and many people still find it difficult to
comprehend the ways in which gender might be a factor in climate change, or how it should be
addressed (Aklilu and Alebachew 2009; Röhr 2007).

[Link]. Some evidences of Gender issues and Climate change from Southern Ethiopia
The southern lowlands of Ethiopia are among the country’s most vulnerable regions to the
impacts of climate change. Recurrent droughts, flash floods, diseases, and pests are among the
prevalent disaster risks related to climate change in the area. Pastoral communities are the major
victims of these disaster risks.

Although climate change generally affects pastoral communities, the impact on women has
become more pronounced. The fact that pastoral women shoulder multiple household
responsibilities makes them more vulnerable to and affected by the impacts of climate change
related problems.

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Pastoral women in the southern lowlands of Ethiopia carry out several household
responsibilities; taking care of children, managing young calves, looking after sick and weak
livestock, milking livestock, fetching water and collecting firewood, and household food
preparation. In same place, construction of huts is the sole responsibility of women. Climate
change induced hazards create additional burdens on women in many ways and make them
vulnerable to its impacts. A survey in the southern lowlands indicated that women are more
affected than men by the impacts of climate change related problems (Aklilu and Alebachew,
2009). Particularly during drought years, the workload on women increases to meet household
responsibilities. For instance, in times of drought, women have to spend on average four to six
hours to fetch water and fodder for small ruminants and calves. The burden on women is
heightened since the responsibility of feeding family members by collecting wild fruits, plants,
berries, and edible roots rests largely on them.

Increased workload and resource shortage puts pastoral women under pressure to meet
household food requirements. Food preparation, including procurement of grain from the market,
and collecting wild fruits and leaves are the sole responsibilities of women. In times of food
shortage in the households, women first feed all members of the household and feed themselves
if there is any left over. This predisposes women to malnutrition and related health problems
with subsequent impacts on children and the entire household. On the other hand, when women
fail to meet household responsibilities, they get into disputes with husbands that strain intra-
household relations. In extreme situations, such disputes often lead to divorce and eventually to
destitution of pastoral women.

In order to overcome the problem of drought induced food and water scarcity, pastoral
households move their livestock to places where they find these resources. Fetching water for
young livestock and the family is a daunting task for women especially during drought seasons.
At times of conflict and violence, pastoral women also suffer from other negative consequences.
For instance, in the absence of men, they have the sole responsibility of sustaining the household
which increases their workload. Many women and young girls fear going out of their villages, as
they are often the targets of attacks, and this makes it difficult for them to fetch water, collect
firewood or go to the market. Additionally, when part of the family is moving, usually women
and children remain behind. Though women shoulder the family responsibility, they cannot take
critical decisions on the remaining household resources, mainly livestock. Pastoral women are

258
not allowed to sell livestock even in times of extreme adversities. Lack of access to and control
over household resources make women more vulnerable to climate change impacts.

Conflicts over scarce pasture and water resources usually occur during severe droughts following
pastoral mobility in search of water and pasture for livestock. The conflicts often lead to
population displacement and livestock raiding. The prevalence of social and economic instability
force children to drop out of school leave farms and settlements unattended, and crops
unharvested.

[Link]. Flood

Flooding is one of the major climate change induced hazard in the Chew Bahir sub basin Weito
catchment area. The area is most flood-prone as it is drained by big perennial river (Weito) that
descends from the humid central highlands of the country. Additionally,
other flood‐ and landslide‐prone areas include Kemba woreda of GamoGofa [Link] perennial
and ephemeral rivers at the southern end of the catchment, especially the Segen and Weyto rivers, flow
through sparsely populated lands to Chew Bahir. Out-of-bank flooding is used for spate and recession
irrigation and would cause little flood related damages. In Hamer Woreda, flooding occurs along the
Weito river and cause considerable damage to cropland and livestock. For instance, in 2007
unexpected heavy rains caused severe flooding that displaced people and destroyed crops. In this
incident, nearly 4000 people were displaced and about 444ha of land under maize and sorghum
were damaged in Hamer. Further, the floods hindered land preparation activities for the next
cropping season. In spite of these damages, however, the people in Hamer district consider the
flooding of the Weito River as a means to cultivate crops on the flood plains and hence it is not
that much felt as a problem by the local people. They use the moisture on the riverside to
cultivate maize and sorghum.

Very recently, major zonal towns like Yabelo (Borena) and Jinka (South Omo) were hit by
unexpected and unusual flash floods which caused mild destructions and disruptions of economic
and social activities. In Guji, households from Wadera Woreda (Sokora Jide Kebele) were also
affected by the loss of crops and livestock from flash floods. In 2008, unexpected heavy rains
that fall during the main harvest season produced heavy flooding and huge damage to crops and
farmlands. It has also hindered land preparation efforts for the next season.

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 [Link]. Drought

Droughts have widespread and severe consequences for people and the environment due to
reduced water supply for drinking, agriculture and livestock; reduced agricultural output, and in
severe cases, the relocation of large numbers of people, malnutrition, loss of life and animals,
diseases water and sanitation-related diseases, and degradation and destruction of habitats.
Severe droughts affect hundreds of thousands of people and their effects are exacerbated by the
extreme poverty, poor health and nutritional status of those affected. Environmental sensitivity to
drought will be most acute in arid and semi-arid areas where agro-pastoralism and dry land
farming is already marginal.

Drought expressed in terms of failure and shortage of rainfall is the major hazard that affects the
livelihood of the people. It has a negative impact on natural resources such as pasture, water
sources, farmlands and trees which are directly related to the livings of the community and their
livestock’s. According to the responses of the community the availability of pasture in the area is
reducing gradually due to drought and shorter rainy season. The rainy season is progressively
becoming shorter starting late and finishing earlier with high rate of unpredictability. The dry
season is also becoming longer and leading to shortage of pasture contributing to the gradual
extinction of indigenous grasses. The drought also reduces crop yields and the availability of
water in the area and leads to shortage of food and feed for humans and livestock respectively.

South Omo is sparsely populated agro-pastoral zone in the southernmost part of the RVLB.
Households are dependent on livestock, but also use spate irrigation for sorghum and maize. The
main periodic hazard is drought and the agro-pastoralists living in the area migrate with their
livestock to find pasture.

It is clear from the foregoing descriptions that even in a typical year, many wereda in the RVLB
are food insecure due to a variety of environmental, social and agricultural factors. Late rains and
below average rainfall at critical times of the year induce droughts, lower crops and food
insecurity. This problem is exacerbated during periods of several years of below average rainfall
such as in the early 2000s.

The drought cycle has become shorter and droughts prevail almost every year or two. The
impacts of flooding have also been considerable in the Borena area. Repeated flash and seasonal

260
floods from Segan and Weito Rivers have caused widespread destruction of life and property and
induced massive displacements.

Drought is a common phenomenon in many parts of Borena. The lowland parts are severely
affected by recurrent droughts. The rainfall pattern is highly erratic according to the people
living in the area, and the rains often do not occur at the expected time. Sometimes the intensity
of rainfall is above normal and sometimes it is far below normal.

A climate trend experienced in pastoralist areas over the last decade indicate that climate change
may be bringing a “new normal” that adds unprecedented challenges for pastoralist communities.
The two most important features of climate change impacts as they appear to be unfolding are:

1) increased frequency of severe droughts and 2) the chronic failure (late arrival, early
cessation, or non-appearance) of the long rains in the period from March through May
(Jeffrey et al., 2011).

There are no perennial rivers and rainfall varies highly, both spatially and temporally. Rural
communities in Borena have insufficient access to clean drinking water. They are largely
dependent on open water sources of unreliable quality due to contamination from human or
animal excrement and in some places from agriculture. Furthermore, the water sources
experience high evaporation rates, frequently drying up early in the dry season. During the last
decade numerous wells have been installed by the government and NGOs to improve peoples’
access to drinking water. However, in large areas of the Borena Zone overexploitation has led to
dropping groundwater levels and wells running dry.

During drought episodes, pastoral communities are faced with two processes that adversely
affect their livelihood and survival (Toulmin, 1995; Sommer, 1998; Orindi et al, 2007). First,
drought reduces the level of productivity from livestock resulting from losses occasioned by high
mortality rates, low calving rates, reduced milk production, poor body condition and
susceptibility to diseases.

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 5. Basin issue identification, analysis and prioritization

5.1. Issue identification

5.1.1. Water quantity

Socio-Economy as a factor

Population of the basin is increasing from time to [Link] of rural communities in the basin
are being urbanized fastly. Huge investments are expanding in the basin. Sparsely populated
pastoral and sem-pastoral communities in the basin are changing their life style to settle in
villages. Population growth requires providing basic infrastructure like power, roads,
communications, water supply, sanitation, schools, health centers and others. Development and
provision of such basic infrastructures need additional amount of water. Moreover, fast rate
economic growth which is registering in the country as well as in the basin demands more water
resources. This shows that socio economic factors greatly affect the availability of water
resources in the basin.

Increasing Irrigation Water Demand

The demand for irrigation development and thereby the need to increase productivity and secure
food self-sufficiency is a highly paramount issue and one of the most top priorities of the basin.
The use of irrigated farming in the basin is practiced both as state owned and farmers owned, and
irrigation is fairly accustomed in the low land areas. For most of the irrigation land, surface water
is abstracted from rivers. Most of existing irrigation is flooding and furrow which has low water
efficiency, resulting in high loss of abstracted water for irrigation. Expansin of unplanned
irrigation in the basin is expected to result in unacceptable environmental impacts and
unsustainable use of water resources. Almost in all rivers in the basin, investment farms divert
water without leaving even some share to downstream community and evironment.

Climate Change

Climate change has an impact on day to day human activities and natural phenomena which
affect the global and regional economic and social wellbeing. Ethiopia is one of the impacted
countries due to its dependency on rain feed agriculture. Rift valley lakes basin is one of the
sufferer of climate change and variability affecting up to community level. Climatic change is

262
commonly described by characteristics of rainfall, temperature, evapo-transpiration, drought,
flood and other related aspects. Such characteristics determine seasonal classification, water
availability, type and potential of agricultural production, water consumption manner and others.
These characterstics have influence on water availability in the basin and consideration of
climate change impact in basin planning is important.
Lakeshore Degradation

All lakes and major rivers in the basin do not have any buffer zone demarcation and protection.
Hence different anthropogenic actions like household settlement, Small scale agriculture,
grazing, urban construction and enclosure for private purposes are prevalent situation of Lakes
shores and river banks in the basin. The major problem in the basin at Lake buffer zone are
cultivating the lands at the vicinity of the Lakes including water displaced area, illegal
settlement, provision of land use license to cooperated youth near the Lakes for the objective of
job creation, use of pesticides and herbicides that may pollute water, clearing lakeshore plants
which exacerbates lake ecosystem degradation, sand mining creating gullies that trap sediments
and uncontrolled cattle grazing. These problems are familiar at all lakes in the basin. So paying
attention to set goal, objective and strategic plan for buffer zone protection in basin plan
development is vital.

Wetland Degradation

Wetlands in the basin have been improperly grazed and cultivated by farmers and licensed
investors. Due to this, they have been changing into dry cultivated [Link] perform many
functions on local, regional and global scales – from providing wildlife habitat and basic
necessities for humans to regulating atmospheric processes and geochemical cycles. As the
wetlads dried by natural case or human interfrance, siltation and sediment load in lakes and
rivers will increase, affecting water storage in the system. There are many wetlands in the basin
that need immediate action for protection and [Link], water resources allocation and
management plan development must consider wetland conservation and rehabilitation in the
basin.

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Drought

Droughts have widespread and severe consequences for people and the environment due to
reduced water supply for drinking, agriculture and livestock; reduced agricultural output, and in
severe cases, the relocation of large numbers of people, malnutrition, loss of life and animals,
water and sanitation-related diseases. Drought management strategy should be considered in
strategic water resources allocation and managemrnt with basin plan preparation.

