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Ethics Learning Guide Module

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

196 views129 pages

Ethics Learning Guide Module

Uploaded by

Nics b0rja

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Available Formats

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PHLO11

ETHICS
LEARNING GUIDE
TP-IMD-01 v0 No. DLABS-IM-013

JOHN MARTIN DIAO

BELJUN P. ENAYA
JERRY IMBONG
ROMEO J. TORING, JR.
AL FRANJON M. VILLAROYA

COLLEGE OF
ARTS AND SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF
LIBERAL ARTS AND
BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
2020
No copies temporary or permanent, in whole or in part of this
IM shall be made without written permission from the
author/s.

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Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
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and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No. DLABS-IM-013
Vision

A globally competitive university for science, technology, and

environmental conservation

Mission

Development of a highly competitive human resource,

cutting-edge scientific knowledge and innovative
technologies for sustainable communities and environment.

Quality Policy

The Visayas State University (VSU) is a higher education institution created by

law to provide excellent instruction, conduct relevant research and foster
community engagement that produce highly competent graduates necessary
for the development of the country. Toward this end, we, at the Visayas State
University, commit to:
1. produce highly competent, quality and world-class manpower in
science and technology (S&T), especially for agriculture,
environmental management and industry who are proficient in
communication skills, critical thinking and analytical abilities,
2. generate and disseminate relevant knowledge and technology that
lead to improved productivity, profitability and sustainability in
agriculture, environment and industry,
3. satisfy the needs of the industry, the community and government
sector who are in need of quality graduates and technology ready for
commercialization through the establishment, operation, maintenance
and continuous improvement of a Quality Management System which
is aligned with the requirements of ISO 9001:2015.
It shall be the policy of the university that the quality policies and procedures
are communicated to and understood by all faculties, staff, students and
ii PHLO11: ETHICS

other stakeholders and that the system shall be continually improved for their
relevance and effectiveness.

Learning Guide in

Title
Page PHLO11: ETHICS

Page iii of 129

Foreword

This Learning Guide in Ethics seeks to facilitate your learning process, students
of Visayas State University, amidst the covid-19 pandemic. It aims to capture
your interest in searching for a good life, in whatever condition you are in at the
moment. It has four modules: Module 1: Basic Concepts, Module 2: Moral
Agent and Moral Act, Module 3: Frameworks and Principles behind our Moral
Dispositions, and Module 4: Conclusion: Ethics through Thick and Thin and
Ethics and Religion.
You must go through the first lesson before you proceed to the next lessons.
In other words, do not jump from one lesson to another lesson without learning
the preceding topics. If you rush yourself and go immediately to other
discussions and activities, you will surely be confused and be like a person
wandering around without a purpose.
We, the authors, hope that through this learning guide, you will
appreciate the little things that you do in your life to become a good human
person. We invite you to look closely to what is happening around you, to your
society, and to your environment. What do you think are the factors that cause
the societal problems? Do these causes have something to do with the
people’s moral compass? These problems usually start from the individual’s
moral decisions, from the little things that you or we do.
As we do not want a surge of covid-19 cases, we do not want a surge
of fake news, we do not let our society die due to moral degradation, and we
do not want you to just stay indifferent to what is happening to yourself and to
your community. Ethics, under the philosophical method of searching for the
truth, calls you to take a moral stand in whatever circumstance that you
encounter in life. Please remember that when you conclude or judge a certain
moral problem, you are required to be reasonable and impartial.
This course, Ethics, does not only ask you to finish it as part of your bachelor’s
degree. However, it actually talks about your personal life. An old adage says,
“Non scholae sed vitae.” Simply, you study for life, not for school /grade.

BELJUN P. ENAYA
AL FRANJON VILLAROYA
JERRY IMBONG
JOHN MARTIN DIAO
ROMEO TORING, JR.
Authors

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Acknowledgment

We would like to acknowledge the Visayas State University for giving us the
opportunity of teaching our students through this learning guide. The
cooperation of everyone in the university is much appreciated to make things
possible under the struggling situations.

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vi PHLO11: ETHICS

About the Author/s

John Martin Diao

John Martin Diao is currently finishing

his Master of Arts in Philosophy at the
University of San Carlos, Cebu City to
where he also obtained his Bachelor
of Philosophy degree. He is currently
a faculty member of the Department
of Liberal Arts and Behavioral
Sciences of the Visayas State
University.

Beljun P. Enaya

Beljun P. Enaya is currently a faculty

member of the Department of Liberal
Arts and Behavioral Sciences, Visayas
State University. He finished his
Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy at San
Carlos Seminary. He graduated
Master of Arts in Philosophy at the
University of San Jose Recoletos. He
is now pursuing Doctor of Philosophy
in Philosophy at the University of
Santo Tomas.

Jerry Imbong

Jerry Imbong is a full-time faculty

member of DLABS where he teaches
Social Science courses. He finished
his Masters in Philosophical Research
at De La Salle University, Manila, and
is finishing his PhD in philosophy also
at DLSU

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Romeo J. Toring, Jr.

Romeo J. Toring Jr. teaches social

science courses in the Department
of Liberal Arts and Sciences at the
Visayas State University. He
graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in
Philosophy from San Carlos
Seminary College in 2013 and a
Master of Arts in Anthropology from
the University of San Carlos in 2017.
His research interests include
culture, linguistics, and the digital
landscape.

Al Franjon M. Villaroya

Al Franjon M. Villaroya is a
Philosophy and Social Science
Instructor of the Department of
Liberal Arts and Behavioral
Sciences at the Visayas State
University-Main Campus in Baybay
City, Leyte since 2009. He earned
his Master of Arts in Philosophy at
the University of San Jose-
Recoletos and is finishing his Ph.D.
in Philosophy at the University of
San Carlos, Nasipit Talamban,
Cebu City. He is currently the PRO
for Visayas of the Philosophical
Association of Visayas and
Mindanao.

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Table of Contents

Vision i
Mission i
Quality Policy i
Title Page iii
Foreword iv
Acknowledgment v
About the Author/s vi
Table of Contents viii
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
Expected Outputs for this term xiii

Module 1: Basic Concepts 1

Module Pretest 1
Lesson 1.1: Preliminaries in Ethics 2
Assessment 6
Lesson 1.2: The Moral Experience 7
Assessment 9
Lesson 1.3: Moral Standards vs. Non-moral Standards 10
Assessment 12
Lesson 1.4: Moral Dilemma 14
Assessment 18
Lesson 1.5: Freedom and Responsibility 20
Assessment 24
Module Posttest 25
Answers to the Pretest and Posttest 26

Module 2: Moral Agent and Moral Act 27

Module Overview 27
Motivation Question 27
Module Pretest 27
Lesson 2.1: Moral Agent as a Cultural Being 29
Assessment 36
Lesson 2.2: Moral Agent as a Person with Feelings 37

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Assessment 43
Lesson 2.3: Moral Act 44
Assessment 51
Module Posttest 52
Answers to the Pretest and Posttest 53
References and Additional Resources 53

Module 3: Module Frameworks and Principles

Behind our Moral Disposition 57

Module 4: Conclusion: Ethics through thick and thin

and Ethics and Religion 83
References and Additional Resources 99

ABRIDGED OUTCOMES-BASED TEACHING-

LEARNING SYLLABUS 101
Course Information 101
Course Content Plan 102
Course Assessment and Evaluation 107
Instructor/Professor Information 109

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List of Tables

1 Moral Standards Assessment ............................................. 12

2 Moral Standards Assessment ............................................. 13
3 Cultural Relativism Flowchart Learning Task ..................... 35
4 Direct Passions and Indirect Passions according to Hume
............................................................................................. 39
5 Four Strata of Feelings according to Scheler ..................... 40
6 7-step Process Learning Task ............................................ 50

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List of Figures

7 How to submit your output ................................................ xiii

8 How the Ethics term paper looks like ................................ xiv
9 Dyahe piece ......................................................................... 35

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Expected Outputs for this term

For this term, your instructor expects the following outputs from you:
1. Lesson 1.1 Assessment
2. Lesson 1.2 Assessment
3. Lesson 1.3 Assessment
4. Lesson 1.4 Assessment
5. Lesson 1.5 Assessment (VERY IMPORTANT: A list of three possible
topics for your final paper.)
6. Lesson 2.1 Assessment
7. Lesson 2.2 Assessment
8. Lesson 2.3 Assessment
Please secure a copy of your outputs. You may take a photo or photocopy your
work. Basta, imong copy ha. Securing a copy is important because all of your
outputs are connected to the final paper.

Figure 1. How to submit your output

Page xiii of 129

As you can see, you need to give three (3) different topics you want to talk
about your final paper (Lesson 1.5 Assessment).You must submit this. This
will give your instructors an idea what issue will you tackle on your final
paper. You final paper will look like the infographic below.
Figure 2. How the Ethics term paper looks like

You will pass your final paper before the semester ends.
For you midterms, please pass the assessment indicated in the previous page.
In case for further clarification on how to submit your outputs, please do not
hesitate to contact your instructor. You can also contact the Department of
Liberal Arts and Behavioral Sciences.

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Module 1: Basic Concepts
Module Overview
The basic concepts of ethics deal with the essential elements of ethics. The
foundation of morality has to be established before proceeding to different
areas of Moral Experience: Agent, Act, & Reason or Framework. The basic
concepts are the preliminaries in our study of morality.

Motivation Question

Why do you need to study ethics?

Module Pretest

Instructions: Write the word true if the statement is correct. Write the word
false if the statement is not correct. Write your answer on the space provided
after the statement.
1. Morality is completely the same with ethics. _________
2. Ethics is more concerned on how you think correctly. _________
3. Knowing the kind of moral dilemma leads to understanding your
appropriate action. _________
4. Ethics deals with the act of man, not the human act. __________
5. Moral standards include etiquette. _____________
6. Freedom is crucial in human person’s moral life. _________
7. Not doing anything about your studies is a human act. ________
8. Grammatical errors are examples of moral dilemma. _________
9. A financial problem is not necessarily a moral dilemma. _____________
10. A child who does not know what he/she is doing is morally
accountable. ____
2 PHLO11: ETHICS

Lesson 1.1: Preliminaries in Ethics

Lesson Summary
This lesson tackles the main idea of ethics. It discusses the meaning and
relevance of studying ethics.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Give the meaning of ethics;
2. Recognize philosophy in relation to ethics;
3. Expound the significance of ethics in life.

Motivation Question
Do you think that this course is relevant to your degree program? Do you think
that you can live your life without asking the question what is the right thing to
do?

Discussion

Philosophy and Ethics

Before you start understanding the meaning of ethics, you need to

review what philosophy is. You may have taken up the course: Introduction to
Philosophy of the Human Person, so you better remember those things that
you learned from your senior high school course. You may now say, “Oh, I
should have studied the course in my senior high school well.” Hence, for the
sake of setting up your proper perspective in this course, let’s talk about the
basic concepts of philosophy.
Philosophy literally means “love of wisdom.” This kind of love is not the one
you feel about your crush or your sweetheart, but this love is a kind of bond that
you cannot but is always attached to. It’s like your brother or sister or a family
member, you cannot deny that there is a bond between you. This bond will
always tell you the truth that you cannot deny: you are siblings or family. In
philosophy, the constant searching for knowledge is what it means to love,
attached to the true knowledge, and always learning and progressing.
Philosophy does not give up on truth because the truth will always be the truth.
If you are in front of the administration building of your dear university (Visayas
State University), you can see the monument called “The Search for Truth.” You
always have to remember that because that is what philosophy means. You
have to look for the truth. You can find truth by studying, learning your lessons,
whether from school, books, theories, experiences, people, or all sources of
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knowledge. Seek, and you shall find. In the process of searching for truth, you
become a wise person.
What is really the subject matter of philosophy? What does it study? Contrary
to what other people would say that philosophy is nothing but a way of twisting
the truth, philosophy is always aiming for the fact, for true knowledge. The
subject matter of philosophy is all reality, whether it is the reality of
mathematics, the reality of history, the reality of fantasy like the Anime, or your
experiences’ reality. Philosophy studies all things but it also has its focus; it
has its object of the study. Philosophy looks at reality and concentrates more
on the ultimate causes of reality. What does an ultimate cause mean? It means
that philosophy is not only satisfied with what appears to you right now, but it
digs deeper and investigates further to achieve the final answer. That is why,
in philosophy, it is natural to ask questions to look for answers, especially the
ultimate answer. Please take note that we are not talking about being
“pilosopo” in a Filipino way of understanding it, wherein you are answering or
asking questions just to make fun or pointing out an irrelevant answer.
Now, philosophy has its branches. Each branch focuses on its own set of
questions, different aspects of reality. 1.) Metaphysics studies the being in
itself, or the reality in itself, or literally beyond nature. It asks the question, “what
is it?” “What is being?” 2.) Epistemology studies the validity of knowledge. It
asks the question, “what do I know?” “Is what I know a true knowledge?” “What
is knowledge in itself?” 3.) Aesthetics studies art and beauty. It asks the
question, “What makes a thing beautiful?” 4.) Ethics studies the morality of the
human act. It asks the question, “How should I live?” “What should I do?” 5.)
Logic is an art and science of correct thinking. It may ask the question, “How is
your answer correct?” but logic focuses more on the process of answering the
questions.
If the rest of the branches ask more questions, logic is the tool to answer the
questions. Thus, in studying ethics, you need to exercise logic. In this way, you
will arrive to a correct answer just like following the scientific process in a
laboratory experiment. Those branches above are not the only branches of
philosophy. There are more other branches of philosophy for you to find out.
Ethics, as you noticed above, is a branch of philosophy. The question of ethics
is very practical. You might have the same questions as well: “What should I
do?” “How should I live my life?” “Is this the right thing to do?” “Am I doing
good?” Questions like those are attempting to find the “good life” or “the happy
life”. Aristotle would say that human beings are always attracted to the “good”.
Nobody is attracted to “evil” or “wrong”. Why? Even if you say that you like
bullying, cursing, or killing, you always see it as good for you. However, Aristotle
called “apparent good”, good as it appears to you only. Still, most of the time,
the apparent good is not good in itself. In this case, studying ethics allows you
to discover how to identify what is right from wrong..