264
 Figure 43: Analysis of water quantity decline by DPSIR

Drivers Response
• High Population increase  Apply IWRM approach&Water tariff policy
• Absence of water allocation plan in the sub basin  Public awareness creation
• Low efficiency of irrigation method  Rain water harvesting
• Inadequate water infrastructures • Study and Construct water storage reservoir
• Absence of wetland protection regulation
• Study and develop groundwater
• Low attention to river training works
• Low awareness of towards water saving • Developing water allocation plan
• Lack of good drainage in the irrigation farms • Developing wetland conservation & buffer zone regulation
• Lack of land use policy • Rehabilitation of degraded wetlands
• Weakness in forest resource protection • Increasing irrigation water use efficiency
• Vulnerability to climate change • Controlling population
• Lack of technology adaptation • Use of appropriate technology Impacts
• Absence of buffer zone demarcation • Enhancing river training and irrigation drainage system
• Expansion of Agricultural land • Climate impact adaptation • Siltation of River course
• Change life style
• Water scarcity
• Economic growth
• Dependencyon water resources • Water use conflict
• Loss of biodiversity
• Negative effect on tourism industry
State • Diminishing fish stock
• Loss of livestock
 Declined level of the Lakes • Crop production loss
 Decreased areas & volume of the Lakes • Lack of human health
 Encroached Lakes shore and River bank
 Reduced yield of spring
Pressures  Reduced Stream and River flows
 Damaged riverbanks and flooded farmlands
• Unbalanced water abstraction  Drying up of Rivers at lower catchment
• High loss of irrigation water  Degraded wetlands
• Overgrazing  unfair water sharing
• Steep slope cultivation  Low water availability
• Deforestation at upper catchments  Eroded catchments
• Natural flow of rivers braked off  Land use change
• Demand for water increased in fast
 High seepage and evaporation of irrigation water
• Cultivation of shorelands & river banks
 Occurance of flood and drought
• Lack of Law enforcement
 Removal of top soil

265
 Figure 44: problem tree for cause and effect relationship of River Valley Basin water availability decline

Water scarcity & Affected

Flood, drought Biodivesrit Diinishing Affected Lacke of
water use conflict &Crop loss y loss fish stock livelhood human health
tourism Effects
industry

Surface & Groundwater depletion in the basin Problem

Unsustainable utilization of water resources Decrease in flow & seasonal

unavailability of water

Causes
Increase in abstraction, increase in water wastage, and
dependency on surface water
• Degraded wetlands, drying of
streams & springs
• Reduction of inflow to Rivers
• Siltation of Lakes & Rivers
Increase in Inability to
domestic, use
irrigation & alternative • Increase in evaporation
industrial water source and seepage loss & • Over grazing on wetlands
water excessive water use • Steep slope cultivation
• Unfair water sharing • Damaged riverbanks & flooded farm lands
Inadequate • Cultivating shore lands & wetlands
domestic • Increased flood and drought
Population
water supply
increase,
expansion of • Lack of awareness towards
irrigation, water saving
• Lack of good drainage • Lack of wetland protection regulation
urbanization, • Lack of land use policy
change in life Inadequate water system in irrigation farms
infrastructures • Low efficiency of irrigation • Low attention to river training
style, • Change in land use
economic method
• Lack of optimal water • Climate change
growth • Lack of buffer zone regulation
utilization plan
• High groundwater abstraction

266
 Figure 45: Objective Tree to Improve Water Quantity in Rift Valley Lakes Basin

Measures
Goal Objectives
Quantify surface & groundwater, identfy water scarce
areas and alternative sources, construct water harvesting
To ensure water availability in the basin and storing infrastractures, and strengthen communitys’
water harvesting capacity

Developing wetland conservation & buffer zone

To improve the recharging capacity of the demarcation and conservation legal framework,
catchment & flow of the rivers Rehabilitation of degraded wetlands, enhance river training
works

To improve irrigation water use efficiency in the Assess the irrigation potential, studying existing irrigation
Enhance availability and efficiency, assess attitude & capacity of users to adopt
basin
optimum utilization of technology and build technical capacity of users, enhancing
irrigation drainage system,
water resources in the
basin for sustainable Assess seasonal & annual total water availability, assess
To ensure effective and equitable water use in the
demand types with demand management strategy, set water
social, economic and basin
use priority criteria, allocate water resources among
environmental benefits different uses, permit license to users, water use conflict
investigation &develop resolution strategy

To improve public awareness and undertake capacity Identify gaps on water resource management and
building on IWRM utilization, Conduct researches, and provide (trainings,
demonstrations, technology dissemination, public
awareness works) on wise utilization of water resources

Upgrade existing manual hydro-meteorological

To improve Hydro-Meteorological and Basin stations to automatic stations, Select and install
information system new hydro-meteorological stations, Conduct
bathometric survey on the Lakes, develop data base
of Hydrological Information System (HIS) & Basin
Information System (BIS)

267
5.1.2. Water Quality

Water quality can be broadly defined as the physical, chemical, and biological composition of
water as related to its intended use for such purposes as drinking, recreation, irrigation, fisheries
etc. Issues affecting water quality in Rift valley lakes basin are Socio economy, Liquid and solid
waste, Wetland degradation, Agricultural Practice and Lake Shore farming.

Socio Economic factors

Due to socio economic factors like rapid population growth, resettlement, expansion of
agricultural and irrigation activities, the landscape of the basin has beenthreatened in recent
years. For the last few decades, an increasing demand for fuel wood and wood for construction,
land clearing for agricultural expansion and irrigation activities, and bush burning for pasture
have greatly modified the landscape and affected the quality of water resources in the basin.

Agricultural Practice

The rapid expansion of agriculture over the past few centuries led to conversion of natural or
native vegetation to cultivated agricultural systems. Such changes to land use and agricultural
practices have significantly increased leaching of chemicals to surface and ground
[Link] production practices, including riparian grazing, confined feeding operations,
and manure management can also impact water quality.

Lakeshore Farming

Buffer zones should surround the upland portion of the core habitat to protect the terrestrial and
aquatic habitats from surrounding land use practices that could damage these areas. Currently,
almost 80% of perennial irrigation farmlands are found within the vicinity of the lakes and
Rivers in the basin. This results in intrusion of chemicals from the farmlands to the lakes (quality
impact).

Liquid and Solid Waste Discharge

Domestic solid waste, domestic waste water, municipal waste and diffused non-point pollution
from agricultural land are the main sources of water pollution in the basin. Point sources from
industries and public institutions like Hospital, Commercial centers also affect the water quality
in the basin.

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Wetland Degradation

Wetlands Protect water quality by serving as biological filters (a natural water treatment plant)
absorbing and fixing certain chemical and mineral contaminants that would otherwise flow
directly into Lakes, Rivers, Streams, and the [Link] activities on wetland areas are
converting swamps to agricultural land with long-term drainage and cultivation reduces the
diversity of the wetland habitat; wetland species and replaced by non-wetland species. This has
great impact on the quality of lakes water in the basin.

Summary of key issues /challenges for water quality deterioration in basin:-

 Point source pollution from floriculture industries ,urban source/ sewerage lines
 Non point pollution :-Waste from agriculture and other rural activities;
 Salinity of fresh water lakes: - Agricultural chemicals from farmlands enter into water
bodies by runoff. This increases water pollution, salinity and deteriorates quality.
 Excess sediment inputs and turbidity: - The Rivers contain suspended sediments and
possible sewage contamination from towns.
 Wetlands degradations and Buffer zone destruction:-Wetland and land at a vicinity of
water bodies are being changed into agricultural farms by farmers or officially licensed
investors with limited consideration to water resource and environmental sustainability.
 Lack of water quality Monitoring system
 Poor institutional and public coordination in pollution prevention
 Lack of Awareness to pollution prevention
 Water quantity decrease (leads low level salt dilution and quality compromising)

Major pollution sources

 Industrial activities
 Governmental and Non Governmental Inistitutions
 Municipal wastes
 Municipal solid wastes
 Municipal liquid wastes
 Urban storm water
 New Pollution Sources (wastes supposed to be generated from new invstments in the future)

269
 Figure 46: DPSIR Framework for analysis of water
quality affecting issues

Driving Forces Responses

 Population growth and density

 Integrated watershed
 Urbanization management
 Use of Agro-chemicals  Family Planning
 Industry development  Waste management/ west
 Climate Variability water treatment
 Mining(Sand and stone)  Wetlands management
 Irrigation Activity  Law enforcement
 Absence of buffer zone  Intensive agricultural system
 Low awareness of land use  Water bodies Buffer zone
Delineation
 Biological paste control
 Climate change adaptation
 Aqua-Culture
 Demand side
management…etc

 High Water abstraction

 Expansion of Water Quality
Agriculture and land use deterioration
 Ecosystem/bio diversity Habitat destruction, Loss
/cover change destruction, of biodiversity
 Industrial expansion  Shortage of fresh water Human health
 Siltation and  Eutrophication problemEcosystem
Sedimentation  Expansion of Invasive disturbance Low
 Effluents species productivity of
 Acid rain environments Loss of

STATES
PRESSURE
IMPACTS

270
 Figure 47:Problem tree analysis for Low income
water quality

Low tourism
Decline number of lesser bird’s species & fish stocks Low
economic
Effec

Low productivity
Poor scenery of
Decline phytoplankton, zooplankton the environment

Increased salinity & alkalinity Loss of bio-diversity Increased Water scarcity for
(chemical content) of the lake water drinking and other economic
uses

Core
Water quality deterioration Decline Utilizable water
proble
m

Shoreline agricultural activity and other Waste water treated in the plant does not meet
High level Industrial and domestic Point and non-source environmental standard
waste disposed in to rivers and

Inadequate level of capital investment and poor

business planning with local government
Cause

Population not aware of the danger

Environmental protection agency of waste damping

ineffective and closely aligned with

Lack of public information/education
industry interests
program available
271
 Objectives Measure
Goal

Produce water quality map for rivers, Lakes, ground waters

Assess major pollutant contributing to water salinity

To reduce fresh water salinity problem
Monitor salinity problems associated with irrigation
across the sub- basin level
Increase public awareness on cause and means of
environmental pollution
To ensure Environmental friendly
Improve the quality Implement Agro-chemical pollutant permit standard
Agricultural practices
of water resources Delineating lakeshore area and establish buffer zone to
reduce runoff and agrochemical pollution
in the basin for Establish water quality laboratory
To prevent lakeshore cultivation
Establish additional water quality sampling stations
sustainable social,
economic and To establish water quality monitoring Develop water quality monitoring database
system
environmental Establish administrative procedures for discharge
permit /licensing system as per regulations
benefits
Expand liquid and solid waste management Infrastructure
and recycling
To prevent industrial and municipal
effluents Identify type and extent of pollution from existing and
proposed industries
Organize awareness raising programs on water pollution
Develop legal and policy inputs on buffer zone demarcation
To conserve wetlands and Lake shore and wetland management

Demarcate Lakes and rivers buffer zone

Rehabilitate wetlands

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5.1.3. Watershed

Watershed Degradation
Watershed degradation is the loss of land value over time, including the productive potential of
land and water, accompanied by marked changes in the hydrological behavior of a river system
resulting in inferior quality, quantity and timing of water [Link] most parts of the basin
are facing extreme degradation due to the following factors but not limited to lack of awareness,
population pressure, lack of policy issue and law enforcement, poor agricultural practice,
increased deforestation, overgrazing, land use change and soil erosion, intensive cultivation,
climate change, Rainfall and temperature variability and other human actions.

Lack of Awareness/ Education and Training/

Unawareness of government policies on soil and water conservation has immensely contributed
for watershed [Link] independently cultivated on steep slopes with poor
agronomic practices based on traditional knowledge for their livelihood. Many residents are
unaware about the impacts of their activities on the watershed degradation. New generations of
people do not realize what they have lost. They are not aware of the way things used to be
[Link] level of awareness of the society about the linkage between watershed and livelihood
improvement is coupled with poor participation of farmers in the planning and management
activities of watersheds.

Population Pressure /Population Density/

Population pressure: is one of the underlying causes for deforestation in highlands. Increasing
population pressure leads to increased demand for farm land and forest resource for fuel and
home construction. The ever increasing population is a driving force for increased deforestation.
Our growing population is putting pressure on land, leading to poor quality of productivity,
deforestation (the loss of forest land so necessary for ecological balance and extinction of wild
life leading to imbalance in the ecological order, loss of wild life heritage and ultimately
dwindling of several species. Population density in the rift valley basin is high and they compete
to expand farm land.

Lack of Policy Issue and Enforcement

273
National integrated Land Use Plan and policy is on process to be ratified. But, Ethiopia has so far
developed different policies, regulations, proclamations and laws related to environment and
natural resources. However, there are gaps in implementation of these policies due to lack of
some directives, and institutional commitment.
Poor Agricultural Practice

The soils on steep slopes in the basin are mostly under intensive cultivation. The steep slopes
coupled with an erodible nature of the soil, poor farming and grazing practice has resulted in the
highest current erosion rates being found in different parts of the basin.
Deforestation
Deforestation is the most serious problem in the basin, which directly affects its water retention
capabilities, increases runoff and hence causes erosion. In the downstream, such processes
ensure that flooding may occur and that the silt load in to the lakes, wetland and river courses are
considerable.
Over grazing

Overgrazing occurs when the number of livestock on a unit of land is too large. Resultant to this
is the destruction of natural vegetation as well as soil compaction and erosion. Furthermore the
photosynthesis and hence biomass production and carrying capacity is [Link] livestock
population in the some parts of the basin has resulted the overgrazing of grazing lands which
leads to accelerated soil erosion and the resultant siltation of the Lakes and the surrounding
wetlands. This in return affects aquatic biodiversity.

Land Use Change and Soil Erosion

The main causes of soil erosion are the rapidly increasing population (human and livestock)
resulting in land use change, deforestation, overgrazing and continuous cultivation of extensive
steep slopes and consequently they have adversely affected land productivity. This issue is found
to be critical in the basin.

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 Driver

Pressure
 Increased population
 Low awareness on land use management
 Absence of Lakes and Rivers buffer zone  Cultivation of steep slopes,
demarcation deforestation, overgrazing, wetland
 Expansion of Agricultural land to fulfill food Response degradation
demand  Over use of land for Large and small
 Increased demand for fire wood scale farming
 Land needed for urban and rural settlement  Expansion of urbanization
 The need for pasture /grazing/ land  Awareness creation on land use  Rural settlement on mountainous and
 Lack of modern technology in the Agricultural  Issuing land management policy protected areas
sector  Strong storm events
 Enhancing integrated watershed
 Absence of wetland protection or conservation
management works
policy and regulation
 Low integrated watershed management practice  Launching reforestation program
 Lack of effective land use management policy  Stakeholder participation
 Climate change impact  Introducing modern livestock
breeding
 Enhancing modern farming
practice
 Expanding off-farm economic
 Lower land productivity activities  Soil erosion
 Ecosystem degradation  Reduction of Lake shore and wetlands size
 Loss of fertile soil  Nutrient losses
 Decline in water availability and quality  Increased Siltation and sedimentation of
Lakes and Rivers
 Increased flooding and drought frequency
 Climate change and variability
 Decline in Tourism Industry
 Gully formation
 Loss of ecosystem service
 Land cover change
 Rise in water level and decline in water volume
 Ecosystem disturbance
 Resource use conflict

State
Impact

275
 Figure 48: Problem Tree analysis on issues affecting watersheds in the basin
Decline in water
Loss Resource use
quantity and
Low agricultural Ecosystem Drought of conflict
quality
productivity degradati fertile
on soil Increased Siltation
and sedimentation
of Lakes and Rivers

Watershed Degradation

Land use cover

Soil erosion

Increased flood
frequency
Cultivation of steep Expanded urban and
slope and wetlands rural settlement

Deforestation

Increased demand for

Poor land use Overgrazing
Agricultural land Climate change and
management
variability

Lack of effective Increased

land use policy demand for
Population growth
energy
Increased Livestock
Low awareness population

276
 Figure 49: objective tree analysis of issues affecting watersheds in the basin

GOAL Measures
Objectives

Implementation of Rangeland management & soil and

water conservation measures
To protect water bodies from Diversify livelihood opportunities
siltation/sedimentation Build institutional integration

Improve water resource Establish and maintain nursery sites, introduce

To improve surface and ground water
Conservation, potential and community fodder species, promote area closure
potential
livelihood in the basin through integrated Build institutional integration
watershed and range land management for To increase the capacity of stakeholders Conduct awareness creation and training
sustainable social, economic and Make watershed works a cross cutting issue

environmental benefits
Improve agricultural & livestock productivity
To rehabilitate severely degraded watersheds
Wetland management &Vegetation cover maintenance

Policy and Law enforcement

Enhance the farming system through modern technology

To improve the livelihood of the community Introduce modern livestock breeding system

Develop small and medium scale manufacturing

Industries as well as petty trade

277
5.1.4. Climate Hazards and Risk Management

In the rift valley Lakes Basin, there are natural hazards affecting water quantity, quality, and
degradation of the resources. The major ones are flood, drouht and immerging issues like water
hycithn. In this section, such issues are analyzed by using tools like Driver-Pressure-State-
Impact-Response (DPSIR), problem tree analysis, objective tree analysis. Based on the analysis,
logframe was developed to find out the outcome of activites that will be done to reverse the
problem.