Ethics vs. Morality

Let us first look into the literal meaning of the word “ethics.” The term
“ethics” is derived from the Greek word “ethos” which means “character”; and
this Greek word is later translated in Latin as “moralis” (morality in English),
which literally also means “character, custom, manner and habit” (Bunnin & Yu,

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2004). In other words, the way of life or human behavior is the subject matter
of ethics. Traditionally, ethics is defined as the study of the morality of the
human act.
You may now be wondering about the difference between the terms “ethics”
and “morality.” Most often, those terms are used interchangeably. From the
literal meaning above, the terms are synonymous. However, as things are
constantly progressing, ethics and morality have slight distinctions. On the one
hand, ethics refers to the systematic principles of the morality of the human
act or the moral philosophy that aims to provide a universal principle of right
and wrong. On the other hand, morality refers to how you consider a certain
human act as right or wrong; and that means that the context of morality may
usually be on the individual’s evaluation on a moral experience. Simply, ethics
provides principles or standards for why a certain moral standard is acceptable
or not, and morality pertains more to the individual’s capacity to determine
what is right and wrong. Nonetheless, scholars may still be debating on the
difference of those terms, but most importantly, the study of ethics will teach
you how to evaluate your actions.
Let’s go back to our main concern, which is ethics. The Commission on Higher
Education provides a definition of ethics in this course. It states that “ethics
deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the
person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared
resources (CMO 20 s 2013).”
Take note of the keywords: principles, behavior, and levels of interactions with
others. Here, ethics is primarily a set of principles; it is a system, a scientific
investigation of what is right and wrong. It also looks into the behavior. This
behavior refers to how a person lives his life; how you act on a situation. In
other words, ethics is concerned with your character, the way you live your life.
Finally, ethics does not limit itself to your own private activity. Still, it also
involves the different interaction levels, whether it’s person to person, within
groups of people, or even with your environment, including those non-living
things. What’s the significance of involving those you don’t care at all? At this
point, you have to remember that your behavior or your decisions will always
affect other people or even those stones, plants, etc. Let’s talk more about this
on the next topic on freedom and responsibility.

The Relevance of Ethics

You may wonder why you have to take this course, Ethics. You may
think of this as a “minor” subject. The tendency is that you will just take this
course for granted and just comply with the minimum standard. However, don’t
bother yourself, asking why this course is mandatory for your degree program.
You might end up still arguing that you do not need this course. Besides, what
you need is to ask yourself if you already know and understand the right course
of action that you need to have a happy life. Do you already have the moral
principles that guide you in your journey in life? Suppose you believe that you
already have a set of moral standards. Are you open and ready to face the
different moral standards you might encounter along the way or just shut
yourself and stick to your moral beliefs’ uncertainties? Are you not willing to
polish your ethical principles and improve your life with other people? Do the
bad things happening around you bother you, don’t they? If you believe that you
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have all the answers to all moral problems, then you are a perfect person who
needs nothing.
As a student, have you ever asked yourself if copying an assignment a form of
cheating and corruption? You may say that it’s fine because other people are
doing it and that is normal nowadays. However, if your instructor will
automatically give you a failing grade because of what you did, will you just say
“Thank you, sir”? Will you not ask why? How will you know that your action is
bad? How will you know that your instructor’s course of action is right? You will
surely be able to answer these questions concretely if you allow yourself to
learn from ethics.
When you apply for work, even if you rank one in the application process, but
your character or behavior is questionable, you will not find yourself on the
hired applicants’ list. This only means that work ethics or characters in the
workplace are also a crucial part of doing the job. You may have excellent skills,
but your working life will do no good to the company without a good character.
If you have noticed, many problems in society are significantly about ethical
issues, such as corruption, unjust wage, tampering, killing the innocent people,
rape, abortion, stealing, infidelity with one’s partner, so on and so forth. These
issues significantly affect you as an individual and society as a whole. Don’t
you think that ethics has nothing to do with this?
Now, you can always find the value of ethics in your day-to-day life. A simple
way of living still involves ethical life. You may still not be convinced how ethics
is essential, but it is up to you how you will live your life without knowing the
right direction. Nevertheless, you are invited to continue to read, discover, and
learn as much as possible to choose the right path and attain a happy and
meaningful life.

Learning Tasks/Activities
List down five questions that you have been asking since a child.

1. __________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________________

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Why are those questions important in your life?

How do you convince your classmate that Ethics has something to do with
your degree program? Give five reasons:
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________________________

Assessment

Under Section No. 8 of the Republic Act No. 6713, n.d. , public officials
and government employees should submit declarations under oath of a
Statement of Assets, Liabilities, and Net worth (SALN). How is Ethics being
involved in this provision? Is Ethics relevant only to public officers and
employees? Why? Write at least three paragraphs.

Instructions on how to submit student output

You need to use a separate sheet of paper for your answer in this assessment
portion. You may print your answer in a bond paper or you can write in a yellow
pad.
The important thing is you write your name and course offering number.
Place the assessment in every lesson to avoid getting lost of documents.
Please refer to page ix for the general instructions.

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Lesson 1.2: The Moral Experience

Lesson Summary
This lesson provides an overview of moral experience. It tackles the elements
of morality. It also distinguishes the difference between the human act and the
act of a human.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Identity the essential elements of morality;
2. Recognize the importance of distinguishing human act from act of
human.

Motivation Question
When you suddenly wake up because of your friend's loud snoring, do you
think that his snoring is immoral?

Discussion

The Elements of Moral Experience

Ethics deals primarily with the moral experience. A moral experience

is what you encounter in your life. There are three elements of the moral
experience:
1. The Moral Agent. This element refers to the doer of a moral
behavior and this definitely includes you. This will be discussed in
Module 2.
2. The Moral Act. This element refers to the activity of the moral
agent. It shows the behavior of the agent and/or it expresses the
character of the agent. This will be discussed in Module 2.
3. The Reason or Framework. This element answers the question why
and how such moral act is right or wrong. It captures the reasons of
the moral agent for doing the moral act. Module 3 provides various
ethical frameworks.
When you do household chores, you actually possess a moral experience. You
are the moral agent, your act is doing the household chores, and you have your
own reason why you think doing the household chores is right. Moreover, when
you tell a lie to your instructor about your current situation, you still encounter
a moral experience. You are the moral agent who is lying, your act is the
distortion of truth, and you may reason out that lying is morally good based on
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a “Facebook meme.” Indeed, to say your certain act is right or wrong is easy,
but letting you explain what makes your act right or wrong (moral or immoral)
is difficult. Judging your act with reasonable justification is more difficult. That
is why you better not judge a person without studying the whole moral
experience.
The Components of Human Act
Ethics deals primarily with moral experience. Moral experience is what
you encounter in your life. There are three elements of the moral experience
(Agapay, 1991):
1. Knowledge. A human act is performed consciously. You must be aware
of your action, such as doing household chores, helping the poor, lying
to your instructors, plagiarizing, etc. Unlike you, children under the age
of reason, senile and mentally challenged are not capable of acting
knowingly.

2. Freedom. A human act is performed freely. You must perform an action

with free choice, with your own power, not by being forced by somebody
or something else.

3. Voluntariness. A human act is performed willingly. Your action must

come from your own willfulness.
Now, those three components must be present in order to be called a
human act. The lack of one of those elements leads to a defective and less
voluntary. In other words, your human act may still be at question and the moral
evaluation of your action is uncertain.
Human act and act of man are two distinctive terms. The former is what you
have just learned above and the latter does not constitute knowledge, freedom
and will. Act of human refers to your actions that are not done deliberately. In
other words, act of human is involuntary or instinctive. Take for example: The
beating of your heart, the fast beating of your heart when you see your crush,
the blinking of your eyes, walking, your sensation, digesting and so on. Thus,
acts of human are natural (physiological) activities that belong to a human and,
therefore, they are NOT the concern of morality.
When you look at your experience or any problem, you really have to see to it if
the activity is a human act. If you cannot identify the human act, then you will
have a problem in assessing the morality of the moral dilemma (this will be
discussed in Module 2).
For instance, you would say that you smell a bad odor from your seatmate. You
cannot say that you have a moral problem since being able to smell or the
sense of smell is not a human act, rather it is an act of human. However, if you
say that you throw “poop” at your seatmate, then throwing it is a human act
and you have a moral experience there. Furthermore, if a pet dog bites you, do
you think it performs a human act? Obviously no because a dog is not human!
However, you have to answer the following: Does the dog possess knowledge?
Is it free? Does it bite voluntarily? If one of your answers is no, then the act of
the dog will never qualify as a human act. That is why it is usually the
owner/keeper of the dog who will be held responsible for the act of the dog and
it is he/she who will be questioned in terms of morality.

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Learning Tasks/Activities
Identify whether the act is a human act or an act of human. Write your
answer on the space provided.
_____________________ 1. salivating when you see a delicious food while you’re
hungry.
_____________________ 2. Feeling cold during rainy season
_____________________ 3. Participating in rallies
_____________________ 4. Cursing the Filipino people for being stubborn
_____________________ 5. Plagiarizing
_____________________ 6. stretching your arms to swim
_____________________ 7. running away from your family
_____________________ 8. ignoring your boyfriend / girlfriend / friend
_____________________ 9. throwing the garbage anywhere
_____________________ 10. helping the poor

Assessment

1. Find one article that shows a human act and one article that
shows an act of human. In other words, you need two articles.
2. Write the summary of the article and cite the source.
3. State clearly the human act or the act of man from the article.
4. In one paragraph, write your explanation why the underlined act is
a human act based on the article. Do the same with the article that
has an act of human.
5. Here is the flow of your output.
A. Title of the Article
B. Summary of the Article
C. The Act (Human Act or Human Act)
D. Source of the Article (APA format)

Instructions on how to submit student output

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Lesson 1.3: Moral Standards vs. Non-

moral Standards

Lesson Summary
This lesson mainly talks about the difference between moral standards and
non-moral standards. Central in the discussion is the fact not all rules and
laws concern morality.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Realize that not all standards pertain to morality.
2. Distinguish moral standard from non-moral standard.

Motivation Question
Every time you enter the university, you can always see the signage “Strictly:
NO ID, NO ENTRY.” Do you think this is a moral standard? If you don’t bring your
ID when you enter the school, do you commit an immoral act?

Discussion

Non-moral Standard

As you grow up, you realize that there are a lot of rules in society.
Sometimes, you set some policies for yourself, in your studies, and even rules
in your relationship. Sometimes, you set some standards in looking for the love
of your life. However, can you say that those rules you encounter are moral
standards?
Non-moral standards are those rules that only belong to a particular group of
people. These standards do not necessarily entail a universal norm. They refer
to your taste or preference. They deal more with the technicality of what to do.
Examples of these are table etiquette, grammar rules, policies, laws, rubrics,
etc. Let’s take, for instance, table etiquette. You might not be able to follow the
table etiquette in fine dining, and you will not be judged for committing an
immoral act. The rules in fine dining do not entail a moral standard because
they do not necessarily assure you to live a good life or to be a moral person.
In other words, these rules do not essentially apply to all people, including you.
Another example is the grammar rule. You may commit a grammatical error,
but you do not commit an immoral act. Why? It is because those rules involve
only the way of formal writing but not necessarily the way of life. Finally, non-
moral standards only apply to a particular group.

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When you encounter certain rules, you have to bear in mind that non-moral
standards do not necessarily degrade your moral character. So, when you enter
the school and cannot enter it because you do not wear your ID, you do not
commit an immoral act. This is because the policy may be changed from time
to time. Maybe you can observe that other organizations or institutions do not
require you to wear your ID. Furthermore, when you are not allowed to enter the
school for not wearing your ID, you will violate the school’s rule. Still, you do not
necessarily violate an absolute moral standard.

Moral Standard

Moral standard refers to a set of principles aimed at universalizing a

harmonious and good life. It usually applies to all human acts. It is more of an
objective basis of life. Examples of moral standards are: Do unto others what
you want others to do unto you, killing innocent people is wrong, human
trafficking is destroying lives, exploiting your environment kills the world, etc.
In short, moral standard promotes the welfare of all and the common good.
Moral standard is “a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific
behaviors or beliefs” (O’Connor et al., 1997).
Going back to the issue of not wearing your ID deliberately, you may still violate
certain moral standards. How? Your act is certainly a human activity, so it
involves a moral standard. Your choice of not wearing your ID may be a form
of disobedience or dishonesty if there is really nothing wrong with wearing your
ID. You will become a rebellious or dishonest person that is not firmly founded
on a principled-based morality. Thus, you may violate some virtuous character.
However, for this reason, you need to learn more ethical standards in module
4 so that you will surely be able to justify the human act you have committed.
What we are talking here is not about the “NO ID, NO ENTRY” policy. Rather, we
are pointing out is the deliberate habitual act that may not conform to a certain
moral standard, such as possessing a good character. The issue is not the
policy itself because it is not a moral standard. However, the concern is how
you deal with a certain policy, and that’s where you evaluate a certain moral
conduct.
Let’s have another example. “Pronounce the words correctly” is a non-moral
standard concerning speech. However, you pronounce a certain word
differently and wrongly, even if you know how to say it correctly. Where does a
certain moral standard come in? Again, the rules of speech have nothing to do
with moral standards, but how you do it that concerns moral norms and values
is exactly where moral standards apply. How? For example, deceiving is
morally wrong – that is a moral standard. Now, in the case where you
deliberately make mistakes to poison the minds of those who listen to you by
not giving the correct pronunciation, you are guilty of violating certain moral
standards.
You need to remember that moral standards involve general or universal rules
(such as stealing is wrong) and those acceptable and desirable values. Moral
standards deal with things that affect people, animals, and the environment.
They do not change anytime. They overrule self-interest. Finally, they are said
to be reasonable and impartial.

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Learning Tasks/Activities
Why do you need to differentiate moral standards from non-moral standards?

Assessment

1. Look for standards in your school and your home.

2. Select 5 examples of non-moral standards and 5 examples of
moral standards based on your findings.
3. Choose one moral standard and one non-moral standard; then,
explain each one of them why it belongs to a kind of a standard.
4. Do not forget to write your references of the standards.

Answers:

Table 1. Moral Standards Assessment

Moral Standards References (Sources

of your findings)
1.

One Chosen Moral Standard and its explanation:

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Table 2. Moral Standards Assessment

Non-Moral Standards References (Sources of

your findings)
1.

One Chosen Non-moral Standard and its explanation:

Instructions on how to submit student output

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Lesson 1.4: Moral Dilemma

Lesson Summary
This lesson is concerned with moral dilemma and its types. It tackles the
personal moral dilemma, organizational moral dilemma, and systemic moral
dilemma.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Identify a moral dilemma.
2. Expound the importance of understanding the moral dilemma.
3. Segregate your encountered moral dilemmas into different types.

Motivation Question
Your friend went to your house and requested you to let him copy your answers
in your course. Your friend had been giving you a lot of food during the
pandemic, and you owed him a lot because you were able to survive during the
pandemic because of his help. This time, your friend had been struggling with
the same course that you take. His request was for you to give your answers
and somehow do some tasks for him. He assured you that no one, even your
instructor, would know about it. He said that he did not have time anymore
since the deadline was on the next day. He would have no time for a tutorial.
Certainly, he would fail in this course if he would not be able to submit on time
because the instructor had been extending the deadline already.
Would you grant his request?

Discussion

The Nature of Moral Dilemma

Dilemma comes from the two Greek words, “di” which means two and
“lemma” which refers to a proposition or premise or anything received or taken.
In other words, a dilemma literally means two propositions or premises. It is
not just like any other problem, but it is a problem that confronts you with at
least two equal alternatives.
When you say “moral dilemma,” you are not dealing with any kind of dilemma.
Rather, you are dealing with those dilemmas that concern morality and require
you to have a moral choice over the other option. If you can still remember,
morality deals with the right or wrong human act. If you understand what
morality is, then you understand what moral dilemma is as well. In other words,
you are actually faced with choosing one between the two moral principles or
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moral acts. Therefore, a moral dilemma is “a situation in which one person is

morally pulled in opposite directions” (Bunnin & Yu, 2004).
In order for you to understand more clearly, Karen Allen (2012) lays down three
conditions to be met to qualify a moral dilemma:
1. Moral dilemma occurs when you encounter a situation wherein you must
make a decision for the best course of action. (In other words, moral
dilemma does not occur when a situation does not necessarily require you
to make a difficult moral decision. For instance, your school requires you
to consult your output with your instructor. There is no discomfort in
making a decision because consulting your instructor is already a
requirement and a better option than relying on yourself to polish your
output.)
2. There must be different courses of action to choose from. (You have to
see to it that in the situation, you have various options to take. You are not
faced with a moral dilemma if there is only one course of action for you to
choose.)
3. No matter what course of action is taken, some ethical principle is
compromised. (In other words, when you choose one among equally
important moral choices, you have no perfect solution. You face the
challenge of negotiating or finding some middle ground in the options. In
effect, there might be uncomfortable situations you have to encounter. In
short, your action will actions will compromise certain moral principles.)
In the motivation question, you face the moral dilemma whether to help your
friend who is in need or to be honest with your instructor. The act of helping
and telling the truth are two important moral principles that you have to deal
with in that situation. The three conditions mentioned above are met in this
case. Suppose you want an answer now what the best course of action is in
that given scenario. In that case, you must remember that the focus in this
lesson is to identify a moral dilemma. Thus, you cannot expect here that the
given moral dilemma will be answered for you. However, you are advised to
continue learning from the next modules to find the best answer when you are
faced with a moral dilemma.
Here are some examples of moral dilemma that you may experience in your
own similar situations:
1.) The trolley dilemma where you need to decide if you have to kill one
person to save five other lives;
2.) The self-defense in which you are required to have a quick decision of
a situation wherein you preserve your life, another life is hurt or taken
away;
3.) When a doctor must operate on a pregnant woman but the operation
may lead to the death of either the mother or the child.
4.) Whether to ban flights from China when Philippines got the first case
of COVID-19;
5.) When a Christian Filipina agrees to be the 3rd wife of a Muslim or not;
6.) Whether a mayor prioritize the relief goods to his/her family instead of
the rest of the citizens of the town;
7.) Whether you tell a lie to protect someone or tell the truth and jeopardize
the life of that person.

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Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

Once you are aware of a moral dilemma, you have to distinguish the
kind of moral dilemma you are facing. Why? Identifying the level of moral
dilemma will:
• help your decision-making process;
• lead you to the best appropriate actions or solutions;
• prevent you from overthinking and avoid distress from unnecessary factors
to consider;
• understand the scope of the dilemma wherein you grasp comprehensively
the people or things involved.

There are three levels of moral dilemmas:

1. Personal moral dilemma. This level of moral dilemma refers to a moral
dilemma that involves an individual person only or your private life. It is
personal because it requires you to take the course of action, which affects
only your life situation or your personal character. The course of action that
you take does not essentially require other people to take part. Take, for
instance, the moral dilemma mentioned above. You have to choose whether to
help your friend or maintain your integrity.
2. Organizational moral dilemma. This level of moral dilemma refers to a moral
dilemma that involves a group of people or an organization. Say, for example,
a moral dilemma that requires your family members' involvement or moral
dilemmas that you may encounter in your school organization. Here, you see
the moral dilemma that affects the group of people.
In a group activity in your class, you are distributing roles. You are confused
whether you have to give a reporting task to one of your groupmate who will
ruin the quality of your performance or not give a reporting task to him/her to
save the quality of your activity. Here, you face choosing between trusting your
groupmate and assuring the excellence of your activity.
Another example: A company experiences a decrease in profit, which might
lead to bankruptcy. You face moral dilemma whether you let some employees
lose the jobs or decrease your employees' salary for the company to continue
to operate. In that case, you are caught between protecting the employees'
welfare and saving some people in the company that may sacrifice the
employees' benefits.
3. Systemic moral dilemma. This level refers to a moral dilemma that involves
the essential structure. The skeleton of a certain system affects all members
involved in a moral dilemma.
For instance, the Philippines' decision in terms of dealing with the health crisis
will inevitably affect all citizens whether you don't care about what is happening
in the country because you have not directly experienced the effect of the
decision you are socially concerned.
Another example, during the early period of the COVID-19 pandemic, the
president was asked whether to ban international flights or not. In this case,
the president had to prevent the spread of the virus; he must either ban the
international flights and hurt the international friendships or not ban and allow
the economy to grow while strengthening international relations.
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Another systemic moral dilemma is in relation to Philippine health care. In

reality, the health system is poor because of lack of medical facilities,
inefficient health services, and unsatisfactory health workers. Moreover,
ordinary citizens receive unsatisfactory benefits. The dilemma here is whether
to increase the benefits of the health workers and citizens through PhilHealth
amid the pandemic or to protect the country's economy by imposing more
taxes.
This case is systemic because either course of action requires the whole
system of Philippine governance to work. The dilemma does not only require
your organizational or personal commitment to make the system work, but it
essentially includes different aspects to work together.
Even if you are just sitting pretty in your chair right now (some are just watching
Netflix and some are just waiting for their crush to chat or appear in their
Facebook timeline), you cannot hide from the consequences of the moral
choice. This is the inevitable effect of systemic moral dilemma that occurs
whether it comes from a president or it comes from you or your neighbor.
In short, doing nothing to the systemic dilemma where you belong is allowing
somebody else to do anything. By analogy, when there is a problem in your
computer's motherboard, the rest of the parts of your computer will not
function well. When you do nothing, you will still struggle with in using your
computer.
Most of the times, we cannot easily recognize systemic moral dilemmas. For
instance, in terms of eradicating illegal drugs, will you choose to kill those who
use illegal drugs to secure the majority of the population? Or will you opt for
other choices wherein you have to fix the justice system and the law
enforcement of the country and find out the root cause of using illegal drugs?
Killing a person under the guise of "tokhang" reflects a systemic moral
dilemma. Learn more in module 3 to see how to identify whether your moral
choice is justified or not.
The most important thing that you need to learn from distinguishing the levels
of moral dilemma is to see the essential moral choices. You must deal with
them and choose the appropriate moral option. If you cannot identify the level
of the moral dilemma, you cannot see the whole picture of the dilemma you are
facing. As a result, you will be frustrated and tired with the course of action that
you take. However, when you know the level of dilemma, you know who is
responsible.

Learning Tasks/Activities
1. Look for news articles in the Philippines.
2. Choose one news article that shows a moral dilemma.
3. Choose another news article that shows a non-moral dilemma.
4. Write the summary of each news article and state clearly the dilemma.
5. Explain why each news article has moral dilemma or non-moral dilemma.

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Assessment

Read the story:

Juan dela Cruz was a Filipino scientist who was working in Mors
International, a Chinese company that manufactures vaccines. He had been in
the company for 25 years now and he had been dedicated in discovering
vaccines in different diseases in the world. When COVID-19 broke out, he
immediately studied a possible vaccine. Because of his commitment and
dedication, the company supported his endeavor with a large amount of money
invested on his research program solely for the vaccine to combat COVID-19.
He was not working alone; he also worked with different nationalities. After
three to six months, he successfully developed a vaccine.

He tried to hide what he discovered and planned to hand it over to the

president of the Philippines because he wanted that Filipinos, his countrymen,
would surely benefit his effort. After a week, he had an exclusive meeting with
the president of the Philippines. He convinced the president to reproduce the
vaccine in the Philippines and to give it for free to the Filipinos. However, the
president had another plan. He wanted to sell the vaccine to other countries for
a very high price and let a foreign company reproduce it and sell it to Filipinos.
In that way, Philippine economy would be stable. However, the president’s plan
is not yet final. After their meeting, they vowed to keep to themselves first what
transpired in their meeting.

Juan went back to his company with a very disappointing look. His
colleague, Ciosa, noticed him and asked why. Juan told everything to her and
Ciosa was shocked. Juan did not want Bonita to know but he trusted her
because he had a crush on her since five years ago when Ciosa joined the
company. However, Ciosa, at that time, was so young and ambitious that she
planned to tell the CEO what she knew. Juan told Ciosa that it was up to her
what to do next.

Create a moral dilemma out of the story above.

1. What will be the personal moral dilemma in the story?

Explain why it is a personal moral dilemma.

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2. What will be the organizational moral dilemma in the story?

Explain why it is an organizational moral dilemma.

3. What will be the systemic moral dilemma in the story?

Explain why it is a systemic moral dilemma.

Instructions on how to submit student output

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Lesson 1.5: Freedom and Responsibility

Lesson Summary
This lesson discusses the foundation of morality: freedom and responsibility.
It includes its significance in ethics and its importance in making a moral
choice.

Learning Outcomes
In the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. Explain why freedom and responsibility is crucial in Ethics.
2. Expound the responsibility of having freedom.

Motivation Questions
When you are about to submit your output and you are in a situation wherein
you have difficulties, do you believe that you have to excuse yourself for not
submitting your output?
How will you say that you are responsible?
Are you free at this time of the pandemic?