278
 Figure 50: Identification, analysis and prioritization of Climate Hazard and Risk Management related issues
Respons

Driver  Early warning

s  Early response;
• Lack or insufficient rainfall (or
precipitation)  An efficient intelligence system Rain water
harvesting
• Changes in climate
 Timely maintenance of the irrigation system and Impacts
• Human Activity adoption of a crop stabilization strategy;

• Overexploitation of surface water resources  Pre-positioning of adequate foodstuff and their  Decimation of habitats
delivery
• absence of moisture  Soil Quality lose
 moving structures away from flood routes
• Population pressure  Malnutrition, anemia, and
 Alternate arrangements for drinking-water supply hunger
• Low level of water harvesting technology
 Embankments, flood walls, sea walls  Loss of livestock
• Climatic and rainfall patterns
 Dams and reservoirs  Trigger migrations

Pressure  Restoring degraded land Channel improvement  Social interaction reduces

 Allocating specific grazing lands  Crop production loss

 encroachment of floodplains
 Diversion of flood waters  Community networks get
 earthquakes and landslides broken
State
 erosion and silting • Water scarcity
• Rain fall seasonal change
 Deforestation • loss of substantial income
 Over grazing • Reduce amount of Rain fall
• Water use conflict
 Investment expansion • Climate change
• Ecosystem loss
 High cultivation of forest area • Hunger and higher food prices Un expected flood
• community networks get
 heavy rainfall • Landslide broken

• Biodiversity loss
• Income281
lose
• Wildfires
• Inter-communal conflicts
 Figure 51: Problem tree for cause and effect relationship of Natural Hazard in Rift Valley Lakes Basin
Water use Soil Quality Malnutrition, Trigger Social interaction
lose anemia, and hunger migrations reduces
conflict

Loss of Crop production Community Water Loss of Livelih

Ecosystem loss networks get substantia ood Effects
broken scarcity
l income affecte

Low level of
technology adoption Drought and Flood Hazards Proble

Decrease the level, area &

Economic growth volume of lakes, wetlands
&River. And Hanger and
Change of life style Env.t , Social and Economy crises

Climate change Crop

production
loss
Increase in Disaster and Risk (Extreme Drought Lack of
and Flood) Inadequate
water agricultural Loss of
Siltation of
management land substantial
Lakes &
income
Rivers and

Causes
High Forest land Absence High free In appropriate quality loss
High of grazing
fuelwood rate of cultivation agricultural Flooding
consumption water practice Soil
demand degradation
Deforestatio Overgrazing Encroachme
Heavy
n nt of
Insufficien Overexploi Human Rainfall High
floodplains
t Rain fall cultivation
tation of interventio
(Precipitat of forest
ion) surface n
282
 Objective tree analyses for Drought and Flood

Objective Tree Analysis for Drought and

Natural Hazard Controlled
Flood

Increased Precipitation and soil Increased Agricultural Improved Early

Increased
End

moisture production Warning and Response

income

Improved HH asset &Restoring

degraded land and Forest cover Developed Climate Increased and
Flood
and Hazard Resilient Drought proofing and
insurance
Decreased Siltation & increased soil safe environment
quality
Improved livelihood and
Ecosystem Service
Improve Disaster and Risk
Response Mechanism
Core Climate Hazard and Risk Management Improved
objectiv
Carry out DRR and climate Timely maintenance of the Early warning and response;
change adaptation irrigation system and adoption Restoring degraded land and Pre- Mobilize adequate financial resources,
campaigns of a crop stabilization strategy; positioning of adequate foodstuff and supportcommunities to mobilize finances
their delivery for DRR and climate change adaptation

Enhanced drought preparedness and Reducing Natural Hazard effect on

climate change adaptation Community and Environment
interventions Ensure drought actions are in line with shared standards
Mean

and guidelines. Document and disseminate

Community more aware of the Drought best practices in DRR, climate change, socialprotection
Mainstream drought risk reduction,
and flood Risk management
climate change adaptation, social
protection and eradication of drought Ensure effective M&E and reporting guidelines on
283
emergencies into planning and budgeting drought and Flood actions
processes atcommunity, Basin and sub Strengthen the access, use and understanding
basin levels of climate information through
consolidationand dissemination
5.1.5. Stakeholder Engagement

A “stakeholder” can be defined as any individual, group, or institution that has a vested interest
in the natural resources of the basin and/or who potentially will be affected by policy, program or
project activities and have something to gain or lose if conditions change or stay the [Link]
are all people and institutions which includes local government, private industry, non-profit
organizations (environmental and social service organizations), citizen groups, irrigators, and the
general public and who have a strong interest in the future use of resources.

Basin planning involves the stakeholders’ participation in various parts of the process, especially
in the identification of issues, in setting environmental objectives, and in selecting appropriate
measures for resolving water [Link] broader groups, that will includes in Integrated water
resource management are Governmental authorities and regulators (Governments, local and
national regulators, Elected representatives, Public advisory boards, Police/Emergency services),
affected communities (Populations living in the basin, Job seekers, Vulnerable groups: women,
elderly, etc.), Religious groups, Universities and other education institutes and Businesses and
commercial organizations (Suppliers, Service providers).

Stakeholder participation in planning is critical to successful and efficient management of water

resources. One of the four Dublin Principles of Integrated Water Resources Management
emphasizes public participation: “Water development and management should be based on a
participatory approach, involving users, planners and policymakers at all levels.” Next table
indicated the the strength, weakness, opportunity and threats of participationg stakeholders in
Integrated Water Resources Management especially in Rift Valley Lakes Basin.

282
 Table 70: SWOT analysis of stakeholder engagement
Strengths Weakness

 Preparation of forums with different stakeholder by  Lack of professional and resource allocated for stakeholder engagement.
RVLBDO  Permanent Stakeholder forum not available.
 Establishment of university-industry linkage  Low intuitional experience on stakeholder engagements
 Signing memorandum of understanding with different  Lack of examining the result of prepared stakeholder forums.
stakeholder.  Lack of mutual planning
 Starting stockholder platform  Poor communication
 Existence of Water Policy and Water Resources  Low institutional capacity
Management Strategy  Low Level of Coordination among Stakeholders
 Existence of adequate institutional arrangement to  Lack of joint implementation plan
gather  Conflict of interest among stakeholders
 Fragmented management of the water resources sector
 Weak legislative structure
 Low human resource capacity building in the water sector institutions
 Inexistence of water resources management plans at river basin level
 Lack of civil society participation into the water resources management
Opportunities. Threat

 EFDRE Constitution, Policy and strategy on water  Lack of awareness and experience on IWRM by stakeholders
resource management for multi-sector (federal,  Uncommon understanding on the benefit of stakeholder engagement
Regional, basin)  Mandate overlapping
 Basin high council (participation of all regional  Absence of water user tariff
presidents) and establishment of basin Authority.  Climate change

283
 Different NGOs funding for such work  Brain drain in the water sector
 Presence of mandated institutions in the sub-basin  District empowerment (lack of coordination)
Presence of research institutes  Slow institutional transformation
 Political will for the effective implementation of the
IWRM
 Donor will to fund projects focused on IWRM
 Pro-active civil society that is aware of the importance
of an efficient water resources management
 Existence of regional educational networks that offers
specific training opportunities in IWRM
 Decentralization of political power

284
[Link]. Stakeholder identification, mapping and engagement

[Link].1. Stakeholder identification

 Federal level Stakeholders

Stakeholders at Federal level includes list ofgovernmental ministries, commimmissions,

Agencies and Inistitutes those have direct or indirect stakes in water resources utilization
management, development and utilization.

 Regional level Stakeholders

Regional level stakeholders level includes list of South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’
Regional State and Oromia National Regional state governmental bureaus, authorities, Agencies
Enterprises, and Inistitutes those have direct or indirect stakes in water resources utilization
management, development and utilization.

 Water users

These include Small Irrigated agriculture farmers, Private commercial Agricultural farms (large
users), Industrial water users (large users), Domestic water users, Recreational and Tourism.
 Knowledge institutes likeresearch institutions & Universities and NGOs working on various
similar issues in the basin
 Decision makersand Regulatory bodies
 Implementers
 Funding organizations /International funding Institutions and NGOs/
 Private companies
 Community/Water Resource User Association/

The stakeholder engagements in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) are required
at different stages of water resource management and these are:-

 Planning
 Implementing
 Monitoring and evaluation stages.

285
[Link]. Stakeholder mapping and engagements

Stakeholders are grouped in to the following hierarchy (H) based on nature of their involvement
in water resource planning, utilization and management.

Hierarchy (H1):- These are policy, decision makers and regulatory bodies

Hierarchy (H2):- These are implementers which involves in planning and implementation of
basin plan.

Hierarchy (H3):-These groups of stakeholders are called Media and Knowledge Institutions like
universities, public institutions, and research institutes.

Hierarchy (H4):-Civic Organizations and International funding Institutions and NGOs.

Hierarchy (H5):-All resources users in the basin are included in this group.

286
 Table 71: - Stakeholder involvement flow chart
No Stages of Decision makers and Implementers(H2) Media and Civic Organizations Water Users and
involvement Knowledge and NGOs(H4) general public(H5 )
Regulatory bodies(H1 )
Institutions(H3)
Basin plan
Preparation
1

Roles:-Plan evaluation Roles:- Roles:- Roles:

Roles:- Roles:-
and
 law enforcement  Aware the public  Reflect their  Provide the
approval
 Prepare basin plan  Disseminate interests/
interests/opinions required
 Decide on issues for  Sign agreement information  Participate on information
planning  Develop projects  Conduct studies and preparation of basin  Reflect their
 Legal issue revision  Resource mobilization provide necessary plan interests/opinions
 Information disclosure  Supportive roles in data  Evaluate and  Prepare pollution
 Setting up strategic training and  Participate on comment on abatement plan
plans/policies propaganda. preparation preparation 
 Determining the best  Identify social issues  Guide directions of 
strategies and needs. preparation
 strategic objectives,  Knowledge
inclusive of an andinformation on
appropriate solutions Basin plan
 Balancing regulatory,  Training, information
collaborative and on water resources
capacity building management and
approaches. . development.
 Decision makers and
set policy directions

Implementing

287
2  Identify priority issue
 Political leadership  Own and implement
and Coordination the plan
 allocate resource  Aware, supervise and
 Guiding implanters Consult users  Identify priority issue  Identify
dentify priority  Implement plan
 Identify priority issue  Capacity building  Aware the public issue requirements
 delivery of broader  Guide the local  Disseminate  coordinate the  Attend awareness
strategies Authorities information and interested groups raising trainings
 Develop Strategic  Mobilize the public technology  aware and support  Use the adopted
implementation and support  Develop cost – users new technologies
programs community effort effective  fund projects 
 institutions/ individuals  Involve institutions/ implementation capacitate users
should be involved in individuals strategy  Mobilize the
implementation  Adopt new public and support
technologies community effort
 generate additional
incomes
 working with
collaboratively
Monitoring
and
Evaluation
3  Follow-up
Follow
performance level
 Evaluate
 Monitor implementation  Monitor  Aware the public performances/
 Evaluate performance implementation  Disseminate progresses  Evaluate self key
 Guide the implementers  Evaluate performance information  Give feedbacks on achievements
 institutions/ individuals  Identify challenges  Evaluate research implementation  Respond for
are involved in system  Identify strength and results success or failure
of monitoring and weakness  Evaluate
evaluation performances/
progresses -
 Give feedbacks on
performances

288
 Review
/Updating

 Evaluate the outcome  Organize review  Aware the public

 Plan for next period/ meetings  Disseminate  Participate in  Participate in
updating overall plan  Get ready for further information review meetings review meetings
 inform review results planning /updating  Depend on feedback  Identify priority  Depend on
 Regularized state of the  Act on feedback/ working with issue on strength feedback working
system monitoring and implement feedbacks collaboratively and weakness with
reporting collaboratively
 Strategic/ periodic
evaluations of key
system parts

289
 Figure 52: Stakeholder engagement framework

Implement legal framework related to

Establish
water use and pollution control
stakeholder forum
through stakeholder participation Organize awareness creation
programs to engage
stakeholders in legal

Decision
makers and
Regulatory
bodies
Water Users,
pollution
contributors and
watershed
management
Goal-:
Assessment of
To ensure active stakeholder
awareness gap on participationin
water resources decisionmaking, planning,
management Implemente implementation, monitoring
and evaluationofIWRM
rs Civic
Organizations
and NGOs