Discussion

The Significance of Freedom-Responsibility

If you can remember, a human act requires knowledge, free, and

voluntariness. Now, the question is: are you open? In ethics, freedom is so
essential in morality that you will not qualify to be a moral entity without it. Say,
for instance, a plant is not free, so it is not a moral entity; and even a cat is not
a moral entity if it is not free. Human beings, including you, are capable of moral
choice because you are free. You will learn quickly in this discussion if you
recall the topic of freedom in the course Introduction to Philosophy of Human
Person from your senior high school.
Freedom refers to the very being of the human being (Sartre, 1965).
Responsibility refers to the “consciousness (of) being the incontestable author
of an event or of an object “(Sartre, 1953). What does this mean? You, as a
human being, do not just possess freedom, but you are freedom yourself.
Sartre’s famous dictum says that you are condemned to be free. When you
selected the degree program in college, you are actually free. Maybe you will
say that your parent influenced you or you are forced by circumstances.
Nevertheless, you are the one who made the choice of writing down the degree
program. It is still your choice to be pressured or be influenced by others.

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Doing nothing about your task in your house or your academic assignment is
always a choice you make. Not doing anything is doing something. Most of the
time, you say that you are not free because you have no options or are in a
situation that limits your actions. For example, such as you cannot go to VSU
because you do not have money for the fare afraid to travel. The limits that you
think are actually the limitations that you choose to create by your
consciousness. If you limit yourself with few options, you are not really limited
to limiting your options. In other words, you are still free to limit your choices
and are also free to go beyond those limits. The only thing that cannot be free
is freedom itself. How ironic! Or better say, paradoxical. You cannot escape
from being free; that’s why Sartre says that you are condemned to be free.
Usually, if you talk about being free, you forget to talk about being responsible.
Is responsibility a limit to freedom? No. Being free is being responsible.
Responsibility means being the author of your choice, of accepting that you
have freedom.
For instance, the choice of the degree program may be something that you are
still not sure until now. You blame your friends or parents for choosing the
degree program for you. In that case, you are irresponsible. Why? The one who
decides which degree program to take was actually you because you are free.
Don’t tell me that the degree program suddenly appears in front of you, and you
did not choose it, or you did not allow your parent to choose it for you. Denying
your freedom is denying your responsibility. Your parent or friend influencing
you is their responsibility. They are also free to influence or control you, but that
does not take away your freedom. Should you just blame everything for
yourself? Blaming here is also a sign of irresponsibility because you are trying
to show that you are not free and did not choose.
What you need to understand when it comes to responsibility is that you are
the author of your actions. You have to answer whatever consequences that
result from your choice. You are freedom. Your words, your gestures, your
styles are yours. Again, being free is being responsible. Sometimes, you focus
so much on whatever you want to do with anything because you are “free”. Still,
you forget that freedom and responsibility are inseparable. That’s why you
usually make excuses, and many times you blame other people for what you
have done. To simplify the term “responsibility” you may relate it to the term
“answerability” which means the ability to answer. As you can see,
“responsibility” comes from the terms “response” & “ability” which means the
ability to respond to your freedom.
As a human being, a person is free. Whether there is limited or absolute
freedom, the fact is a human person has freedom. Here, one has to note that
freedom is a moral requirement, and moral freedom goes beyond the legal
context. When there is freedom, there is responsibility.

The Responsibility for One’s Action and to Others

As mentioned above, talking about responsibility is inevitable in talking

about freedom. Freedom always necessitates moral responsibility. You have
to take note of the consequences of your choices.
It has been established that your action is your own responsibility. However,
whatever you do always calls for responsibility, and sometimes deducing it to
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accountability. When you throw a banana peel anywhere and leave it

somewhere, you don’t know. One time you somebody got an accident because
of stepping on the banana peel you threw, you cannot just deny that you threw
it somewhere. The person who steps on it is responsible for what he did. Still,
you also have the responsibility of throwing it somewhere. This leads to the
point where responsibility is not only for people but also for the environment.
You might be saying that you cannot do anything about those mining
companies that exploited and prostituted the natural resources. However, it is
again your choice of not doing anything about it. You are still responsible for
not doing anything about it. Why? Not doing anything because you are not
affected by the calamities caused by irresponsible mining means, in a sense,
you are allowing the abuses to the environment to continue. When the time
comes that the problem will hit hard, you will realize that doing nothing is worse
than doing something even it fails.
The point of responsibility towards others is that your moral choice will always
affect you and your surroundings. You may not be able to see it through maybe
because you cannot comprehend your own decisions and consequences that
follow. That is why you all need to continue searching for the truth to
understand your moral compass. And if you go back to the monument of The
Search for Truth, you can see that the person there is not alone, meaning you’re
not alone is searching for the right moral choice. Once you have digested all
learnings here and accomplished the tasks, you proceed to the next module.

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Learning Tasks/Activities
Write or put anything you want on the space below. You may draw
things; write a song, a poem, reflection, or anything you want.

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Assessment

Propose three possible topics you like to talk about your final paper.

Instructions on how to submit student output

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Module Posttest

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Answers to the Pretest and Posttest

1.) false 2.) false 3.) true 4.) false 5.)false 6.)true 7.)true 8.)false 9.)true
10.)false

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Module 2: Moral Agent

and Moral Act
Module Overview

To know whether an action is right or wrong, you need to know who does the
action. In this module, you will learn about the moral agent and the moral act.
The moral agent is you or anyone who is responsible for the act or choice, and
the moral agent is someone who has culture and feelings. However, culture
and feelings are not the only things that matters in ethics. You also need to
know that you need to use reason to decide properly. In other words, this
module answers the question, “How does being who I am affect what I do?”.

Motivation Question

How do you act despite your cultural background and

feelings?

Module Pretest

Supply the answers on the blank before each item with the appropriate
word(s) found inside the box.
Spiritual Reason Culture Moral Courage
Feelings
Indirect Direct Passions Voluntariness Moral Agent
Passions
Will Cultural 7-Step process for Feelings
Relativism Decision-making
Impartiality Virtue Linguistic relativism Emotivism

_____________________ 1. The total way of life that determines the set of

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_____________________ 4. The intellectual paradigm that posits that every

culture (and morality) is different according to place, language, ethnicity,
and time.
_____________________ 5. The concept derived from the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis that says language determines the way people think and thus
every person has a different way to understand morality.
_____________________ 6. The kind of passion according to David Hume
caused by the sensation of pain of pleasure derived from some other idea
or impression.
_____________________ 7. The ethical theory by Alfred Jules Ayer that says
that our moral codes are mere expressions of our feelings of approval and
disapproval.
_____________________ 8. The most important strata of feelings according to
Max Ferdinand Scheler because it is the only one that is intentional.
_____________________ 9. The principle of justice wherein you need to filter
your decision based on objective factors rather than a personal bias,
prejudice, or favoring one person over others
_____________________ 10. The constituent of a human act that signifies that
you are competent to willfully act on whatever choice you will make
_____________________ 11. The popular template used by many
professionals to make a sound ethical decision.
_____________________ 12. The willingness to act based on moral principles
despite the odds and uncertainties means you have
_____________________ 13. The type of passions that you immediately feel
on a human experience.
_____________________ 14. The habitual trait that develops the will of a
person’s character to do good human acts.
_____________________ 15. The person who has feelings, culture, and reason
that is able discern his/her actions carefully.

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Lesson 2.1: Moral Agent as a Cultural

Being

Lesson Summary
As a moral agent, you already have a set of beliefs about what is right
or wrong. Your concept of morality is a product of your culture. In this lesson,
you will learn through the lens of cultural relativism that ethical standards vary
according to place, language, ethnicity, and time. However, you will also learn
why culture is not the ultimate judge that makes your actions right or wrong.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Articulate how culture shapes your concepts for what is “right” and
“wrong”
2. Expound the concept of cultural relativism in relation to ethics
3. Demonstrate how morals are different according to place, language,
community, and time.
4. Argue why culture should not be the main nor the only consideration in
ethics

Motivation Question
How does being a Filipino shape your moral compass?

Discussion
Culture is the complex whole of human life, which encompasses almost
everything a person does and thinks (Tylor, 1871). Culture shapes the way you
dress up, the language you speak, and the way you act. The moment you are
born into this world, you are already in the culture. This something that you will
always have, and you cannot escape from your ethno-cultural milieu (Clycq,
2015).
Concerning Ethics, culture is most relevant if we talk about customs, traditions,
and laws. Perhaps you can better understand the concept of culture if we
discuss the school of thought of Cultural Relativism.

Cultural Relativism

Cultural Relativism, the philosophical paradigm often used by

anthropologists and social scientists, believes that culture is different across
time and space (Kottak, 2010). Simply put, think of it like, "whatever is good
here may not be good in another place." For example, in the Philippines, leaving
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your footwear is a standard practice. However, in the USA, Americans do not

mind if visitors carry their footwear inside the house.
Regarding Ethics, what you think as "good or evil" depends on your culture. The
discussions about culture focus on symbols, language, beliefs, values, and
norms. For cultural relativists, these cultural elements vary according to the
place, the language, the community, and the historical context.
Morality is different from place to place. Greek philosopher and the father of
relativism, Protagoras of Abdera, started this idea as he said, "Man is the
measure of all things" (Ophuijsen et al., 2013). He reached this conclusion
when he was traveling to different city-states during the ancient period. He
observed that in every Greek acropolis, there is a different custom. For
example, in Athens, people are more concerned with business. Meanwhile,
when he visited Sparta, he observed that the culture was very militaristic (Arieti
& Barrus, 2010). It was okay from Spartan parents to throw sickly infants who
they deemed as not worthy to soldiers (Plutarch & Talbert, 2005). Upon seeing
the contrast between Athens and Sparta, he observed that life is always
different in other Greek city-states.
You can observe this phenomenon in life too. Here in the Philippines, the
practices of same-sex marriage and abortion are not moral. However, in other
countries, like Thailand, it is okay for two men or two women to take the vow.
It is the same with other controversial practices too, e.g., abortion, the death
penalty, and euthanasia. Whatever is immoral in the Philippines maybe not be
immoral in another place and vice versa.
Morality is different from tongue to tongue. Language is one essential
component of culture that affects our moral views. According to the Sapir-
Whorf hypothesis, "language determines our thought" (Penn, 2014). Benjamin
Sapir, the proponent of linguistic relativism, studied the Hopi tribe of North
America. He discovered that Hopi has a different concept of time than that of
Europe (Whorf, 2012). Thus, he concluded that as it is impossible to have a
direct translation of languages because a different language is also a different
way of thinking.
To illustrate, think of your Cebuano words like a "hilam-os," "hinaw," "himasa,"
and "ligo." If you translate them into English, you cannot directly translate them
into single words. Instead, you translate them as "washing your face," "washing
your hands," "washing your feet," and "taking a bath," respectively. Since
Cebuanos can express terms for washing specific body parts, Cebuanos may
give more importance to hygiene than English-speaking people.
Now, relating this train of thought to morality, we have words like "kaluoy",
"kaikug," "hilas," and many more. We cannot merely translate them to English
unless we use many words to describe Visayan moral concepts. For example,
you can roughly translate kaluoy as "a feeling mixed with contempt and pity,"
kaikug as "feeling of embarrassment due to modesty," and hilas as "someone
who is arrogantly disrespectful or ethically out of place." Similarly, those who
use the Cebuano language find it difficult to express English abstract terms like
"sex" without a malicious connotation. English-speaking people can discuss
"sex" as a natural reproductive process of every living being. Whereas, we
cannot think of the Cebuano terms "kayat" or "iyot" without imagining the act
lovers make under the sheets. The non-vulgar Cebuano term "pakighilawas"

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fails to capture English imagination of "sex"; it is more of a loose translation for

"bodying".
Even using English pronouns such as "he" and "she" are absent in the Cebuano
language. This shows that as gender in the Visayan society is less binary
compared to that of the West.
With the examples given above, we can conclude that people have different
ways of thinking since different people use different languages. If people think
differently, this means that their concepts of morality are different. Hence,
morality is relative to language.
Morality is different from tribe to tribe. Franz Boaz, the father of American
Anthropology, started using cultural relativism as a lens to record culture.
When an anthropologist conducts ethnographic fieldwork, he/she should think
that every culture is special in its own way (King, 2019). Otherwise, the tribes
or community being studied will not welcome the anthropologist. In Boaz's
research with the Inuit tribe of Northern America, he discovered that the
indigenous people act differently from most people in the USA (Boas, 1998).
For example, there is no problem for an Eskimo man if he loans his wife to
"keep his visitor warm” in the cold winter night (Rubel, 1961). In modern society,
that is immoral because when two people get married, they should not
entertain other partners outside of wedlock. For Inuits, they don't care if their
wives have sex with other people as long as their guests can survive that harsh
polar environment.
In the Philippines, indigenous people around the archipelago practice different
customs than those living in the city. Before the assimilation in modern society,
native women in the Cordilleras had no problem going nude outdoors (Jenks,
2005). However, if you see a topless woman running around the city. You feel
scandalized. Maybe you will think, "Where are her clothes? Does she feel any
shame?" The examples here prove that different communities have different
moral ideas of "decent fashion" over what is "vulgar."
The cultural relativity of morals also extends beyond fashion. Now, let's talk
about how we understand responsibilities. As a Filipino, you might agree that
we have close family ties (Capuno et al., 2013). The family – your parents,
siblings, grandparents, etc. – are very significant. By the time you grow up and
have a job, your parents do not expect you to move to a different address. It is
acceptable in the Philippines for adults, even with their own families, to stay
under one roof. In Europe and the US, parents expect them to move out and be
independent when a child goes to college. Adults in the Western tradition do
not necessarily watch for their parents, unlike us here in Asian communities. If
you adopt some Western idea, for example, leaving your parents behind when
they already retire, the Filipino community think of you as someone who is hilas
because you forgot your roots. The Tagalog saying, “Ang hindi lumingon sa
pinaggagalingan, hindi makararating sa paroroonan”, was Jose Rizal’s
inspiration to write his novel when he was in Europe (Ocampo, 1998).
The disparity between Western and Filipino customs in the example above
displays that morality is relative depending on the community's culture,
whether it is a tribe, a small village, or a modern neighborhood.
Morality is different from time to time. One of the core ideas of cultural
relativism is the fact that culture always undergoes change. In the words of