Media and
Knowledge
Organize and validate gap Institutions Organize experience
filling workshops and sharing programs on best
capacity building trainings for IWM practices
each level of stakeholders

290
 Table 72: Logical Framework
Specific Outcome Data source & Means Risk and Risk
Goals Targets Outcome
objectives indicator of verification assumption Mitigation
Goal: To ensure water Exceed water • Improved water • Agricultural Assessment reports, Climate Climate
resource scarcity threshold storage mechanism productivity performance evaluation change change
Enhance
availability in the (1700-1000 • Improved water increases reports and case study impact adaptation
availability and
3 infrastructure
optimum basin m /capital/year) in • Basin wide reports by MoWIE, measures
• Existence of water
utilization of the sub basin by socio economic Oromia Region Water
the whole year
water resources 2034 growth resource bureau,
round
in the basin for registered SNNPRS Water
sustainable
social, economic • Satisfied resource bureau and
and irrigation and RVLBDO,
environmental domestic water
benefits demand
To improve the 60% increase of • Improved recharge • sustainable Assessment reports, Climate Climate
recharging the catchment of streams, springs river flow performance evaluation change change
capacity of the recharge by 2034. and groundwater • increased reports and case study impact adaptation
catchment &flow • Increased and production
reports by MoWIE, measures
of the rivers continuing River
flows Oromia Region Water
• Increased inflow to resource bureau,
the natural wetland SNNPRS Water
and Lakes resource bureau and
RVLBDO,
To improve Increase overall • Decrease excess • Transformation Assessment reports, Lack of Awareness
irrigation water irrigation water abstraction of irrigation performance evaluation initiative to creation,
use efficiency in efficiency to 80% • increase in water use trend reports and case study use new technical and
by 2034 irrigation water • Optimum
the basin reports by MoWIE, irrigation financial
productivity abstraction
• environmental • reduction in Oromia Region Water technology support for
sustainability irrigation resource bureau, farmers
water loss SNNPRS Water
resource bureau and

291
 Specific Outcome Data source & Means Risk and Risk
Goals Targets Outcome
objectives indicator of verification assumption Mitigation
RVLBDO,
Ensure entitlement • water abstraction • number of Assessment reports, Water Taking
for all water users based on legal licensed water performance availability climate
To ensure
by 2034 framework users and evaluation reports affected by change
effective and
• Acceptable water
equitable water proper use and case study Climate adaptation
sharing principle in
use in the basin • water use reports by MoWIE, change measures
the sub-basin
• water use conflict conflict Oromia Region
minimized minimized Water resource
bureau, SNNPRS
Water resource
bureau and
RVLBDO,
80% of the  Water resource • Reduced Assessment reports, Lack of •
To improve community management skill water loss performance evaluation skilled and Estab
public awareness understand about increases • Water reports and case study experienced lish
and undertake resource reports from instit
optimum  Improved awareness manpower
capacity building sustainability ution
utilization of water on IWRM RBDA, ONS Water
on IWRM increases
by 2034  Optimal water use
resource bureau, s
• Water
SNNPRS Water •
• shortage
resource bureau and Facili
problem
RVLBDO, Research tate
solved
and development short
activities
and
long
term
traini
ng

292
 Specific Outcome Data source & Means Risk and Risk
Goals Targets Outcome
objectives indicator of verification assumption Mitigation
To establish Established Strong  Decrease number  number of Regional co-operative Weakeness Adopt or
water users’ WRUAs by 2034 of illegal water water office, Regional of legal improve
association user, association irrigation Authority, fremwork legal
(WRUA)  livelihood  reduced Water use and user framework
improvement irrigation assessment report.
 water loss
To improve 38 functional improved hydrological Updated data Assessment reports, Limited capacity
Hydro- hydro- and basin information base, automatic case study reports, data capacity of building
Meteorological meteorologica system gauging stations base of the office the office
and Basin
gauging stations
information
system by 2034

Goal 2: Improve To prevent Zero discharge of Improved water Water quality water quality test Leakage Frequent
the quality of industrial and untreated quality and aquatic standards and reports from septic monitoring
water resource in municipal ecosystem bio-indicators tanks, and
effluent by 2034
the sub-basin for effluents evaluation of
artificial
sustainable treatment
social, economic wetlands
plant
and
environmental, To ensure By 2034 the • Aquatic ecosystem is Salinity declines water quality test Alarmingly Adaptation
benefits. Environmental negative impact of protected against reports from FECCA/B, Increasing modern
friendly Agricultural pollution RVLBDO, Water food demand technology in
Agricultural practice on the the
• Reduction of bureaus
practices environment Agricultural
surely declines siltation and
agrochemical, sector
To establish Establish 92 Updated water quality Recorded data on water quality test
water quality water quality status water quality reports from FECCA/B,
monitoring monitoring parameters RVLBDO, Water
system stations by 2034
bureaus

293
 Specific Outcome Data source & Means Risk and Risk
Goals Targets Outcome
objectives indicator of verification assumption Mitigation
To reduce fresh Ensure Safe and potable water Low salinity water quality test
water salinity permissible is maintained, aquatic reports fromFECCA/
values
problem across salinity standard ecosystem is RVLBDO , Water
the basin of fresh water by bureaus
maintained,
2034
socioeconomic use of
water is enhanced
To conserve and Fully restored and improved water No of restored Assessment reports, case Lack of clear Developing
restore wetlands protected wetlands quality and quality, wetlands in the study reports from policy of policy and
in the basin in the basin by sub basin MoWIE, ONS & wetland
sustain biodiversity, SNNPRS Water resource
legal
2034 framework
enhanced bureau, and RVLBDO
socioeconomic benefit

To prevent Delineate 80% of Reduce siltation, Reduced Assessment report Land use Awareness
lakeshore water bodies in the agrochemical eutrophication conflicts creation,
cultivation basin by 2034 pollution, effective
directives,
participatory
leadership
Goal 3: Improve To protect water Reduce 80% of silt The lakes and riverine Increased lake Stakeholders annual Lack of .Institutionalize
water resource bodies from inflow into water water resources volume. report, field surveys adequate d resources
conservation, siltation/sedimentat bodies by 2034 environment restored sustainable mobilization
Restored aquatic
potential and ion investment put in place
. biodiversity
financing .Adoption of
community
basin plan by
livelihood in the Weak
stakeholders
basin through stakeholder
and
integrated s
implementation
watershed commitme
action through
nt to
management and the Basin High
implement
Rangeland Council &
basin plan
management for RBLBDO

294
 Specific Outcome Data source & Means Risk and Risk
Goals Targets Outcome
objectives indicator of verification assumption Mitigation
sustainable To improve surface 75% of all water reducedwater scarcity, .Access to water Water sector report, CSA Frequent Drought early
social, economic and ground water demand met by water use conflicts and supply,Social report, socio economic drought warning &
and potential 2034. improvement socio stability, increase survey preparedness,
environmental, economic of per capita Promotion of
income waterharvesting
benefits.
technologies
&waterefficient
irrigation
To increase the by 2034 Improved awareness of • Water use Stakeholders participation Lack of skilled • Establish
capacity of stakeholders fully stakeholders on IWRM conflict reduced assessment report and institutions
stakeholders engaged in project • Water use experienced
management efficiency manpower
increased
To rehabilitate Significantly control • Decline of siltation Improved water water quality test reports Climate Frequent
severely degraded land degradation and sedimentation quality of the main change impact monitoring and
watersheds through watershed • Soil fertility water bodies evaluation of
management improved watershed
practice by 2034 works

To improve the Poverty reduced in livelihoods diversified, Socio economic Report from CSA, Plan Inflation .Increase saving
livelihood of the 60% and food self- reduced pressure on improvement , commission, Finance and habit
.
community sufficiency secured natural and economic economic development
by 2034 transformation offices
To develop the Employment livelihoods diversified, Socio economic Report from CSA, Plan Inflation .Increase saving
non-Agricultural opportunity reduced pressure on improvement , commission, Finance and habit
.
sector of the increased by 2034 natural and economic economic development
economy transformation offices
To preserve and Preserve and Preserved and Favorable Assessment reports, Natural and Community
enhance productive enhance the productive ecological environment for performance evaluation manmade bylaws to
capacity of productive capacity functions the flora and fauna reports and case study hazards (i.e. preserve the
ecological of the ecology of of the ecology reports from land slide ecology
•Sustained ecological
functions the sub basin to 80% seasonal forest
functions serving the •sustainable use of MoWIE, ONS Irrigation •Awareness
by 2034 fire)
watershed Authority, SNNPRS creations of the

295
 Specific Outcome Data source & Means Risk and Risk
Goals Targets Outcome
objectives indicator of verification assumption Mitigation
generation functions Water community

Goal 4: Reduce To Enhance Climate Change • Improved Forest • Good climate Assessment reports, Climate Climate
drought Resilient land cover and rain fall performance evaluation change change
flood, drought
preparedness and community by • Increased pattern reports and case study adaptation
Drought
and invasive climate change 2034 Adaptation • Flood and reports from measures
adaptation • Enhance Early Drought Flood
species risks in MoWIE, O/N/S &
interventions Warning and controlled
SNNPRS Water
the basin to Response • Social and
resource bureau and
economic
improve social, RVLBDO,
development
economic and of the basin
• Productivity
environmental
To Coordinate DRR of • Increased Early • Flood and Assessmentreports, Community Enhance
benefits planning and communityimprov Warning drought performance evaluation Capacity to Capacity by
design of Flood ed 80% by 2034 • Increase in Early managed reports and case study response Income and
and drought Response • reduction in reports from Risk Knowledge
preparedness, • Community Risk
MoWIE, O/N/S Sudden Allocating or
mitigation and sustainability • Risk
&SNNPRS and Flood Securing
emergency • Decreased risk Responsivene
RVLBDO, Enough
response event ss Finance
Budget
activities at Basin
and Sub-basin
levels
To Strengthen the Ensure community • Enhance • Mass Assessment reports, Lack of Awareness
access, use and participation Participation case study reports from awareness creation &
Knowledge on
understanding of • Conduct to manage risk MoWIE, ONS & support
DRR And
DRR and climate indigenous skill • Practicing SNNPRS Agricultural,
information Develop
information and Ownership knowledge and RVLBDO,
centerWeak information
through • Enhance risk • Flood and
knowledge center
consolidationand Prediction Capacity Drought
on
dissemination control Capacitate
dissemination

296
 Specific Outcome Data source & Means Risk and Risk
Goals Targets Outcome
objectives indicator of verification assumption Mitigation
culture information
dissemination
culture
To implement Restore degraded Rehabilitate degraded  Rehabilitate Regional co-operative Climate Conduct
integrated watersheds and watershed & d watershed office, Change adaptation and
watershed rangeland, rangeland resources to  Developed mitigation
management 80% by 2034, rangeland
programs for  Access to Regional irrigation Weakness of
Reducedwater
To protect water water Authority, legal fream Adupt/Improv
efficient bodies from
scarcity, water use
work e
supply,Socia
management conflicts and
siltation/sedimenta l stability, legalfremwork
and utilization improvement socio Weak
tion increase of Water use and user
of flood water; economic ownership Enhance
per capita assessment report.
ownership
Soil erosion reduced, income
soil fertility improved
and Agricultural
productivity enhanced
To develop flood Improve carrying Reduce flood risk, Siltation Regional irrigation High Rain Frequent
protection capacity of river Authority, fall monitoring
Water quality
infrastructures channels and evaluation
improved Water use and user
and maintain Synchronization of of treatment
Capacitate river assessment report.
river banks; floods Reduced Flood plant
bank and
M % E Report
Embankment,
flood wall
RVLBD

To implement Ensure Safe and potable Low salinity water quality test
permissible water is reports from
buffering on values Weakenes delop
salinity maintained, FECCA/B,
s of modern
water bodies standard of aquatic ecosystem RVLBDO, Water
modernla labouratory
fresh water by is maintained,

297
 Specific Outcome Data source & Means Risk and Risk
Goals Targets Outcome
objectives indicator of verification assumption Mitigation
(wetlands, 2034 socioeconomic use bureaus bouratory
of water is
rivers, Lakes enhanced
etc.) against
intervention for
unsustainable
development
purposes.