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German historian Oswald Spengler, “The are no eternal truths; every Philosophy
is an expression of its time" (Spengler, 1926, p. 41). In other words, "whatever
may be acceptable now, may not be acceptable tomorrow."
You can see several examples in society about how morality changes. In the
past, having a relationship with the same sex was a taboo in Europe.
Nowadays, Christian churches no longer hold the most influential authority on
moral affairs. Seeing two men or two women holding hands in public is not
uncommon. You can see changes of views in divorce too. Before, if a married
couple breaks up in the US, the community sees it as shameful. Nowadays, a
broken family is typical in the US (Emery, 2013, p. 1451). You can see this reality
in many Hollywood movies where many films cast roles of stepparents and
stepsiblings.
The reverse of moral change is also possible. "Whatever may not be acceptable
now, maybe acceptable tomorrow." A decade ago, before President Gloria
Arroyo sign the repeal of capital punishment in the Philippines (REPUBLIC ACT
NO. 9346, 2006), the death penalty was legal in the Philippines. Even our
national hero, Rizal, was a victim of the death penalty under Spanish rule. Now,
the state cannot condemn a criminal to die. Instead, lifetime imprisonment is
the highest form of punishment. Under the current administration, there is an
ongoing controversy on whether to reinstate capital punishment as a law to
deter crime. Who knows? This may change in the future.
To clarify, what is “legal” may not be “moral.” Laws may affect morality, but the
implementation of a law does not necessarily mean that people’s morals agree
with it. Always remember that legality is not the same as morality. You can
know more about the distinction of what is moral and legal in Module 3.
The death penalty is a controversial topic that scholars express their opinion
against the measure because of the events during the “war of drugs” (De Ungria
& Jose, 2020). Despite worldwide abolishment, some are also in favor of it on
account of the need for protection and collective fear against ruthless
criminals (Seal, 2017). Research at the University of Nebraska shows that
people aging 50 to 55 years old are most likely to support the death penalty
than younger ones (Anderson et al., 2017). This means that in cultural
relativism, even if people live in the same historical period, they will have
different moral opinions because they are born in a different generation. In
other words, what is right for your Lolo might be wrong for you and vice versa.
The shifting of views about the death penalty is the product of the evolution of
modern human rights that protects every person's welfare. One noticeable
effect is torture. Before, especially during the war, it was common to hurt spies
or enemy soldiers to extract information (Danner, 2004). Now, torture is illegal
and inhuman (Mallonga, 2011).
Looking at history, we see so many examples wherein moral codes change
over time. If our moral code continually changes to serve the needs of the time,
morality is not final. If that is the case, ethics is relative.

Wrapping up Cultural Relativism

Different scholars across different disciplines have explained that morality is

relative. Protagoras said that morality is relative from place to place. Benjamin

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Whorf and Edward Sapir says that morality is relative from tongue to tongue.
Boaz said that morality is relative from tribe to tribe. Lastly, Spengler says that
morality is relative from time to time. All of these thinkers claim that nothing is
universal because of the human diversity across space and time.
If culture is the basis for morality and if culture is relative, therefore, morality is
relative. Hence, there is no universal moral truth. This is what cultural relativists
believe.

Pros and Cons of Cultural Relativism

As a philosophical paradigm, cultural relativism offers several advantages

especially for those who are working in cross-cultural occupations. You can
summarize the benefits of cultural relativism as follows:
1. It makes people culturally sensitive.
2. It helps researchers from being racist and ethnocentric.
3. It highlights the need for social scientists to immerse to a
community to understand culture in the perspective of a local.
4. It emphasizes that morality is indeed evolving.
5. Cultural Relativism empowers cultural minority groups.
6. It encourages diversity and multidisciplinary approaches among
institutions.
Cultural Relativism insists that the main arbiter for morality is culture. Through
the lens of cultural relativism we now avoid derogatory terms such as
“primitive”, “uncivilized”, or “savage”. Through the contributions of
anthropologists and ethnographers who immersed to the field, minority groups
especially indigenous people have gain their rights. Moreover, cultural
relativism also helped in purifying our views in history. For example, we know
it is wrong to say, “Magellan discovered the Philippines”. Instead, we say,
“Magellan arrived in the Philippine archipelago in 1521.” Thus, cultural
relativism paved the way to a more politically correct language and
contextualized understanding of history.
However, cultural relativism has its own limitations. It is not a perfect
theory to explain morality since its main idea itself goes against the notion that
“moral standards” are universal (discussed in Lesson 1.2). Some criticisms of
cultural relativism are:
1. We cannot critique our own culture.
2. We cannot also correct the practices of other cultures.
3. Sometimes, cultural relativism makes us indifferent towards other
societies.
4. It causes divisions and xenophobia (fear or dislike towards foreigners).
5. Even if people belong to different backgrounds, cultures also share
same patterns of behavior.
6. We cannot definitely address issues that concerns people with different
cultural background.

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Cultural relativism says that culture are good in their own ways, however, it
gives an illusion that culture is always right. If you think that culture is always
right, you can no longer be critical on your own culture and others’ cultures. For
example, if in the Philippine family is always first, does it mean that it is okay
for politicians to prioritize their kin in government positions? If it is normal for
women to be under men in other countries – to the extent of domestic violence
– can you bear the guilt not to bat an eye and say, “Okay. That is how they do
things. This is how we do things. This is none of my concern.”? If you stay
indifferent because you just accept that people are different, you cannot make
a difference in the world.
As much as cultural relativism appreciates the beauty of each culture, a wrong
application of this perspective fuels racism and xenophobia. You may hastily
jump to the conclusion for example, “It is okay for Chinese people to eat exotic
animals. Anyway, that is their culture. It is none of my business to correct
them.” However, now that you are aware the novel corona virus may came from
an exotic animal, can you still stay culturally relative about it?
Remember that the world today is shrinking because of technology and social
media (Hamed & Wu, 2014). There are more interactions between cultures
now. When different cultural standards clash, cultural relativism is insufficient
to settle things. Levi-Strauss wrote in his book Mythologiques (1966) that even
if every culture is unique, there are parallelisms in the structure of culture.
Anywhere you go, you see that parents take care of children. If you show any
person a video of a physically abused child, that person will feel uncomfortable.
Thus, there are universal moral standards. No matter how different, each
culture should agree on a rule that celebrates our shared humanity – and these
are our moral standards in the form of human rights, virtues, and common
welfare of the people.

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Learning Tasks/Activities
One cultural phenomenon among Filipinos is the “Dyahe piece” – derived from
inverting the Tagalog word, “hiya” to “ya-hi” (Philippine Studies Newsletter
1988, p. 32). This practice usually happens when a group of people looks at the
last remaining piece of food.

Figure 3. Dyahe piece

Now, complete the flowchart by imagining yourself as one of people above

looking at the last piece of pizza.

You and your friends are looking

at the last piece of pizza.

You will eat the last You will not eat the last
piece. Explain why. piece. Explain why.

One of your friends arrives late to the

pizza party. He/she sees the pizza box.

The pizza box is empty. What will One piece of pizza remains. What
you tell your friend and why? will you tell your friend and why?

Table 3. Cultural Relativism Flowchart Learning Task

Going through this learning task, you realize that your reasons on why you
should eat or not eat the last piece of pizza is a product of Filipino culture.
However, when you provide answers on each options, you realize your culture
does not determine your actions. You decide as the moral agent.
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Assessment

Write a 500-word essay narrating those times when you make your culture as
the basis of your decision. (Use another sheet of paper)

Instructions on how to submit student output

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Lesson 2.2: Moral Agent as a Person with

Feelings

Lesson Summary
As a moral agent, you need to acknowledge that you are a person with
feelings. Your emotions can affect how you make ethical decisions in life. In
this lesson, you will learn some moral insights about emotions from the
perspectives of the emotivist Alfred Jules Ayer, the skeptic David Hume, and
the phenomenologist Max Ferdinand Scheler. As these following philosophers
highlight the importance of emotions in morality, you will learn in the later part
why you should not only rely on feelings in evaluating ethical actions.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain how feelings affect your moral decisions
2. Evaluate which feelings are more important
3. Integrate emotions as an important aspect in developing emphaty in
expressing moral opinions
4. Argue why feelings should not be the main nor the only consideration
in ethics

Motivation Question
Should you be happy or sad if a criminal kills the person you hate the most?

Discussion
In the previous lesson, you learned that culture is an essential component of
the moral agent. Now, you learn another critical aspect of the moral agent –
feelings or emotions.
Philosophers discussed several insights about feelings influence our actions.
In ancient Greece, Plato in his book, The Republic (2000), that our emotions are
part of our "spiritual soul”. He further argued that to live a good life, we need
to let our "rational soul" take over our "spiritual soul." In other words, our minds
should control our hearts, reason above emotions.

Our moral actions make sense because of feelings.

Modern philosophers, especially the positivists, look at emotions with a

different approach. One of the proponents, A.J. Ayer, says that feelings give
meaning to our moral actions (Ayer, 2012). To comprehend this, you need to
understand what "positivism" means.
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Positivism is the philosophical tradition that says that genuine knowledge can
only be attained through scientific observation, experimentation, and
comparison of data in both the natural and social world (Comte, 1865). In
simpler words, "to see is to believe." For example, you know that this learning
guide exists because you can see it. You are holding it right now; your
experience verifies that this learning guide is real. However, if you cannot see
this learning guide right now, the words "learning guide" does not make sense
at all. Therefore, it is not real and it only exists as an idea in your mind.
The human mind is capable of imagining so many things even if they do not
physically exist. For positivists, words like "God," "soul," and all other abstract
ideas are not real because you cannot see them. Your senses cannot confirm
whether "God" and "soul" are real or not. How about ethical concepts like
"good", "evil", "morality", etc. Is morality not real, after all?
Ayer argues that our concept of what is "good" and "evil" are expressions of our
feelings or approval or disapproval (Brummer, 1984, p. 107). For example, you
witness a snatcher robbing an old woman's purse. You know that what the
snatcher is doing is wrong because you feel bad about it. Your feelings serve
as evidence that it is an evil deed. The laws that say “robbery is wrong” is
therefore a product of the collective expression of the feeling when witnessing
the crime.
In another example, you know that feeding the hungry is a good deed because
the people you are feeding feels good about it. You can see that happiness in
their smile, and when these people thank you back, you feel real good inside.
In the same manner, the words “charity is a good deed” for Ayer is merely an
expression of your approval of acting generously.
In the examples we have discussed, you can understand that you go back to
the basics to know what is good or bad. Do you feel good or bad about it? This
ethical perspective is called emotivism. Your judgment of what is morally right
or wrong depends on how you feel about it. Without your feelings confirming a
human act, the concepts of "good," "evil," and even the term "ethics" do not
make sense at all.
Whenever you hear "that is bad" or "that is good", remember that emotivists see
these words as ways to express your approval or disapproval over what you
feel at that moment. Thus, as an ethical framework, emotivism does not believe
in a universal moral standard because emotions vary on every person.

Feelings as an instinctive response

Do you remember we mentioned that Plato said that reason should control our
emotions to live a good life? Another philosopher, David Hume, disagrees with
this idea. For him, we should suppress our feelings and emotions because it is
part of the natural instincts of human beings. He famously argued his points in
the book Treatise of Human Nature (1888), claiming four theses:
1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the "slave of
the passions."
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reason.

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3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of

approval (esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame) felt by spectators
who contemplate a character trait or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are
artificial.
Hume asserts that reason is not enough to determine whether our actions are
"bad" or "good" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2018). You need some
experiences to really learn what is wrong or right. For example, you cannot fully
understand that "stealing is bad" because your parents or someone else tells
you so. The rule "do not steal" only makes sense to you once someone steals
something important. Let's say a thief stole your smartphone. You cannot deny
that the thief did something absolutely wrong because you feel sad, angry, or
irritated. The sadness, anger, or irritation you think because you cannot do your
usual routine after losing your smartphone confirms it.
Hume further investigates our feelings by categorizing them into direct
passions and indirect passions.
Direct Passions Indirect passion

Caused directly by the Caused by the

sensations of pain or sensation of pain of
pleasure. pleasure derived from
some other idea or
impression.
E.g. desire, E.g. humility, ambition,
aversion/repugnance, vanity, love, hatred,
, fear, grief, joy. envy, pity, malice,
generosity

Table 4. Direct Passions and Indirect Passions according to Hume

The point of classifying passions as direct and indirect is for you to evaluate
your feelings. Some emotions last in the short term while some linger in the
long run. For example, you met your crush. One day, you had friendly chat with
each other. You were happy, and that experience is called "impression,"
according to Hume. Whatever you feel at that moment was something you feel
instantly. Hence, the joy of that company is a direct passion.
When you went home, you reminisced about the moment when you had with
your crush. Just thinking about it made you smile. That tingling sensation you
feel inside – the kilig – was what an indirect passion. Let say you repeated the
happy moments you had with your crush to the point that you realize that you
love him/her. The direct passions – happiness, laughter, and whatever you feel
with your crush – will soon develop into an indirect passion: love.
Classifying your feelings into direct and indirect passions will help you check
which feelings matter most. For Hume, if something makes you feel good, that

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action is right. Otherwise, if that something is making you feel bad, that action
is bad.