Goal 5: To To improve Better Attitudinal change Willingness of Consultation meetings,

ensure active public awareness understanding of towards water the stakeholder workshops,
stakeholder on water efficient water management toward efficient memorandum of
participation in resources utilization among water use understanding
planning, management and publics in the sub-
optimal use basin
decision
making, To strengthen Enhance Successful watershed Rehabilitated Reports from
implementation, stakeholder’s participatory management practice watershed Agricultural and natural
monitoring and participation on watershed resource bureau,
evaluation of watershed management FECCA, RVLBDO
IWRM. management
To implement Legal framework Environment friendly Healthy Environmental audit
legal framework respected by all economic environment report
related to stakeholders development
pollution control
through
stakeholder
participation

298
 Table 73: Strategic goals, Objectives and Detailed activities

Specific Major Activities Implementation period Implementing institutions

objectives
Goals ( Actions to be taken) unit Qty
2020- 2025- 2030- leading collaborators
2024 2029 2034
Goal 1: To ensure water MoWIE, NGOs,
Region, Knowledge
Enhance availability and resource Assess water scarce areas zone, institutions
optimum utilization of availability in the and identify alternative No 4 4 woreda
water resources in the basin sources in all sub basins of documen administrati
basin for sustainable the basin t on, water
social, economic and
and
environmental benefits
agricultural
sectors,
RVLBDO,
BDA,
Community
MoWIE, NGOs,
Region, Knowledge
Construct surface water RVLBDO, institutions
resource enhancing No 63 20 23 20 BDA,
structures in water scarce Regional
areas of the basin Water
Bureaus
Develop groundwater No 6 2 2 2 MoWIE, NGOs,
schemes RVLBDO, Knowledge
BDA, institutions
Strengthen community % 75 25 50 75 Regional NGOs,
water harvesting capacity water and Knowledge
with rainwater harvest agriculture institutions
technology sectors,
BDA,

299
 RVLBDO

Develop legal frame work No 1 1 RVLBDO, Regional Water

for wetlands conservation documen BDA, Bureaus, NGOs,
To improve the
t
recharging
capacity of the Assess the existing wetland No. of 57 16 21 20 RVLBDO, Regional
catchment &flow issue and Prioritize wetland BDA, Bureaus of Water
of the rivers wetlands to be restored Regional & Agriculture
and zonal NGOs,
water and
environment
al sectors
sectors
Develop Appropriate No. of RVLBDO, NGOs,
mitigation measures for wetland BDA, Knowledge
57 16 21 20
wetlands management MEFCC, institutions
Regional
and zonal
water and
environment
al sectors
sectors
Define Management zones No. of 57 16 21 20 RVLBDO, NGOs,
and delineating Wetland wetland BDA, Knowledge
boundaries MEFCC, institutions
Regional
and zonal
water and
environment
al sectors
sectors
Awareness Raising on Noof RVLBDO, NGOs,
benefits of Wetlands and training BDA, Knowledge
30 10 10 10
buffer zone protection programs MEFCC institutions

300
 Rehabilitate degraded % 70 20 50 70 RVLBDO, Regional
wetlands BDA, Bureaus of Water
environment & Agriculture
al sectors NGOs,
Demarcate Lakes and rivers No of 40 14 13 13 RVLBDO, Regional Water
buffer zone Lakes & BDA, BHC, Bureaus,
Rivers Environmental
Authority
To improve Assess the irrigation No 4 4 RVLBDO, NGOs,
irrigation water potential of all sub sub documen BDA, Knowledge
use efficiency in basins of the basin t Irrigation institutions,
the basin commission consulting firm
MoWIE,
Regional
Irrigation
Agency
Study irrigation efficiency No 4 2 2 " "
in all sub basins of the basin documen
t

Assess attitude and capacity No 1 1 " "

of water user on efficient documen
irrigation technology t

Build technical capacity of % 75 25 50 75 " "

investors/smallholder
farmers about irrigation
technologies
Establish demonstrating site No 7 3 3 1 " "
for efficient irrigation
technologies
Enhance drainage system on % 70 30 50 70 " "
the irrigation schemes
constructed across the Rivers

301
To ensure Assess and calculate No of 4 2 2 RVLBDO, NGOs,
effective and seasonal and annual total documen BDA,Regio Knowledge
equitable water water availability in all sub t nal Water institutions,
use in the basin basins of the basin Bureaus, consulting firm
Assess all type of water No of 4 2 2 " "
demands and demand documen
management system t
Develop water allocation No 4 2 2 " "
plan for all sub basins of the documen
basin t

Entitle water for all water % 80 50 70 80 RVLBDO, Regional Water

demand. BDA, Bureaus,
Permit water use license No 40 10 15 15 RVLBDO, Investment
BDA, Agency,
Environmental
Authority
Develop water use Noof 1 1 BDA, knowledge
monitoring and regulation documen MoWIE, institution,
guideline t NGOs,
consulting firm
Develop water use conflict No of 1 1 BDA, knowledge
management strategy documen RVLBDO, institution,
t NGOs,
consulting firm
To improve public Identify gaps on water Noof 1 1 RVLBDO, Woreda, zone,
awareness on resource management and documen MOWIE, regional water
water resources utilization t BDA sectors, NGOs,
management and knowledge
optimal use institution,
Apply Researches, % 70 50 65 70 " "
innovations, Trainings,
demonstrations, technology

302
 dissemination, on water
resources managements
Establish and strengthen Regional BDA, RVLBDO,
Water Resources User Water NGOs,
No 6 2 2 2
Associations/WRUAs/ Bureaus,
WRUAs
Regional
Cooperative
Agency
Identify gaps and Prepare No RVLBDO, Woreda water
capacity building trainings Tinning BDA offices,
30 10 10 10
on the benefit of WRUAs programs cooperative
offices, NGOs
Upgrade existing manual Noof 44 16 15 13 RVLBDO, knowledge
and automatic hydro- stations MOWIE, institution, and
To improve
meteorological gauging BDA NGOs
Hydro-
stations
Meteorological
and Basin Establish new automatic No of 35 12 16 7 RVLBDO, knowledge
information hydro-meteorological stations BDA and institution, and
system gauging stations NMA NGOs
Conducting bathometric No of 2 1 1 RVLBDO, Regional water
survey on Lakes Lakes BDA sectors, NGOs,
knowledge
institution,
Establish hydro- No of 1 1 RVLBDO, NGOs,
meteorological data base documen BDA knowledge
system ts institution,
consulting firm
Goal 2: Improve the To prevent Review water quality No of 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO , Regional
quality of water resource industrial standards for rural, Documen MoFCCEP FCCEPB,
in the basin for sustainable agricultural and municipal and irrigation t knowledge,
social, economic and municipal water supplies institutes,
environmental, benefits. effluents
NGOs

303
Identify type and extent of No of 142 48 48 46 RVLBDO
pollution from existing and source
proposed sources
Establish administrative No. of 142 48 48 46 RVLBDO Wastewater
procedures for discharge industries discharging
permit /licensing system as industries ,
per regulations Regional
FCCEPB
Prepare Guidelines for No of 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO , Wastewater
design of wastewater Guidelin Regional discharging
treatment, disposal and reuse e FCCEPB industries ,
facilities. Regional
FCCEPB
Plan and implement No. of 30 10 10 10 Town MEFCC
adequate solid waste towns Municipalit
RVLBDO
disposal site for main towns. y, regional
urban dev’t
bureau
Provide equipment and No of 1 1 Wastewater Regional
facilities that enhance the Lab discharging
FCCEPB ,
water quality monitoring and industries
RVLBDO
regulating capacity of
relevant institutions
Build/improve urban No of 30 10 10 10 Town RVLBDO ,
sewerage management towns administrati
MEFCC
infrastructure for main towns ons
Municipalit
y
Improve treatment efficiency No. of 45 15 15 15 Wastewa Regional
of existing industrial plants industries ter
FCCEPB ,
to meet effluent standards dischargi
RVLBDO
ng
industrie

304
 s

Organize awareness raising No. of 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, Local authorities,

programs on water pollution program MEFCC
Public, industries

To reduce fresh Assess major pollutant No of 22 7 7 8 RVLBDO NGOs, Local

water salinity contributing to water salinity doc. authorities.
MEFCC
problem across the
Knowledge
basin
institutes
Produce water quality map RVLBDO,
No of Knowledge
for rivers, Lakes, 9 3 3 3 water
packages institutes
groundwater bureau
monitoring salinity No of 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO , NGOs, Local
problems associated with projects Irrigation authorities.
irrigation projects authorities,
Knowledge
institutes
MEFCC
To ensure NGOs,
RVLBDO,
Environmental Implement Agro-chemical Knowledge
% 85 50 65 85 Environmen
friendly pollutant permit standard Institutions,
tal authority
Agricultural MoFEC
practices
NGOs,
Increase public awareness on RVLBDO,
Knowledge
cause and means of % 90 60 80 90 Environmen
Institutions,
environmental pollution tal authority
MEFCC
To conserve and Establishing permanent No of 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO , Local
restore wetlands in learning and practice trainin Authorities,
the basin alliances (LPA) with g
stakeholders Community,

305
Regulating the illegal No. of 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO , MEFCC
settlements round

Assess the existing wetland No. of 55 15 20 20 RVLBDO , Local

issue and Prioritize wetla Authorities,
wetlands to be restored nd
Community,

Awareness Raising on No .of 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO , MEFCC,

benefits of Wetlands and training
Buffer zone

Develop Appropriate No. of 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO MEFCC

mitigation measures for wetland
wetlands management
No .of MoFEC, Natural
Demarcate Lakes and rivers
Lakes 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO resources,
buffer zone
&river Agriculture
Develop legal and policy
MoFEC, Natural
inputs on buffer zone No of
50 15 14 21 RVLBDO resources,
demarcation and wetland wetlands
Agriculture
management
Reduction of sediment No of 1.5mil 0.5 0.5 0.5 RVLBDO MEFCC Rural
transport into the wetland Tones land use
Administration.
Enhancing groundwater RVLBDO MEFCC Rural
recharge: hydrologic M3 3 1 1 1 land use
restoration Administration.
Establishing permanent No of 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO Local
learning and practice training Authorities,
alliances (LPA) with
stakeholders Community,

306
 To establish water Establish permanent water No of 92 27 27 38 RVLBDO MoFED,
quality monitoring quality monitoring sites for sites
system in the surface and ground water
basin Develop water quality No. of 4 - 4 - RVLBDO MoFED,
monitoring database in sub database
basin level
Establish water quality No 1 1 - - RVLBDO MoFED
Laboratory and fulfil the
necessary facility
To prevent Develop lake shore No. of Council BoANR
lakeshore management legal frame legal of
7 2 2 3 Local Authorities
cultivation work documen ministers
,
t
BHC,RV
LBDO
MoWIE
Delineate the Lakeshore [Link] MoANR, Local Authorities
with adequate buffer zone Lakes to Land
7 2 2 3
be Admin.A
delineate uthor
d
Organize awareness raising No .of 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, Local Authorities
program for all stakeholders program MoANR,
Land
[Link]
ori
Goal 3: Improve water Prepare watershed Undertake sub basin ha 1mil 0.33 0.33 0.34 RVLBDO, Local Authorities
resource conservation, management plan stakeholder consultation to MoANR,
potential and community for priority identify major and priority Land
livelihood in the basin catchments catchments in the basin [Link]
through integrated ori

307
watershed management Conduct situation analysis No .of 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, Local Authorities
and Rangeland including establishing program MoANR,
management for environmental degradation Land
sustainable social, status [Link]
economic and ori
environmental, benefits.
Implement Support biological diversity Hectares 1mil 0.33 0.34 0.33 RVLBDO, Local Authorities
catchment maintenance and of forest MoANR,
programs and improvement land Land
projects [Link]
particularly on ori
catchment to
Support planning and hectare 100,000 375 375 250 Ministry/bur Ministry/bureau/
conserve, restore,
implementation of soil and eau of Authority
enhance and
water conservation programs Agriculture MFECC,
maintain healthy
and Natural community
environment.
resources, NGO, CBO,
RVLBDO private
companies
knowledge
institutions
To protect water Identify erosion hotspot area % 100 40 75 100 RVLBDO, Regional
bodies from and major silt routes in the BDO, Agriculture
siltation/sedimenta basin Bureaus,
tion Knowledge
institutions,
NGOs,
Construct silt trap on the No 50 15 20 15 RVLBDO, Regional
major routes BDO, Bureaus of Water
& Agriculture
NGOs,
Implement gully treatment hec. 3mill 0.75 1.5 0.75 RVLBDO, Regional
activities BDO, Bureaus of
Agriculture
NGOs,

308
 Reforest buffer zone of lakes No 7 2 3 2 RVLBDO, Regional
BDO, Bureaus of
Agriculture
NGOs,
To improve Conserve existing forests in hec. 95,000 25,00 40,000 30,000 RVLBDO, Regional of
surface and the basin 0 BDO, Agriculture,
ground water Forest and
potential Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
Implement afforestation and % 70 20 50 70 RVLBDO, Regional of
reforestation on deforested BDO, Agriculture,
area in the basin Forest and
Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
Develop land use plan to Documen 1 1 RVLBDO, Regional of
manage land use/cover t BDO, Agriculture,
change Forest and
Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
Develop forest management Documen 1 1 RVLBDO, Regional of
guideline relevant to basin t BDO, Agriculture,
Forest and
Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
Develop Identify relevant catchment No of 15 5 5 5 Ministry/bur community
appropriate protection and management Training eau of NGO, CBO,
awareness raising topics or issues, devise documen Agriculture private
techniques and appropriate methods of t and Natural companies,
implement information dissemination resources, knowledge
awareness and conduct awareness RVLBDO,

309
programs focused programs. Ministry/bur institutions
on catchment eau/Authorit
protection and y MFECC
managements
Develop watershed No 15 5 5 5 Ministry/bur community
education activities and Educatio eau of NGO, CBO,
Establish education n activity Agriculture private
networks and Natural companies,
resources, knowledge
RVLBDO, institutions
Ministry/bur
eau/Authorit
y MFECC
Establish baseline on No of 3 1 1 1 Ministry/bur community
awareness level of Baseline eau of NGO, CBO,
community and society on documen Agriculture private
catchments degradation and t and Natural companies,
protection issue. resources, knowledge
RVLBDO, institutions
Ministry/bur
eau/Authorit
y MFECC
Identify the most important No of 3 1 1 1 Ministry/bur community
knowledge gaps in public Documen eau of NGO, CBO,
servants, CBO’s and t Agriculture private
communities on catchment and Natural companies,
protection resources, knowledge
RVLBDO, institutions
and management
Ministry/bur
eau/Authorit
y MFECC
To restore Identify and map degraded % 100 40 70 100 RVLBDO, Regional of
degraded lands in the basin BDO, Agriculture,
watersheds Forest and

310
 Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
Implement physical and hec 2.8mil. 0.75 1.3 0.75 RVLBDO, Regional of
biological works on the BDO, Agriculture,
degraded lands Forest and
Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
Implement area closure hec. 4000 1500 1000 1500 RVLBDO, Regional of
BDO, Agriculture,
Forest and
Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
To enhance Range Assess and document local Documen 1 1 RVLBDO, Regional bureau
land management best practice on Range land t BDO, of Agriculture,
system management system Forest and
Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
Promote and Disseminate % 100 20 60 100 RVLBDO, Regional bureau
local best practice on Range BDO, of Agriculture,
land management Forest and
throughout the basin Environment
Authority,
NGOs,
Reduce over grazing through % 70 20 45 70 RVLBDO, Regional bureau
modernizing livestock BDO, of livestock &
feeding system fishery dev’t,
Pastoral
Commission,
NGOs,

311
 To improve Assess appropriate income Documen 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, Regional bureau
livelihood of the generating activities t BDO, of Agriculture &
community in the Urban food
basin security and
Entrepreneurship
Agency
Diversify income generating % 70 25 50 70 Regional RVLBDO, BDO,
activities bureau of
Agriculture
& Urban
food
security and
Entrepreneu
rship
Agency
Job creation through Hh no. 3.004mi 1 1.004 1 RVLBDO, Regional bureau
watershed management ll. BDO, of Agriculture
Goal 4: Reduce flood, To Enhance Facilitate local development No of 15 5 5 5 MoWIE, NGOs,
drought plans Plan BDA knowledge
drought and invasive
preparedness and RVLBDO, institution, werda
species risks in the basin to climate change Regional disaster and risk
adaptation and Werda management.
improve social, economic
interventions Agricultural
and environmental benefits office, ,
Mainstream drought and No 15 5 5 5 MoWIE, RVLBDO, NGO,
flood risk reduction, climate BDA agriculture
change adaptation and social RVLBDO, &natural
protection Regional resource
and Werda
Agricultural
office,
Improve forest land cover Hr 20,000 7000 7000 6000 RVLBDO, Water bureaus,
and afforestation activity MoWIE, NGO, Job
agriculture creation office,

312
 &natural Agriculture
resource
Develop Early warning and No of 1 1 - - RVLBDO, Water bureaus,
response mechanism documen National Water bureaus,
guideline t DRR NGO, Job
commotion creation office,
MoWIE, Agriculture
agriculture
& natural
resource
Create employment No of 60,000 20000 20000 20000 RVLBDO, Water bureaus,
opportunitiesImprove HH MoWIE, Water bureaus,
community HH asset and agriculture NGO, Job
livelihood &natural creation office,
resource, Agriculture
Job Creation
Office
Enhance Range land Hr 10,000 6000 6000 8000 RVLBDO, Water bureaus,
management system MoWIE, NGO, Job
agriculture creation office,
&natural Agriculture
resource,
Job Creation
Office
Improve public awareness No of 60 20 20 20 RVLBDO, Water bureaus,
on the importance of Training MoWIE, NGO,
integrated forest agriculture Agriculture,
management & natural Knowledge
resource, institute
Job Creation
Office,
University
and Reserch

313
To Coordinate Conduct an assessment of No of 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO,& Water bureaus,
planning and available data and forecasts Assessm BDA, NGO, knowledge
design of drought for drought and Flood ent MoWIE, Center
preparedness, Agriculture,
mitigation and National and
emergency Regional
response activities DRR
at Basin and Sub-
basin levels
Mobilize adequate financial No 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO,& NGO, knowledge
resources support BDA, Center
communities to mobilize MoWIE,
finances for DRR and Agriculture,
climate change adaptation National and
Regional
DRR
,
Prepare technical No 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, NGO,
documentation to control Documen MoWIE,
and monitor the work t Meteorologi
process of flood protection cal office,
structures Agriculture
Develop flood No Plan 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO,& NGO
management plan BDA,
MoWIE,
Agriculture,
National and
Regional
DRR
Institutionalize proper No 8 3 2 3 RVLBDO,& NGOs,
financial management BDA, knowledge
systems in the Basin MoWIE, intuitions, water
Agriculture, works
National and enterprises.

314
 Regional
DRR
Ensure drought actions are Documen 1 1 - - RVLBDO,& NGOs,
in line with shared standards t BDA, knowledge
and guidelines MoWIE, intuitions
Agriculture,
National and
Regional
DRR

To implement Conduct a study on socio- No of 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO,& NGOs,

integrated economic status and documen BDA, knowledge
watershed environmental situation of t MoWIE, intuitions,
management the watershed; Agriculture,
programs for National and
efficient Regional
management and DRR
utilization of flood
water
Restoring degraded land Hr 90,000 30,00 30,000 30,000 RVLBDO,& NGOs,
channel improvement 0 BDA, knowledge
activities on flood prone MoWIE, intuitions,
areas Agriculture
National and
Regional
DRR

Allocating specific grazing RVLBDO, NGOs,

lands Regional knowledge
50,000 15,00 20,000
15,000 Agri intuitions, water
0
Hr works
enterprises.

315
Diversion of flood and water No 150 50 50 50 RVLBDO, NGOs
harvesting measures (store Regional
flood water) by constructing Agri
different structures (ponds, Agriculture
reservoirs etc.) and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
irrigation
office,
Timely maintenance of the Round 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, NGOs
irrigation system and Regional
adoption of a crop Agri
stabilization strategy Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
irrigation
office,
Conduct biological soil and Hr 50,000 15,00 15000 20000 RVLBDO, NGOs
water conservation works on 0 BDA
flood prone areas Regional
Agri
Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
Improve consultation, No 45 15 15 15 RVLBDO, NGO
participation and networking Consu BDA
of stakeholders ltation Regional
Agri
Agriculture
and natural

316
 resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
Identify potential site for No 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, NGO
irrigation, range land and assessme BDA
forage production, domestic nt Regional
and livestock water supply Agri
Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
Propose policy measures and No Doc 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, NGO
legal frameworks on flood BDA
water management Regional
Agri
Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
To develop flood Conduct preliminary survey No 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, NGO
protection and investigation to identify survey BDA
infrastructures and the level and frequency of Regional
maintain river flood occurrence and its Agri
banks impact Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
irrigation
Design and Construct flood No Doc 150 50 50 50 RVLBDO, NGO, knowledge
control structure BDA center/institute
Regional

317
 Agri
Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
irrigation
Rehabilitate and maintain Ha 15000 5000 5000 5000 RVLBDO, NGO,
river banks BDA
Regional
Agri
Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
irrigation
Perform adaptive river bank % 90 50 75 90 RVLBDO, NGO
protection works BDA
Regional
Agri
Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
irrigation
To implement Study land use land cover No Study 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, NGO,
buffering on water charge related to climatic BDA
bodies (wetlands, and rainfall Pattern Regional
rivers, Lakes etc.) Agriculture
against and
intervention for
Perform Construction % 100 50 75 100 RVLBDO, NGO,
unsustainable
structures away from flood BDA

318
development routes Regional
purposes Agri
Agriculture
and natural
resource,
RVLBDO,
regional
irrigation
Study point and nonpoint No Study 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, NGO,
sources of pollution and BDA
Sampling Regional
and natural
resource,
Water Beuro
Survey and review the socio- Doc 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, NGO,
economic situation BDA
Regional
and natural
resource,
Implement appropriate No Water 7 7 - - RVLBDO, NGO,
buffering measures/actions/ body BDA
on water bodies Regional
and natural
resource,
Regularly monitor on the No 180 60 60 60 RVLBDO, NGO,
effectiveness of buffer zone Monitori BDA
delineation ng Regional
and natural
resource,
To Strengthen the Conduct awareness /skill gap No 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, NGO,
Community to assessment among different Training BDA
access, use and stakeholders DRR Regional
understanding of and natural

319
DRR and climate resource,
information
through Performing institutional % 100 50 75 100 RVLBDO, NGO,
consolidationand networking for DRR BDA
dissemination Regional
and natural
resource,
Conduct trainings on No 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, NGO,
adaptive technologies on Training BDA
flood risk management and Regional
DRR and natural
resource,
Establish basin wide disaster No 4 4 - - RVLBDO, NGO,
risk reduction Committ BDA
council/steering committee/ ee Regional
and natural
resource,
National
DRR
Conduct flood water user No 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, NGO,
forum Forum BDA
Regional
and natural
resource,
Conduct regular observation No 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, NGO,
on gap and success of observati BDA
response operation on Regional
and natural
resource,
Agriculture,
DRR
Ensure effective M&E and No M&E 180 60 60 60 RVLBDO, NGO,
reporting guidelines on BDA
Regional

320
 drought and flood actions and natural
resource,
Agriculture,
DRR
Sustainable Water Assess weed status and Plan No Ass 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, NGO,
hyacinth proper activities prioritizing BDA
protection and areas of weed infestation Regional
control and natural
resource,
Agriculture,
DRR
Initiation and Coordinate No 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, NGO,
stakeholders Consultat BDA
ion Regional
and natural
resource,
Agriculture,
DRR
Conduct Community No 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, NGO,
mobilization and awareness Training BDA
raising on the impacts of Regional
water hyacinth and and natural
controlling strategies resource,
Agriculture,
DRR
Organize removal campaign No Camp 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, NGO,
and Carryout Manual BDA
removal using labor force Regional
and natural
resource,
Agriculture,
DRR
Coordinate, execute and No M & 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, NGO,
monitor weed control and BDA

321
 lake management efforts E Regional
and natural
resource,
Agriculture,
DRR
Capacitate technical experts, No 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, NGO
fishery teams and conduct Training BDA
experience sharing Regional
and natural
resource,
Agriculture,
DRR
Goal 5: Ensure active To improve public RVLBDO, MoWIE,Ethiopian
stakeholder participation in awareness on water Ministry of Wildlife,
Assessment of awareness gap No of 15 3 3 3
planning, decision making, resources water, Conservation
on water resources management document
implementation, management and irrigation and Authority,
optimal use electric city, Ethiopian
monitoring and evaluation
Horticulture
of IWRM Development
Agency
Organize and validate gap No of 45 15 15 15 RVLBDO, MoWIE, ,
filling workshops and capacity workshop Ministry of
Knowledge
building trainings for each level s and water,
institute
of stakeholders trainings irrigation and
electric city,

To strengthen Organize experience sharing Number 45 15 15 15 RVLBDO, MoFEC and

stakeholder’s programs on best IWM of Woreda different NGOs,
participation on practices programs Agriculture different type of
watershed and natural media centers
management resource
office,
Organize and validate gap Number 60 20 20 20 RVLBDO , MoWIE, ,
filling workshops and capacity of MOFED and knowledge
building trainings for each level workshop different institutes
of stakeholders s and NGOs

322
 trainings

To implement legal Organize awareness creation Number 45 15 15 15 RVLBDO MoFEC, different

framework related programs to engage of and different NGOs , MoWIE,
to pollution control stakeholders in legal programs type of media , Ethiopian
through stakeholder enforcement centers Agricultural
participation Research Institute
Establish stakeholder forum Number 8 2 3 3 RVLBDO MoWIE, ,
of forum and ,Ministry Ethiopian Central
of Statistics Agency,
Environmenta Ethiopian
l Protection, Geological Survey,
Forestry, and Federal Investment
Climate Commission,
Change, Institute of Bio-
Diversity,
Ethiopian Wildlife
Conservation
Authority

323
 Table 74: Strategic Objectives, Major activities and Budget estimation
No Description of Goals, Unit Qty. Estimated budget in mil. Birr Responsible
Objectives and Major body
Unit Total 2020- 2024- 2029-
activities
2024 2028 2033
price Price
Goal 1 Enhance availability and
optimum utilization of
water resources in the basin
for sustainable social,
economic and
environmental benefits

1.1 To ensure water resource

availability in the basin
Assess water scarce areas and No of 4 2 8 8 RVLBDO, BDA,
identify alternative sources documents
in all sub basins of the basin
Construct surface water No 63 2 126 40 46 40 RVLBDO, BDA,
resource enhancing structures
in water scarce areas of the
basin
Develop groundwater No 6 4 24 8 8 8 MoWIE, RVLBDO,
schemes BDA,
Strengthen community water % 75 0.6 45 15 15 15 MoWIE, RVLBDO,
harvesting capacity with BDA,
rainwater harvest technology

1.2 To improve the recharging 0

capacity of the catchment
&flow of the rivers

324
 Develop legal frame work for No of 1 3 3 3 RVLBDO, BDA,
wetlands conservation document
Assess the existing wetland Noof wetland 57 0.5 28.5 8 10.5 10 RVLBDO, BDA,
issue and Prioritize wetlands
to be restored
Develop Appropriate Noof wetland 57 0.8 45.6 12.8 16.8 16 RVLBDO, BDA,
mitigation measures for
wetlands management

Define Management zones Noof wetland 57 0.6 34.2 9.6 12.6 12 RVLBDO, BDA,
and delineating Wetland
boundaries

Awareness Raising on No of training 30

benefits of Wetlands and programs
0.45 13.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
buffer zone protection

Rehabilitate degraded % 70 0.6 42 12 18 12

wetlands

Demarcate Lakes and rivers No of Lakes 18 2.5 45 15 15 15

buffer zone &Rivers

1.3 To improve irrigation 0

water use efficiency in the
basin
Assess the irrigation potential No document 4 3.8 15.2 15.2 RVLBDO, BDA,
of all sub sub basins of the
basin
Study irrigation efficiency No document 4 2.5 10 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA,
in all sub basins of the basin
Assess attitude and capacity No document 1 4 4 4 RVLBDO, BDA,
of water user on efficient BHC,
irrigation technology

325
 Build technical capacity of
investors/smallholder farmers
% 75 0.6 45 15 15 12
about irrigation technologies
Establish demonstrating site No 7 5.7 39.9 17.1 17.1 5.7
for efficient irrigation
technologies
Enhance drainage system on
the irrigation schemes
% 70 0.85 59.5 25.5 17 17
constructed across the Rivers
1.4 To ensure effective and 0
equitable water use in the
basin

Assess and calculate No of 4 9.7 38.8 19.4 19.4 RVLBDO, BDA,

seasonal and annual total Document nt MoWIE,
water availability in all sub
basins of the basin
Assess all type of water No of 4 7.5 30 15 15 RVLBDO, BDA,
demands and demand Document MoWIE,
management system
Develop water allocation No of 4 7.8 31.2 15.6 15.6 RVLBDO, BDA,
plan for all sub basins of the Document nt MoWIE,
basin
Entitle water for all water % 80 1.5 120 75 30 30 RVLBDO, BDA,
demand MoWIE,
Permit water use license No 40 0.2 8 2 3 3 RVLBDO, BDA,
MoWIE,
Develop water use No of 1 3.4 3.4 3.4 RVLBDO, BDA,
monitoring and regulation Document MoWIE,
guideline