Strata of feelings

German Philosopher Max Ferdinand Scheler says that emotions are the
most important elements of human existence (Dy, 1986). Using
phenomenology – the philosophical study of human consciousness – he
classifies feelings into four different strata (Scheler, 1973).

Four Strata of Feelings

1. Sensual feelings Bodily pleasures or pain
2. Vital feelings Life functions e.g. health,
sickness
3. Psychic feelings Aesthetics, justice, scientific
knowledge
4. Spiritual feelings Divine experience
Table 5. Four Strata of Feelings according to Scheler

Sensual feelings refer to those that directly provide bodily pleasure and pain.
For example, you feel good while someone massages your back. You feel hurt
if a dog bites you.
Vital feelings refer to those sensations that affect you as a living being. For
example, you feel energized after taking a power nap. After a long day in school,
you feel tired that you want to sleep.
Psychic feelings refer to those some abstract concepts of feeling. For
example, you climb a mountain, and you see an incredible landscape. That
feeling of awe you felt is a psychic feeling after meeting something beautiful.
Another is when you hear the news that a serial got caught after several years
of hiding. You can say, "Yes! Justice is served".
Spiritual feelings refer to something of divine value—for example, the calm
atmosphere during meditation and prayer. For Scheler, spiritual feelings are
most important because this is the only feeling that is intentional (Moran &
Parker, 2015).
Unlike sensual, vital, and psychic feelings, spiritual feelings depend on things
that are external to a person. For example, in sensual feelings, you feel
refreshed if you drink something cold or the air conditioner. You feel weak or
strong in vital feelings depending if you have eaten well or if you have enough
sleep. In psychic feeling, you feel something when you encounter an object like
when you see an amazing painting or read a nice book with many life lessons.
Spiritual feelings are not like that, because you can only feel this when you have
the will to believe.

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Pros and Cons of relying on feelings for our moral actions

As one modifier of voluntariness, emotions may provide an easy way to

determine whether an action is good or bad. You do not need to think so much;
you just rely on your emotions to evaluate your actions. It is instantaneous and
natural for any human being. Thus, emotivism has the following impacts:
1. It makes us aware of the emotive element of moral judgment that
encourages a human act to others.
2. It develops a person's sense of empathy.
3. It encourages sensitivity in our words and actions when we want to
correct someone.
4. Emotions help us learn from our mistakes.
You will never encourage anyone to do something unless you feel good about
it. For example, you got involved in a tree-planting activity. Then, you received
some praise from your local community. You feel happy about it, and you want
others to feel the same. This is when emotions become a driving force for you
to advise others what to do. Aside from an emotive element moral judgment
element, emotions can turn your moral judgment into a prescriptive type.
The prescriptive element of emotions is also evident in the adverse scenario.
For instance, you pretend to be someone rich is social media. Time will come
that you will feel disturbed because of lying to the internet. The uneasiness you
feel for pretending to be someone else tells you that what you are doing is
wrong. That is why if you encounter someone else doing the same thing, you
might reprimand that person, "You know what? I've been there. Done that. I
don't want you to feel the agony I felt". The bad feeling after doing something
terrible makes you learn from your mistake.
Through emotions, you also develop empathy towards other people. You
become very sensitive to the words you use when you correct someone. By
knowing how others feel, you establish a human connection.
However, easy and relatable feelings sound, emotions are not
everything about what makes a human act morally upright or not. Hence, there
are criticisms about relying on emotions as a judge to your actions such as the
following:
1. Emotions show partiality.
2. Emotions draw our perspective away.
3. Emotions are capricious.
If you base your moral decisions on your emotions, you cannot decide
objectively. For example, imagine yourself as a mayor of a city. Let us say there
is a local transmission of COVID-19 in your town. Many people feel sick,
including some members of your family. Hospital beds are almost full in your
city. Who should you prioritize – your family or the majority of people in your
town? Obviously, if your emotions are to decide, those who are close to you
have the advantage. You may show partiality, and that is unfair to strangers in
your town. Emotions lack this ability to discern objectively, especially in
situations that involve love ones.
As much as emotivism shows some clear clues to determine what is right from
wrong, the opposite can also be true. In many situations, feelings provide more
confusion than clarity instead. For example, you will have a long exam the next

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week. However, your boyfriend/girlfriend just broke up with you. Instead of

studying hard, you ended up distracted. The emotions you feel may also push
you to even worse consequences. Not only that, you may choose not to study
at all, but a person after a bitter breakup may decide to end his/her life. In other
words, emotions cannot keep you think straight, putting you to more dangerous
situations.
Lastly, our emotions are very volatile. Feelings change over time, and
sometimes instantly. For example, you go to a public plaza and meet a
homeless child. On your first encounter, you feel pity for the child. You gave
him some food. Instead of thanking you, the child complained, "I don't want
food. Don't buy me bread. Give me at least 50 pesos instead." After hearing
those words from the homeless child, you don't feel pity anymore. Instead, you
feel anger or annoyance after hearing a very ungrateful response.
The fact that emotions cannot be objective, misleading, and changes so quickly
mean that your feelings can never be a reliable moral judgment source. You
need something that is more objective and still universally acceptable to many.
This is why we will expound more on the next topic.

Learning Tasks/Activities
You have learned in the discussion that feelings should not be the only basis
for moral judgement. However, the ethical discussion about emotions
highlights the importance of empathy in our words and actions.
What do you feel? What will you do?
Write briefly your immediate response in the situations below. Focus your
answer based on your feelings.

You met your childhood friend after several years. To celebrate your reunion,
you agreed to dine out in a restaurant. You enjoyed talking about the nostalgic
moments. When the waiter delivered the bill, your friend said, “I forgot to bring
my wallet. Mars, pwede pautang?” What do you feel? What will you do?
I feel
I will

You don’t like your neighbor who is middle-aged woman because she is very
“chimosa”. One day, you saw her husband physically abuse her in front of your
neighbors. What do you feel? What will you do?
I feel
I will

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The huge man who looks intimidating that you are afraid of him. This man
beats a dog in public. The dogs screams louder in pain every time the man
strikes with an iron rod. What do you feel? What will you do?
I feel
I will

When think of answers for the learning tasks, you imagine yourself in
the situation. When you use your emotions, you learn to feel as if you are in
the shoes of your childhood friend, you chismosa neighbor, and the abused
dog. Through empathy, your emotions guide you do you the right thing.

Assessment

Write a 500-word essay narrating those times when you make your emotions
as the basis of your decision. (Use another sheet of paper)

Instructions on how to submit student output

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Lesson 2.3: Moral Act

Lesson Summary
After you learned some details on how culture and emotions affect your
actions, now, you will learn how reason can guide you to do a moral act by being
critical and undergoing the careful process of logic. In this lesson, you will learn
the following things: (1) Why reason and impartiality are required in ethics, (2)
The 7-step model of moral decision-making (3) Moral courage, and (4) and why
you should develop your “will” through virtues and ethical principles. By
learning the essential components of the moral agent’s and the moral act, you
will be ready to tackle different ethical frameworks on the next modules.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain why reason should the main basis of moral action and not
culture nor emotions;
2. Apply the 7-step model of moral decision-making in situations in your
life;
3. Expound the role of the “will” in the human act;
4. Prepare for the lessons on the next module by familiarizing the
importance of principles and virtues in doing a moral act.

Motivation Question
How can I decide morally and properly?

Discussion
In the previous two lessons of this module, you learned that culture and
emotions are essential parts of the moral agent that influences decision-
making. However, neither of the two offers a reliable basis to arrive at an
objective method to evaluate whether an action is good or bad.
On the one hand, culture acknowledges that people already have a set of moral
beliefs. Still, cultural biases and prejudices cannot settle issues wherein two or
more cultures collide. On the other hand, emotions offer easy and natural clues.
Yet, the unstable and subjective nature of passions disrupts the individual's
thinking process.
Since both culture and emotions provide relative answers, you will now learn
how reason can guide you to arrive at a universal and objective conclusion.
Philosophers argue that only through reason can a person reach a logical and
fair moral judgment.

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Reason and impartiality are requirements in ethics

Let us start this discussion with an example. Imagine yourself as the

eldest child in an average Filipino family. You have four younger siblings. After
two months, you will earn a college degree. A few days before your graduation,
your parents requested, "When you find a job, please support your younger
siblings." How will you respond?
If you immediately say, "Yes, of course! It is our tradition to help the family", you
are arguing using your culture. If you whimsically say, "Yes, I love my siblings. I
would like to see them finish their studies too.” you are arguing using your
emotions. If you hastily say, "No. I don't like the idea. I want to enjoy my salary
by traveling and doing things I have not tried before", you are also arguing by
emotions, but now with some egoistic motives.
When you arrive at the following responses above without pondering whether
you agree with your parents' request or not, you are not using reason. In ethics,
you need a reason to carefully evaluate whether your decision is right or wrong.
You do not merely conform to your traditions or decide things depending on
your mood. You have to think first. Reflect what will happen if you do this or do
that. If you use reason, you don't need to give your parents an immediate
response. You can tell them, "Mama and Papa. Can I think about this first
before I decide?” Whatever answer you arrive, you must ponder upon the logical
flow of your decisions. You have the will to decide, not your culture nor your
emotions. Thus, reason is “the power of the mind to comprehend, infer, or think
especially in a logical manner" (Merriam-Webster, 2020).
Now, suppose that you are thinking about your decision on the matter. You
need to consider impartiality. In ethics, impartiality refers to the principle of
justice wherein you need to filter your decision based on objective factors
rather than a personal bias, prejudice, or favoring one person over others
(Jollimore, 2017). In other words, you need to ask the question, "Is my decision
fair for everyone?” To do that, you need to imagine who are the people involved.
"Is it fair for my parents to ask such request the expense of my hard work? Is it
fair for my siblings not able to study college because I cannot support them?
Is it fair for me to refuse because I want to achieve my dreams first? Is it fair
for me to make sacrifices for the sake of my family?” These are valid points of
reflection, and it is tough to decide. Still, you need reason and impartiality to
arrive at a wise choice (Rachels, 2003).

The 7-step model for ethical decision-making

In our life, we encounter challenging situations. Sometimes, we don't

have enough time to think of the best answer, especially if you have to make a
life-changing decision. Frequently, the reasoning process makes us confused
even more because we do not know where to start. Thankfully, philosophers
and scholars have provided templates on ethical decision-making. One of the
frameworks available is the 7-step model for ethical decision making by Scott
and Wong (2009, Chapter 16). CHED adapted the model that goes:
1. Gather the facts
2. Identify the stakeholders

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3. Articulate the dilemma

4. List the alternatives
5. Compare the alternatives with the principles
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision.
Let us explain each of the steps through an example, this time in a systemic
dilemma. Turn back time a little bit and imagine yourself as the president of
the Philippines. Last January 30, 2020, the Department of Health declared the
first case of the COVID-19 from a 38-year-old Chinese woman (WHO, 2020).
Will you ban the flights from China or not?
Gather the facts. Do not jump to conclusions. Look for more information about
the matter. Who are the people together with the Chinese national? Where did
the COVID-19 carrier travel? When did she develop symptoms? What resources
does the health care professional in the country have? How far did the virus
spread now? Why is it important to issue travel bans? Sometimes, you cannot
decide properly because you lack information. Gather as many as you can, and
verify whether they are true or not before you make a decision.
Identify the stakeholders. Who are the people involved in this issue? In this
case, your decision about whether to ban flights or not will affect the Filipino
people and business partners in China. You also need to know the perspectives
of each of the sectors in the country.
Articulate the dilemma. Now, you need to express why it is difficult to make a
decision. In this case, the dilemma is like "To ban flights or not to ban? If I ban
flights from China, potential virus carriers will stop coming inside the
Philippines. However, that will hurt the diplomatic ties with China. This country
shares a long history of trading with the Philippines. If I do not ban flights from
China, the virus may spread in the country, but at least, that will not hurt the
friendship with a strategic ally in Asia which the country owes so much debt."
Constructing a dilemma into words will help you comprehend the gravity of the
situation. Thus, a clear identification of moral dilemma allows you to see your
possible decision and avoid the unnecessary factors in drawing a conclusion.
List the alternatives. Think outside the box. Is banning flights the only way to
control the spread of the virus? Do we have other options? To creatively think
about different roads to take, you might come up with a win-win solution.
Sometimes, also a win-win solution may not be a good decision. So, still
carefully evaluate your alternatives.
Compare the alternatives with the principles. When you are articulating your
dilemma, you are speculating the possible outcomes of your decision. When
you are thinking of other options, you are also calculating the potential
consequences. However, you also need to consider your principles and values
to determine whether all the options are valid. So, what is more, important to
you? The health of the Filipino people? The Philippine economy? The
diplomatic ties with China? Or your political career? What should values should
an ethically upright president uphold? You will learn different ways to approach
this problem in Module 3.
Weigh the consequences. As you have expressed in the dilemma, you now
start to speculate on your decision's effects. Consult public health experts so
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that you can see proper stimulations whether you choose to ban the flights or
not. Which of the following option is most beneficial, necessary, and
practicable to the stakeholders? "If I ban the flights, I might save the public's
health, but the economy might go down. If I do not ban the flights, public health
will surely go down. However, in effect, if people are sick, they cannot work
properly. Thus, the economy will still go down." If neither of the options
produces a positive outcome, which among the options has the least negative
effect?
Make a decision. You must not stay on thinking forever. You have to decide.
There is always pressure when confronted with a moral dilemma, and there is
no easy way out. However, your decision might not turn out the best as you
expect. Still, at least you decide based on morally upright principles. Whether
you ban the flights or not, make it sure that you are consistent with a "good
president" values.