326
 Develop water use conflict No of 1 2.7 2.7 2.7
management strategy Document
1.5 To improve public 0
awareness on water
resources management and
optimal use
Identify gaps on water No of 1 2.3 2.3 2.3 RVLBDO, BDA,
resource management and document
utilization
Apply Researches, % 70 1.4 98 70 21 7 RVLBDO, BDA,
innovations, Trainings,
demonstrations, technology
dissemination, on water
resources managements

Establish and strengthen No WRUAs 6 3.75 22.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 RVLBDO, BDA,
Water Resources User
Associations/WRUAs/
Identify gaps and Prepare No Tinning 30 1 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO,
capacity building trainings on programs
the benefit of WRUAs
1.6 To improve Hydro- 0
Meteorological and Basin
information system
Upgrade existing manual and No of stations 44 1.7 74.8 27.2 25.5 22.1 Regional Water
automatic hydro- Bureaus, Regional
meteorological gauging Cooperative Agency
stations
Establish new automatic No of stations 35 1.35 47.25 16.2 21.6 9.45 RVLBDO, BDA
hydro-meteorological
gauging stations

327
 Conducting bathometric No of Lakes 2 1 2 1 1
survey on Lakes
Establish hydro- No of 1 2.3 2.3 2.3
meteorological data base documents
system
Sub total 1101.65
Goal 2 Improve the quality of
water resource in the basin
for sustainable social,
economic and
environmental benefits.
2.1 To prevent industrial
agricultural and municipal
effluents
Review water quality No Docu 15 1 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO
standards for rural, municipal
and
irrigation water supplies
Identify type and extent of No of sources 142 1.5 33 11 11 1.83 MoWIE, RVLBDO
pollution from existing and
proposed sources
Establish administrative No of 142 1 3 1 1 1 MoWIE, RVLBDO
procedures for discharge industrie
permit /licensing system as
per regulations
Prepare Guidelines for design No of Docu 3 2 6 2 2 2 Townadministrations
of wastewater treatment,
Municipality
disposal and reuse facilities.
Plan and implement adequate Noof towns 30 2.5 75 25 25 25
solid waste disposal site for
main towns.

328
 Provide equipment and No of Lab 1 9 9 9 MoEFCC,
facilities that enhance the center REFCCA,
water quality monitoring and RVLBDO
regulating capacity of
relevant institutions
Build/improve urban No of towns 3 2.5 75 25 25 25 Municipality,
sewerage management
infrastructure for main towns
Improve treatment efficiency Noof 45 1.5 67.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 RVLBDO,
of existing industrial plants to industries REFCCA
meet effluent standards
Organize awareness raising No 45 1 45 15 15 1.5
programs on water pollution
2.2 To reduce fresh water 0
salinity problem across the
basin
Assess major pollutant No of Docu 22 2 44 14 14 16 RVLBDO,
contributing to water salinity REFCCA
Produce water quality map No of Package 3 3.2 9.6 3.2 3.2 3.2
for rivers, Lakes,
groundwater
Monitoring salinity problems No of Projects 30 1 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, RIA
associated with irrigation
projects
2.3 To ensure Environmental 0
friendly Agricultural
practices
Implement Agro-chemical % 85 10 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO,
pollutant permit standard REFCCA
Increase public awareness on % 95 3.3 10.8 3.3 3.3 3.3 RVLBDO,
cause and means of REFCCA

329
 environmental pollution
2.4 To conserve and restore 0
wetlands in the sub basin
Establishing permanent No Training 30 1 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO,
learning and practice MoEFCC, REFCCA
alliances (LPA) with
stakeholders
Regulating the illegal No round 15 1.5 22.5 10 6 6.5 MoEFCC, REFCCA
settlements
Assess the existing wetland No 55 0.5 27.5 9.2 9.2 9.2 RVLBDO
issue and Prioritize wetlands REFCCA,
to be restored
Awareness Raising on No Training 30 0.45 13.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 RVLBDO,
benefits of Wetlands and REFCCA
Buffer zone
Develop Appropriate No 30 0.8 24 8 8 8 MoEFCC, REFCCA
mitigation measures for
wetlands management
Demarcate Lakes rivers and No 30 0.6 18 6 6 6 RVLBDO
wetland buffer zone REFCCA,
Reduction of sediment No of Tone 1.5 2.5 3.75 2 1 0.75 RVLBDO, NGO
transport into the wetland
Enhancing groundwater No of m3 1000 1.5 1500 500 500 500 RVLBDO, NGO
recharge: hydrologic
restoration
2.5 To establish water quality 0
monitoring system in the
sub-basin
Establish permanent water No of sites 92 0.65 59.8 17.55 17.55 24.7 MoWIE, RVLBDO,
quality monitoring sites for NGO
surface and ground water

330
 Develop water quality No 4 1.5 6 1.5 1.5 1.5 RVLBDO,
monitoring database in sub REFCCA, MEFCC
basin level
Establish water quality No 1 20 20 20 - - NGO,
Laboratory and fulfil the RVLBDO,BDA
necessary facility
Develop lake shore No regu 3 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 MoWIE, RVLBDO
management legal frame
work
Delineate the Lakeshore with No lakes 7 2.5 17.5 5 5 7.5 MoEFCC,
adequate buffer zone REFCCA,
RVLBDO
Organize awareness raising Noprogram 15 1.5 22.5 10 6 6.5 REFCCA,
program for all stakeholders RVLBDO
Sub-total 2218.55
Goal 3 Improve water resource
conservation, potential and
community livelihood in the
basin through integrated
watershed management and
Rangeland management for
sustainable social, economic
and environmental,
benefits.
3.1. Prepare watershed
management plan for
priority catchments
Undertake sub basin ha 1mil 0.004 400 150 100 150
stakeholder consultation to
identify major and priority
catchments in the basin

331
 Conduct situation analysis No .of 15 13 195 47.5 100 47.5
including establishing program
environmental degradation
status
3.2 Implement catchment 0
programs and projects
particularly on catchment
to conserve, restore,
enhance and maintain
healthy environment.
Support biological diversity Hectares of 1mil 0.002 200 50 100 50
maintenance and forest land
improvement
Support planning and hectare 100,000 0.005 150 45 60 45
implementation of soil and
water conservation programs
3.3 To protect water bodies 0
from
siltation/sedimentation
Identify erosion hotspot area % 100 0.1 10 3.5 4 2.5
and major silt routes in the
basin
Construct silt trap on the No 50 0.3 15 4.5 6 4.5
major routes
Implement gully treatment hec. 3mill 0.0052 134
activities 38 48 48
Reforest buffer zone No 7 1.97 13.8 4.6 4.6 4.6
3.4 To improve surface and 0
ground water potential
Conserve existing forests in hec. 95,000 75 25 38 12 75 RVLBDO, BDO,
the basin

332
 Implement afforestation and % 70 17.5 5 7.5 5 17.5 RVLBDO, BDO,
reforestation on deforested
area in the basin
Develop land use plan to Document 1 3.8 3.8 - - 3.8 RVLBDO, BDO,
manage land use/cover
change
Develop forest management Document 1 2.6 2.6 - - 2.6 RVLBDO, BDO,
guideline relevant to basin
3.5 Develop appropriate 0
awareness raising
techniques and implement
awareness programs
focused on catchment
protection and
managements
Identify relevant catchment No of Training 15 0.5 7.5 3 2.5 2 MoWIE, RVLBDO,
protection and management document NGO
topics or issues, devise
appropriate methods of
information dissemination
and conduct awareness
programs.
Develop watershed education No Education 15 1.5 22.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 MoWIE, RVLBDO,
activities and Establish activity NGO
education networks
Establish baseline on No of Baseline 3 1 3 1 1 1 MoWIE, RVLBDO,
awareness level of document NGO
community and society on
catchments degradation and
protection issue.
Identify the most No of 3 1 3 1 1 1 MoWIE, RVLBDO,
important knowledge gaps Document NGO

333
 in public servants, CBO’s
and communities on
catchment protection
and management
3.6 To restore degraded 0
watersheds
Identify and map degraded % 100 0.18 18 7.2 5.4 5.4 RVLBDO, BDO,
lands in the basin
Implement physical and hec 2.8mil. RVLBDO, BDO,
biological works on the
degraded lands 0.98 4200 1516 2456 698
Implement area closure hec. 4000 0.16 640 240 160 240 RVLBDO, BDO,
3.7. To enhance Range land 0
management system
Assess and document local Document 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 RVLBDO, BDO,
best practice on Range land
management system
Promote and Disseminate % 100 0.08 8 1.6 3.2 3.2 RVLBDO, BDO,
local best practice on Range
land management throughout
the sub basin
Reduce over grazing through % 70 0.27 18.9 5.4 6.75 6.75 RVLBDO, BDO,
modernizing livestock
feeding system
3.8. To improve livelihood of 0
the community in the basin
Assess appropriate income Document 3 0.73 2.19
generating activities
Diversify income generating % 70 0.95 66.35 21 24.35 21
activities

334
 Job creation through Hh No 3.004mill. 40.79 122.542 56 33.271 33.271
watershed management
Sub total 6330.182

Goal Reduce flood, drought and

4: invasive species risks in the
basin to improve social,
economic and
environmental benefits
4.1 To enhance drought
preparedness and climate
change adaptation
interventions
Assess water scarce areas and No 3 1 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, BDA
identify alternative sources Assessment Regional and natural
in the basin resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Facilitate local development No of Plan 15 0.1 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 RVLBDO, BDA
plans Regional and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Mainstream drought and No 15 0.1 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 RVLBDO, BDA
flood risk reduction, climate Regional and natural
change adaptation and social resource,
protection Agriculture, DRR
Improve forest land cover Hr 20,000 0.001 20 6 7 7 RVLBDO, BDA
and afforestation activity Regional and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Develop Early warning and No of 1 0.1 0.5 0.16 0.16 0.16 RVLBDO, BDA
response mechanism document Regional and
guideline natural resource,
Agriculture, DRR

335
 Improve community HH No of HH 60,000 0.0001 30 10 10 10 RVLBDO, BDA
asset and livelihood Regional and
natural resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Enhance Range land Hr 10,000 0.0001 5 2 2 1 RVLBDO, BDA
management system Regional and
natural resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Improve public awareness on No of Training 60 0.01 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 RVLBDO, BDA
the importance of integrated Regional and
forest management natural resource,
Agriculture, DRR
4.2 To Coordinate planning 0
and design of drought
preparedness, mitigation
and emergency
response activities at Basin
and Sub-basin levels
Conduct an assessment of No of 15 0.1 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 RVLBDO, BDA
available data and Assessment Regional and
forecasts for drought and natural resource,
Flood Agriculture, DRR
Mobilize adequate financial No 15 1 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA
resources support Regional and
communities to mobilize natural resource,
finances for DRR and climate Agriculture, DRR
change adaptation
Prepare technical NoDocument 15 0.1 7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 RVLBDO, BDA
documentation to control Regional and
and monitor the work natural resource,
process of flood protection Agriculture, DRR
structures

336
 Develop flood NoPlan 15 0.1 7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 RVLBDO, BDA
management plan Regional and
natural resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Institutionalize proper No 8 0.1 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.2 RVLBDO, BDA ,
financial management MFEC, Regional
systems and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Ensure drought actions are in Doc 1 2 2 2 - - RVLBDO, BDA
line with shared standards Regional and
and guidelines natural resource,
Agriculture, DRR
4.3 To implement integrated 0
watershed management
programs for efficient
management and utilization
of flood water
Conduct a study on socio- No of 5 0.5 2.5 1 1 0.5 RVLBDO, BDA
economic status and document Regional and natural
environmental situation of resource,
the watershed; Agriculture, DRR
Restoring degraded land Hec 90,000 0.001 90 30 30 30 RVLBDO, BDA
channel improvement Regional and natural
activities on flood prone resource,
areas Agriculture, DRR
Allocating specific grazing Hec 50,000 0.001 50 15 15 20 RVLBDO, BDA
lands Regional and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Diversion of flood and water No Str 150 0.1 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA
harvesting measures (store Regional and natural

337
 flood water) by constructing resource,
different structures (ponds, Agriculture, DRR
reservoirs etc.)
Timely maintenance of the Round 30 0.01 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 RVLBDO, BDA
irrigation system and Regional and natural
adoption of a crop resource,
stabilization strategy Agriculture, DRR
Conduct biological soil and Hec. 50,000 0.001 50 15 15 20 RVLBDO, BDA
water conservation works on Regional and natural
flood prone areas resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Improve consultation, No 45 0.01 0.45 0.15 0.15 0.15 RVLBDO, BDA
participation and networking Consultation Regional and natural
of stakeholders resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Identify potential site for No assessment 15 0.1 7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 RVLBDO, BDA
irrigation, range land and Regional and natural
forage production, domestic resource,
and livestock water supply Agriculture, DRR
4.4 To develop flood protection 0
infrastructures and
maintain river banks
Conduct preliminary survey No survey 30 0.5 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA
and investigation to identify Regional and natural
the level and frequency of resource,
flood occurrence and its Agriculture, DRR
impact
Design flood control No Str 150 0.05 7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 RVLBDO, BDA
structure Regional and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Rehabilitate and maintain Hec 15000 0.001 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA
river banks Regional and natural

338
 resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Perform adaptive river bank % 90 0.1 9 3 3 3 RVLBDO, BDA
protection works Regional and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
4.5 To implement buffering on 0
water bodies (wetlands,
rivers, Lakes etc.) against
intervention for
unsustainable development
purposes
Study land use land cover No Study 3 1 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, BDA
charge related to climatic and Regional and natural
rainfall Pattern resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Moving structures away from % 100 0.3 15 4.5 6 4.5 RVLBDO, BDA
flood routes Regional and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Study point and nonpoint No Study 15 0.5 7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 RVLBDO, BDA
sources of pollution Regional and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Survey and review the socio- Doc 3 1 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, BDA
economic situation Regional and natural
resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Implement appropriate No Water 7 4 28 9 9 9 RVLBDO, BDA
buffering measures/actions/ body Regional and natural
on those identified water resource,
bodies Agriculture, DRR

339
 Regularly monitor on the No 180 0.1 18 6 6 6 RVLBDO, BDA
effectiveness of buffer zone Monitoring Regional and natural
delineation and resource,
Agriculture, DRR
4.6 To Strengthen the 0
Community to access, use
and understanding of DRR
and climate information
through consolidationand
dissemination
Conduct awareness /skill gap No Training 30 0.1 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, BDA
assessment among different Regional and natural
stakeholders DRR resource,
Strengthen institutional % 100 0.1 10 3 3 4 RVLBDO, BDA
networking for DRR Regional and natural
resource,
Conduct trainings on No Training 30 0.1 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, BDA
adaptive technologies on Regional and natural
flood risk management resource,
Establish basin wide disaster No Committee 4 1 4 2 1 1 RVLBDO, BDA
risk reduction Regional and natural
council/steering committee/ resource, National
DRR
Conduct flood water user No Forum 30 0.1 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, BDA
forum Regional and natural
resource,
Conduct regular observation No 30 0.1 3 1 1 1 RVLBDO, BDA
on gap and success of observation Regional and natural
response operation resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Ensure effective M&E and No M&E 180 0.1 18 6 6 6 RVLBDO, BDA
reporting guidelines on Regional and natural

340
 drought actions resource,
Agriculture, DRR
Sustainable Water hyacinth 0
4.7
protection and control
Assess weed status and Plan No Ass 15 1 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA
proper activities prioritizing Regional and natural
areas of weed infestation resource,
Agriculture,
Initiation, Map, Coordinate No 30 0.5 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA
and Consultation Consultation Regional and natural
stakeholders resource,
Agriculture,
Conduct Community No Training 15 0.5 7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 RVLBDO, BDA
mobilization and awareness Regional and natural
raising on the impacts of resource,
water hyacinth and Agriculture,
controlling strategies
 Organize removal No Camp 15 1 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA
campaign and Carryout Regional and
Manual removal using natural resource,
labor force Agriculture,
Coordinate, execute and No M & E 30 0.5 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, BDA
monitor weed control and Regional and natural
lake management efforts resource,
Agriculture,
Capacitate technical experts, No Training 15 0.5 7.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 RVLBDO, BDA
fishery teams and conduct Regional and natural
experience sharing resource,
Agriculture,
Sub total 552.15
Goal 5 Ensure active stakeholder
participation in planning,

341
 decision making,
implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of IWRM
5.1 To improve public
awareness on water
resources management
and optimal use
Assessment of awareness gap No of docu 15 1.0 15 3 3 3 RVLBDO, RWRB
on water resources
management
Organize and validate gap No workshops 45 0.25 11.25 3.75 3.75 3.75 RVLBDO
filling workshops and and trainings
capacity building trainings
for each level of
stakeholders
5.2 To strengthen stakeholder’s 0
participation on watershed
management
Organize experience sharing Noofprogram 45 0.64 28.8 9.6 9.6 9.6 MoANR, NGO,
programs on best IWM RVLBDO
practices
Organize and validate gap No workshops 60 0.25 15 5 5 5 RVLBDO, NGO
filling workshops and and trainings
capacity building trainings
for each level of
stakeholders
5.3 To implement legal 0
framework related to
pollution control through
stakeholder participation
Organize awareness creation No 45 0.45 20.25 6.75 6.75 6.75 RVLBDO,
programs to engage MoEFCC,

342
 stakeholders in legal REFCCA
enforcement
Establish stakeholder forum No of forum 8 2.5 20 5 7.5 7.5 RVLBDO,
Sub total 110.3

Table 75: Budget summary

No Goals Sub cost in million

1 Enhance availability and optimum utilization of water resources in the basin for 1,101.65
sustainable social, economic and environmental benefits

2 Improve the quality of water resource in the basin for sustainable social, 2,218.55
economic and environmental benefits.

3 Improve water resource conservation, potential and community livelihood in the 6,330.182
basin through integrated watershed management and Rangeland management
for sustainable social, economic and environmental, benefits.

4 Reduce flood, drought and invasive species risks in the basin to improve 552.15
social, economic and environmental benefits

5 Ensure active stakeholder participation in planning, decision making, 110.3

implementation, monitoring and evaluation of IWRM

Total cost 10,312.832

343
344
 6. Monitoring and Evaluation Procedure
Effective monitoring and evaluation plan will help Basin plan to gauge the accomplishment of
every action as per the framed timetable stringently as stipulated in this strategic basin plan
document. Aware of this, the strategic basin plan has assigned monitoring indicators at objective
levels (see Tables), which will be used for verifying the implementation during the strategic
basin plan period.
Monitoring and evaluation of the strategic plan will be carried out by a team assigned by the
Director General of Basin Authority. Finally, significant risks affecting the implementation of
this strategic plan were identified. The top risks identified in the process were the willingness of
implementation stakeholders to accept basin plan to implement. Secondly, persuasiveness of
Basin Authority’s leadership to persuade and win MoFEC’s and other NGO`s support for our
strategic basin. Thirdly, the commitment of staff of Basin Development Authority particularly, in
playing coordination role for implementation of basin plan. These risks will be addressed
through the implementation of the strategic objectives.

345
346
 Table 76: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-1

Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

To ensure water • Agricultural productivity Assessment Climate change Binomial and

resource availability in increases reports, impact throughout the year
the basin • Basin wide socio performance
economic growth evaluation reports
registered and case study
• Satisfied irrigation and reports by MoWIE,
domestic water demand Oromia Region
Water resource
bureau, SNNPRS
Water resource
bureau and Quarterly and
RVLBDO, monthly
To improve the • sustainable river flow Assessment Climate change Binomial and
• increased production reports, impact throughout the year
recharging capacity of
performance
the catchment &flow of
evaluation reports
the rivers and case study
reports by MoWIE,
Oromia Region
Water resource
bureau, SNNPRS
Water resource
bureau and Quarterly and
RVLBDO, monthly
To improve irrigation • Transformation of Assessment reports, Lack of initiative to Quarterly and Binomial and
water use efficiency in irrigation water use trend performance use new irrigation monthly throughout the year

347
 Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

the basin • Optimum abstraction evaluation reports technology

• reduction in irrigation and case study
water loss reports by MoWIE,
Oromia Region
Water resource
bureau, SNNPRS
Water resource
bureau and
RVLBDO,
To ensure effective and • number of licensed water Assessment Water availability Binomial and
users and proper use reports, affected by Climate throughout the year
equitable water use in
• water use conflict performance change
the basin
minimized evaluation reports
and case study
reports by
MoWIE, Oromia
Region Water
resource bureau,
SNNPRS Water
resource bureau Quarterly and
and RVLBDO, monthly
To improve public • Reduced water loss Assessment Lack of skilled and Binomial and
• Water resource experienced throughout the year
awareness and reports,
sustainability increases manpower
undertake capacity • Water performance
• shortage problem solved
building on IWRM evaluation reports
Quarterly and
and case study
monthly

348
 Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

reports from
RBDA, ONS
Water resource
bureau, SNNPRS
Water resource
bureau and
RVLBDO,
Research and
development
activities
To establish water  number of water Regional co- Weakness of legal Binomial and
association throughout the year
users’ association operative office, framework
 reduced irrigation
(WRUA)  water loss Regional irrigation
Authority, Water
use and user
Quarterly and
assessment report.
monthly
To improve Hydro- Updated data base, automatic Assessment Limited capacity of Binomial and
throughout the year
Meteorological and gauging stations reports, case study the office
Basin information reports, data base
Quarterly and
system of the office
monthly

349
 Table 77: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-2
Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

To prevent industrial Water quality standards and water quality test Leakage from Binomial and
septic tanks, throughout the year
and municipal effluents bio-indicators reports
artificial wetlands Quarterly and
monthly
To ensure
Salinity declines water quality test Alarmingly Binomial and
reports from Increasing food throughout the year
Environmental friendly
FECCA/B, demand
Agricultural practices
RVLBDO, Water Quarterly and
bureaus monthly
To establish water Recorded data on water quality water quality test Binomial and
throughout the year
quality monitoring parameters reports from
FECCA/B,
system
RVLBDO, Water Quarterly and
bureaus monthly
To reduce fresh water Low salinity water quality test Binomial and
throughout the year
salinity problem across values reports
the basin fromFECCA/
RVLBDO , Water
bureaus
Quarterly and
monthly
To conserve and restore
No of restored wetlands in the sub Assessment reports, Lack of clear policy Binomial and
basin case study reports throughout the year
wetlands in the basin of wetland
from MoWIE, ONS Quarterly and
monthly

350
 Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

& SNNPRS Water

resource bureau, and
RVLBDO

To prevent lakeshore
Reduced eutrophication Assessment report Land use conflicts Binomial and
Quarterly and throughout the year
cultivation
monthly

Table 78: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-3

Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

To protect water bodies Increased lake volume. Stakeholders annual Lack of adequate Binomial and
from Restored aquatic biodiversity report, field surveys sustainable investment throughout the year
siltation/sedimentation financing
Weak stakeholders
commitment to
Quarterly and
implement basin plan
monthly
To improve surface and .Access to water supply, Social Water sector report, Frequent drought Binomial and
ground water potential stability, increase of per capita CSA report, socio throughout the year
Quarterly and
income economic survey
monthly
To increase the capacity • Water use conflict reduced Stakeholders Lack of skilled and Binomial and
• Water use efficiency Quarterly and throughout the year
of stakeholders participation experienced
increased monthly

351
 Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

assessment report manpower

To rehabilitate severely Improved water quality of the water quality test Climate change Binomial and
main water bodies Quarterly and throughout the year
degraded watersheds reports impact
monthly
To improve the livelihood Socio economic improvement , Report from CSA, Inflation Binomial and
of the community Plan commission, . throughout the year
Finance and
economic
Quarterly and
development offices
monthly
To develop the non- Socio economic improvement , Report from CSA, Inflation Binomial and
Agricultural sector of the Plan commission, . throughout the year
economy Finance and
economic
Quarterly and
development offices
monthly
To preserve and enhance Favorable environment for the Assessment reports, Natural and manmade Binomial and
productive capacity of flora and fauna of the ecology performance hazards (i.e. land slide throughout the year
ecological functions •sustainable use of watershed evaluation reports seasonal forest fire)
functions and case study
reports from
MoWIE, ONS
Irrigation Authority,
Quarterly and
SNNPRS Water
monthly

352
 Table 79: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-4
Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

To Enhance drought • Good climate and rain Assessment Climate change Binomial and
fall pattern throughout the year
preparedness and reports, Drought
• Flood and Drought
climate change controlled performance Flood
• Social and economic
adaptation evaluation reports
development of the basin
interventions • Productivity and case study
reports from
MoWIE, O/N/S &
SNNPRS Water
resource bureau
Quarterly and
and RVLBDO,
monthly
To Coordinate planning • Flood and drought Assessmentreports, Community Binomial and
managed throughout the year
and design of Flood performance Capacity to response
• reduction in Risk
and drought • Risk Responsiveness evaluation reports Risk
preparedness, and case study Sudden Flood
mitigation and reports from Finance
emergency MoWIE, O/N/S
response activities at &SNNPRS and
Quarterly and
Basin RVLBDO,
monthly
To Strengthen the • Mass Participation to Assessment Lack of awareness Binomial and
manage risk throughout the year
access, use and reports, case study And information
• Practicing knowledge Quarterly and
• Flood and Drought monthly

353
 Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

understanding of DRR control reports from centerWeak

and climate MoWIE, ONS & knowledge on
information through SNNPRS dissemination
consolidation and Agricultural, and culture
dissemination RVLBDO,
To implement  Rehabilitated watershed Regional co- Climate Change Binomial and
 Developed rangeland throughout the year
integrated watershed  operative office,
Access to water
management supply,Social stability, Weakness of
increase of per capita
Regional irrigation legalfreamwork
programs for efficient income
Authority, Weak ownership
management and
utilization of flood
Water use and user
water; Quarterly and
assessment report.
monthly
To develop flood Siltation Regional irrigation High Rain fall Binomial and
throughout the year
protection Water quality improved Authority,
infrastructures and Reduced Flood Water use and user
maintain river banks; assessment report.
M % E Report

RVLBD
Quarterly and
monthly

354
 Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

To implement Low salinity water quality test Binomial and

throughout the year
buffering on water values reports from Weakeness of

bodies (wetlands, FECCA/B, modernlabouratory

RVLBDO, Water
rivers, Lakes etc.)
bureaus
against intervention
for unsustainable
development
Quarterly and
purposes.
monthly
To Sustainable Water Hyacinth free Area of Water quality and Presence of Binomial and
throughout the year
hyacinth protection Lake/Hec/ Quantity Status Crocodile in Lake

and control Report Abaya

Reduced pollution
Enhanced Water Quantity Biodiversity Siltation
Assessment
Number of species
Quarterly and
monthly

355
 Table 80: Monitoring and evaluation matrix for Goal-5
Frequency of
Means of Risks and Frequency of reporting
Objectives/Outcomes Verifiable indicators verification Assumptions measurement

To improve public Willingness of the Consultation

awareness on water stakeholder toward efficient meetings,
resources management water use workshops,
and optimal use memorandum of
understanding
To strengthen Rehabilitated watershed Reports from
stakeholder’s Agricultural and
participation on natural resource
watershed management bureau, FECCA,
RVLBDO
To implement legal Healthy environment Environmental
framework related to audit report
pollution control
through stakeholder
participation

356
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