Morale Courage and human Act

In the example above, remember that it is complicated to decide when

you encounter a moral dilemma. You face doubt, fear, and confusion because
all of the consequences you can think of will result in a negative result. Still,
you have principles to live by that guide you to be a morally upright person.
Acting on these principles despite the odds and uncertainties means you have
what philosophers call moral courage.
Moral courage does not merely mean that you have a brave personality to
make ethical decisions (Drumwright & Murphy, 2004). For philosopher Mark
Johnson, you need to have the ability called moral imagination – an ability to
imaginatively discern various possibilities for acting within a given situation to
envision the potential help and harm that are likely to result from a given action
(Johnson, 1994)."
However, take note that decision making is not only a matter of imagination.
Moral imagination may make you think creatively on different scenarios, but
that is not all about making ethical decisions. You still need moral reasoning to
make your choice a human act.
Always remember that there are three constituents of a human act (Agapay,
1991; Babor, 2006, pp. 157–159):
1. Freedom
2. Reason or knowledge
3. Voluntariness
Freedom, as already explained in Module 1, entails that you have choices in life.
As described in the early pages of this lesson, reason means that you are
capable of thinking logically, which among the options is best for you. Lastly,
voluntariness signifies that you are competent to willfully act on whatever
choice you will make. You take away one of these components; the human
person is no longer morally responsible for his/her actions.
To illustrate the differences between the three, look at this example. You went
to a beach outing. You and one of your friends, Clara, decided to go snorkeling.
When you are in deep waters and enjoy the coral reef's picturesque view,
suddenly, your friend got leg cramps. You are the only one who can save her.
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At the start, you have two choices – to save or not to save her. That means that
at that moment, you have freedom. Then, you think about whether to save your
friend or not. "Am I a good enough as a swimmer to save her? If I leave her
there, she might get drowned. Should I shout and ask for help instead?" Having
these conversations in your head means that you have reason. Then, you
decided to save her. The moment you act on one choice among all other
alternatives shows that you have voluntariness. You have the will to choose.
The will is a fundamental concept because it refers to your mental capacity to
act on your decision. At the level of reason and moral imagination, you are only
weighing the pros and cons in your mind. Meanwhile, at the level of
voluntariness and moral courage, you use your will to act whatever your reason
has come up as the morally right thing.

Developing Virtue as a Habit

You don't experience a "damn if you do; damn if you don't" situations
every day. Philosophers discuss moral dilemmas to demonstrate challenging
moral decisions. However, most of the time, we just need to do the right thing
in ordinary circumstances. This is where you need to develop virtues.
For Aristotle, you need to master self-control to distinguish virtues from vice
(Curzer, 2012). His philosophy is about "doing the right things at the right place
and the right time." For instance, you are the type of person who has very
sensitive hearing. Then, you are in the middle of the class, and the neighboring
classroom is very loud. Instead of storming the next classroom, and shout at
them, master the virtue of patience. Wait for the class period to end and then
approach the teacher on the other classroom calmly, "Excuse me Sir/Maam.
We have a hard time concentrating on our quiz last period. Is it okay if your
class can tone down the noise a little bit?”
Once you develop virtues, somehow, you automatically do what the right thing
to do is. The moral agent, which is you, quickly responds to what is the moral
act. By practicing virtues, you are developing your will to do what is right. You
are formulating principles in life that will make you a better and happy person.
You will learn more about virtue in Module 3.

Wrapping up the moral agent and moral act

In Lesson 2.1 and Lesson 2.2, you learned that people have culture and
feelings that affect their moral decisions. In this lesson, we have established
that reason should be the main factor to consider instead of just culture and
emotions. You need reason to carefully examine your actions.
So, what is the point of discussing culture and feelings if they are not that
important as reason as the basis of action? Ethics is not only about knowing
what is the right thing to do or explain why a human act is right or wrong. As a
philosophical discipline, Ethics aims to make this world better by educating all
of us to be aware of our actions.
One way to teach ethics is by correcting others. You cannot effectively correct
others if you do not take into account, which is the moral agent. By the time
come when you handle people – leading a team or taking a high position in
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office – you cannot correct your colleague by just saying, "What you are doing
is wrong. This is what you should do." You need to have empathy and consider
the background of the person you want to correct. Essential parts of this
background are his/her culture and emotions. Only when you can understand
the moral agent's point-of-view can you encourage him/her to do the moral act.

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Learning Tasks/Activities
Apply the 7-step model in a situation in your life. Do not think of anything
complicated. A simple situation will do.
Table 6. 7-step Process Learning Task

Gather the
facts

Identify the
stakeholders

Articulate
the dilemma

List the
alternatives

Compare
alternatives
with princples

Weigh the
consequences

Make a
decision

Doing this activity, you will realize that there are steps to take in making a moral
decision. That is why is important to use reason to carefully consider the
effects of your actions to others and to your own character.

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Assessment

Write a 500-word essay to share an experience wherein you were able to use
reason, instead of emotion or culture, to arrive to moral act. (Use another sheet
of paper)

Instructions on how to submit student output

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Module Posttest

_____________________ 1. The total way of life that determines the set of

beliefs and moral codes of a moral agent is born and raised into.
_____________________ 2. The natural instinctive state of mind derived from
the mood, circumstances, and relationships of others that influences the
decisions of a moral agent.
_____________________ 3. The power of the human mind that allows people
to think objectively and arrive to a logical and fair decision.
_____________________ 4. The intellectual paradigm that posits that every
culture (and morality) is different according to place, language, ethnicity,
and time.
_____________________ 5. The concept derived from the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis that says language determines the way people think and thus
every person has a different way to understand morality.
_____________________ 6. The kind of passion according to David Hume
caused by the sensation of pain of pleasure derived from some other idea
or impression.
_____________________ 7. The ethical theory by Alfred Jules Ayer that says
that our moral codes are mere expressions of our feelings of approval and
disapproval.
_____________________ 8. The most important strata of feelings according to
Max Ferdinand Scheler because it is the only one that is intentional.
_____________________ 9. The principle of justice wherein you need to filter
your decision based on objective factors rather than a personal bias,
prejudice, or favoring one person over others
_____________________ 10. The constituent of a human act that signifies that
you are competent to willfully act on whatever choice you will make
_____________________ 11. The popular template used by many
professionals to make a sound ethical decision.
_____________________ 12. The willingness to act based on moral principles
despite the odds and uncertainties means you have

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_____________________ 13. The type of passions that you immediately feel

on a human experience.
_____________________ 14. The habitual trait that develops the will of a
person’s character to do good human acts.
_____________________ 15. The person who has feelings, culture, and reason
that is able discern his/her actions carefully.

Answers to the Pretest and Posttest

1.) Culture 2.) Feelings 3.) Reason 4.) Cultural Relativism 5.) Linguistic
Relativism 6.) Indirect Passion 7.) Emotivism 8.) Spiritual Feelings
9.)Impartiality 10.) Voluntariness 11.) 7-Step process for Decision-making 12.)
Moral Courage 13.) Direct Passions 14.) Virtue 15.) Moral Agent

References and Additional Resources

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Module 3: Module
Frameworks and
Principles Behind our
Moral Disposition
Module Overview

This module is about the guiding principles that are not new to you in the sense
that in your decision making, unwittingly, you subscribe to these frameworks.
Consequently, these frameworks and principles have been a part of you the
moment you started making decisions of your own. You even once thought that
your moral disposition in your life was brought by your unique ways of handling
different issues. However, the things that you have employed in decision-
making were learned from your family, friends, and experiences that were
rooted in different cultures, people, philosophers, and thoughts that in one way
or another eventually shaped your moral compass. Thus, this module will
introduce you to the most common frameworks (Virtue Ethics, Deontology,
Utilitarianism, and Justice an Fairness) and principles that are, let us say,
responsible for your moral disposition.

Motivation Question

What is living for you? Is it enough for you to be born into this world not being
concerned with the right and wrong things to do? Or you want to take part in a
world where you take the responsibility for your actions? When can you say
that your action is right or wrong?

Module Pretest

Instructions: Please answer succinctly.

1. What is Virtue Ethics?
2. What is virtuous human being?
3. What is the meaning of Eudaemonia?
4. Can you please enumerate the Four Cardinal Virtues?
5. What does Natural Law mean?
6. What is utility?
7. What is morality for utilitarianism?
8. What is the original position?
9. What are the two principles derived from the original position?

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Lesson 3.1: Virtue Ethics

Lesson Summary

Aristotle laid down the foundation of his Ethical theory by introducing the three
pivotal concepts in his Ethics namely: First, Telos, which means the end or goal
of one’s actions. Second, virtue means the good qualities that one should
practice, and third is happiness or eudaemonia, as the ultimate goal of why one
should be virtuous (Aristotle, 1999) You act morally not because you are told
to do so, but because you are a virtuous man who is looking forward to a goal
called happiness. As a virtuous man, you translate your acquired virtues into
action. As far as the philosophy of Aristotle is concerned, virtue ethics is the
development of virtue in a human being, as it makes a man good and ultimately
will guide him in reaching happiness or eudaemonia.

Learning Outcomes

1. You will be able to explain the role of mental frames in moral

experience;
2. You will be able to classify the dominant mental frames;
3. You will be able to articulate and critique virtue ethics

Motivation Question

What are the things that make you happy? Does being virtuous lead you to a
happy life?

Discussion

Aristotle was born to a well-off family in the Macedonian town of

Stagira about 384 B.C. He studied at the Academy of Plato, technically he was
able to learn painstakingly the philosophy of his mentor. Aristotle stayed in the
academy until Plato died because it was Plato’s nephew Speusippus who took
under control the academy. And the main concern of the latter was the
mathematical aspects of Platonism. Consequently, it did not sit well with the
interest of Aristotle which was more on Biology There were only a few of
Aristotle’s works that survived. However, from his seminal works, one could
sense the depth of his interests, Ethics for one (Cohen, 2011).

Telos

Aristotle’s ethical theory presents the concept of the end of your

actions. The Greek word telos is the root word of Teleology which means the
study of the end, goal, purpose, or the final stage of things. The basic concept
of telos or end tells you that every action you do has an end of its own. To
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illustrate the concept of the end, I want you to think of an action you did in the
past that you expected for a calculable end. The end is calculable and
predictable because, in one way or another, you already had an idea of what
result you expected for doing such an act based on your experience and
somebody else’s experience.
Let us try to use a common example here. One day, your friends decide
to go out for an outing on an Island. And since your parents are relatively strict,
you have to do things that are pleasing to their eyes and minds so that when
you finally ask permission, they will become reasonable enough to allow you to
go out with your friends. So, the calculable telos or end here for you is that your
parents will give you the approval. There are specific steps that you would want
to do to reach a favorable end, and for this one, let us limit it into three probable
actions. First, you have to remember the likes and dislikes of your parents.
Obviously, you will start doing the things that please them. Second, you have to
be mindful of the things, as a student, you are expected to do your task
efficiently, and gratification comes next (this is interconnected with the first
step, as parents want their child to be successful in their studies). Third,
maintain the presence of mind and sense of responsibility so that your parents
will trust you more in dealing with things.
The steps that you ought to take are just the common actions that lead
to an advantageous end. Consequently, there are some undesirable things you
might have done just to reach the anticipated end, yet the main purpose of the
illustration is to guide you in understanding that in reaching an end, there are
phases that you have to take. Moreover, whatever kind of end is at stake, it
connotes process and decision-making.

Virtue

Fundamentally, virtues are the good traits, character, and disposition

that you practice. Courage, honesty, generosity, prudence, self-control,
fairness, to name a few, are just some of the common virtues that you have
developed as you grew into an adult. Virtue is considered as an element for you
to reach a favorable end or telos of your actions.
The manifestation of virtues you have witnessed and experienced
from other people make you want to emulate because you sense from others
that being a virtuous human being, goodness comes out naturally from them.
Thus, the virtues that you learned bring you to behave in the right manner.
Furthermore, the moral virtues are a mood to situate human being in between
the extremes of deficiency and excess. In this part, habit steps forward than
reason and instruction since by practice and habit that we learn how to virtuous
(Aristotle, 1999).
A virtuous person may have a particular characteristic that is dominant
in him, being courageous for instance. Courage defined as having the strength
to face grief, adversities, and problems. Courage is one of the most essential
virtues that a human being should develop into a habit if you want to survive in
this harsh world. However, the danger, in this case, lies in, not only the reality
of having less courage amounting to cowardice, but the reality that your
courage will be stretched to becoming extreme, and being rational seems to
escape from the picture. When you are caught off-guard of having the excess

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of courage and lost sense of reason leading to negative fearlessness, there are
palpable negative repercussions. As mentioned above that, virtue connotes
balance that it should exist in the middle of extremes; passe as it may seem,
but still holds water that anything too much is detrimental, and with the
deficiency or the lack of something is precarious as well.
Since we have discussed the idea of being courageous, and too much
courage, which is no longer courage, rather the becoming of having negative
fearlessness, is harmful. Supposing you witness a hostage-taking by a trigger-
happy man pointing a gun to a child’s head. And due to your being extremely
fearless, you jump into the scene and try to rescue the victim. What is absent
in the situation is the proper thinking of the dangers of the situation. In doing
such a heroic act, you do not only endanger yourself but also the life of the child
and the people who are present in the drama. Thus, it is pivotal for you to weigh
things out and have the exact virtue, most especially in a situation like this.
Another example that virtue should be in the middle of the extremes is
a situation where you encounter a very honest man. I am not saying that
honesty is wrong, because you grew up hearing from your elders and religion
the lines “be honest, don’t tell a lie” and “honesty is the best policy.” However,
you perfectly know that there are instances where extreme honesty does no
favorable things toward yourself and others. Albeit, the opposite of honesty is
dishonesty, but for the sake of this illustration, I think it is safe to say that you
all have that one friend of yours whose honesty is to the highest level reaching
stupidity and tactlessness. Funny as it may seem, but you can relate to it. It is
also important that being honest should be put in a proper place, and since
virtue is interconnected, you need prudence to have perfect timing. Here are
some examples where extreme honesty is dangerous. First, dealing with
people in Social Media. You should not divulge your personal life as many
opportunistic people are waiting for a chance to defraud you in different ways,
but mostly on a financial matter. Second, you should not comment on your
friend unconstructively in front of other people. Third, out of courtesy, you do
not tell the person who offers you food that it is not delicious, although the food
is unpleasant to your taste buds. And the list goes on and so forth. There is a
common activity for us that is to hold the truth that we are fond of. Albeit, it
appears to be beneficial in one way or another, yet withholding connotes
balance if there is a plan of telling the truth at the right time and place. Then
again, if you want to become a virtuous human being, you have to strike
balance, and thus having held the truth could be part of exercising virtue also
means doing the right thing, at the right time, and in the right manner.

Eudaemonia
The purpose of man is to reach happiness or eudaemonia as the end or
telos of one’s action refined by virtues. Thus, the goal is lasting happiness and
not only happiness for a very short period. In other words, it is eternal, and in
reaching your goal, you develop virtues as a habit that in turn, goodness
radiates from your entire being. Yes, you can be happy with different things in
your life, you can even be happy in doing not so good things, like vices, exactly
the opposite of virtues, but still, be fine with it.
However, eudaemonia as the ultimate end of man presents a sense of
everlasting and permanence of happiness. For a brief period, you can be happy

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in hurting other people most especially if what juxtaposes your actions are the
embers of revenge. But “at the end of the day ngitngit”(dark) according to Insoy
Niñal. Indeed, this line makes sense. The whole day you have been thinking and
celebrating that finally, you have made your revenge, but when the night comes,
you realize that there is no even a single star could to illuminate the darkness
in you and eventually makes you miserable. The point however is this, things
that are done out of virtues warrant you to experience happiness, eudaemonia,
the permanence of light, that even when night encroaches, there is enough light
to brighten up your night. Happiness could also mean having a good life, and
to obtain the life you have to be a good man, in other words, a virtuous human
being.
You begin to ask yourself if being virtuous makes you a good human
being, what is good then? It is pivotal to provide ideas about goodness most
especially that the issue at hand is becoming a good man leading to a good
life, happiness, or eudaemonia. Aristotle reminded us that a good thing means
a well-functioning one. You often see clog bathrooms, out of order escalators,
bad road conditions, etc. connote the non-functionality of things, thus the
concept of good is absent. Another example is, eating healthy food is a good
act. Why? It is because the act of eating healthy food shows well-being, well
nurturing of self. Thus, if you are healthy, you are a functioning human being,
can be considered good as far as the idea of functionality is concerned. Further,
if you murder a person, the act is bad since you take one’s life, and taking one’s
life does not preserve life, and terminates life to function well or to develop into
something better or to function well (Aristotle, 1999).

Learning Tasks/Activities

A. Ask 5 family members or friends, about the top 5 things that make them
happy. Let them rank it according to the intensity it gives, number 1
being as the highest and 5 as the lowest.

Activity 1 A.

1. Name________________________________________

1.___________________________

2.___________________________

3.___________________________

4.___________________________

5.___________________________

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2. Name________________________________________

1.___________________________

2.___________________________

3.___________________________

4.___________________________

5.___________________________

3. Name________________________________________

1.___________________________

2.___________________________

3.___________________________

4.___________________________

5.___________________________

4. Name________________________________________

1.___________________________

2.___________________________

3.___________________________

4.___________________________

5.___________________________

5. Name________________________________________

1.___________________________

2.___________________________

3.___________________________

4.___________________________

5.___________________________

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Activity 1 B
.

Make a list of your own, top 5 things that make you happy, and
rank them from 1 as the highest and 5 as the lowest.

You: ________________________________________

1.___________________________

2.___________________________

3.___________________________

4.___________________________

5.___________________________

Assessment

Write a 500-word essay discussing the interconnectedness of virtues and why

balance is the key to living a virtuous and happy life.

Instructions on how to submit student output

Lesson 3.2: St. Thomas: Natural law

Lesson Summary

St. Thomas paved the way for you to understand Natural law by introducing the
four kinds of laws, namely; eternal, natural, human, and divine. First, Eternal law
is the Reason of God governing the whole universe. Second, Natural law is
man’s rational participation in natural law. Third, Divine law is derived from a
transcendent source, God in this case. Lastly, human law is manmade law and
considered as the lowest form of law (Aquinas, 1911)
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Learning Outcomes

1. You will be able to understand and articulate the Natural Law theory of
St. Thomas Aquinas.

Motivation Question

Do you simply follow rules and regulations without trying to question authority?
Or you feel in one way or another that there are man-made laws that
disenfranchise the less fortunate deviating from God-given-law?

Discussion

The Natural Law and its Tenets

Let us have a little background of St. Thomas Aquinas. He was born in

1225 at Rocasseca in Italy. He is a philosopher and theologian. The huge
attempt in his academic and religious life was to combine the theological
principles of faith with the philosophical principles of reason. He was one of
the most influential thinkers of medieval Scholasticism. His seminal works are
characterized critiques of the scriptures and the works of Aristotle.
The idea of natural law can be traced back to Cicero, where it was
defined as a true law is a right reason in agreement with nature. Consequently,
St. Thomas has not left the predominant definition of natural law, which
includes the nature of man as being rational. A man possessing virtues, good
values, and goodwill, make a natural law inherent to him. Moreover, to have a
clearer picture of what natural law is, St. Thomas introduced four kinds of laws,
namely; eternal, natural, human, and divine.
First, Eternal law is the Reason of God governing the whole universe. It
is believed that the universe is crafted by an intelligent mind exhibiting the
sustaining of life and excellent design. The universe as the cosmos possesses
the unity of the diverse creatures. This event is due to the intervention of the
eternal law (Agapay, 1991).
Second, Natural law is man’s rational participation in Divine law. As an
example, it is wrong to kill another person since the divine law does not
promote killing. This law should be concerned with what the Divine law
proposes.
Third, Divine law is derived from a transcendent source, God in this
case. This is a theological explanation of a law that emanates from a supreme
being.
Fourth, human law is a man-made law and considered the lowest form
of law. This law is promulgated by man to uphold the civil rights of a citizen in
a particular society (Aquinas, 1911).
The common question that often time arises is about the nexus
between natural law and eternal law. Consequently, the “participation” of man
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seems to clarify the marvels of the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas, as far
as his discussion of laws is concerned. In moral philosophy, it is said that the
natural law mirrors the eternal law that it becomes palpable to man through the
faculty of reason.
Another thing that shed light on the apprehensions above is, St. Thomas
introduced another kind of law, which is called positive law- a written law for
other rational beings to comprehend, and in turn gives them the idea of natural
and eternal law. In this world, there are two kinds of positive law:
First is called Civil Law, this means the laws that are promulgated by
man to maintain peace and order in society, in turn protecting the rights of the
individual citizen by upholding their civil rights, e.g. parking laws, the right to
property, the right to life, the right to free speech, to name a few.
The second is called Ecclesiastical law. From Britannica encyclopedia,
“Canon law, Latin jus canonicum, a body of laws made within certain Christian
churches (Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, independent churches of
Eastern Christianity, and the Anglican Communion) by
lawful ecclesiastical authority for the government both of the whole church
and parts thereof and the behavior and actions of individuals.” Furthermore,
the term includes precepts of divine law, natural or positive, incorporated in
the canonical collections and codes, if this is the case the “Ten
Commandments” is considered an ecclesiastical law (Aquinas, 1911).

Happiness as constitutive of moral and cardinal virtues

It is seen from the seminal works of St. Thomas Aquinas how he mirrors
Aristotle’s idea. There many notable things that both of them agree on some
matters to some degrees. For instance, they both agree that man is inherently
good and is a rational being. Both also agree that virtue leads to happiness and
the absence of it leads to unhappiness. St. Thomas believed that the morality
of happiness should find a nexus between one’s actions of doing good. Thus,
the four cardinal virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, and Temperance when
becoming a habit to man, aids man in seeking happiness. The
interconnectedness of these cardinal virtues enables you to reach the highest
good that is not of this world, but ultimately in union with God.

However, the ancient philosopher Aristotle and medieval philosopher

and Doctor of the church St. Thomas Aquinas play contrast in defining the good
and happiness. For Aristotle, the highest good is happiness. And that
“happiness is final and self-sufficient; it is desirable in itself and only for itself”
(Aristotle, 1999). Happiness or eudaemonia is considered the ultimate goal of
a good man which can be equated to having a good life. In other words, in this
world, you can attain eudaemonia or happiness. While for St. Thomas
“happiness is the perfect good which brings all of our desires to rest.” Perfect
happiness is the chief good. St. Thomas believed that everything we do, we do
it for the sake of the good. Consequently, there is a connection of happiness
with moral and cardinal virtues. Furthermore, in contrast with Aristotle’s idea
of happiness that of this world through being a virtuous man, ultimately leads
you to a good life or eudaemonia, for St. Thomas, the ultimate happiness

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should be a union with the supreme creator through the practice of the cardinal
virtues, in turn, subscribing to morality resulting to eternal happiness.
If you try to connect Aristotle’s view of happiness that by being a
virtuous man warrants you for a good life or eudaemonia with St. Thomas
eternal happiness, you can sense a subtle nexus. This connection is
sympathetic to both philosophers in the sense that Aristotle to a certain degree
trains the human being in preparation for the St. Thomas’ eternal happiness.
Heaven is often defined as a state of mind rather than a place, but still, you
would wish to believe that heaven is an abode for you to stay when you die. I
remember [Link] of Lisieux, and I quote “Upon my death, I will let fall a
shower of roses; I wish to spend my heaven in doing good upon the earth”
(Therese, 1975). If heaven is true then, by taking into account Aristotle’s
concept of a virtuous man, you are spending heaven here on earth by doing
good things leading to happiness. And eventually, to experience a not of this
world happiness, you should subscribe to St. Thomas’ idea of eternal
happiness.

Learning Tasks/Activities

1. Define the Four Cardinal Virtues

a. Prudence
b. Fortitude
c. Justice
d. Temperance

Assessment
Write a 500-word essay elucidating and pointing out some man-made laws
that are devoid of Natural law.

Lesson 3.3: Kant and Right Theorists

Lesson Summary

Kant’s philosophy is also known as Deontological Ethics “a theory that

suggests actions are good or bad according to a clear set of rules”. Its name
comes from the Greek word “deon,” meaning duty. Actions that follow these
rules are ethical, while actions that do not, are not.” The moral life is living with
rules, doing the duties, and exercising the rationality of man. Through the
Categorical Imperative that you will realize that being ethical is not theoretical
rather, there is always an apparent imperative in the moral command (Kant,
2002).

Learning Outcomes

1. You will be able to understand and articulate Kant’s moral theory.

2. You will have the capacity to differentiate legal from a moral right.

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Motivation Question

Have you been into a situation where you have to take full responsibility for
your actions because duty says so?

Discussion

There is an apparent contradiction of Immanuel Kant’s Deontological

Ethics to John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham’s idea that human nature as
selfish and requires an objective calculus for ethical action to result. Kant,
however, proposed that man should act out of his goodwill and not by the
consequences of his actions. Goodwill is done by following one’s duty and
obligation. Duty and Obligation are actualized in Kant’s Categorical Imperative:
“Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that
it should become a universal law” (Schneewind 2010).
Apparently, the Categorical Imperative of Kant has three essential
elements or sometimes labeled as three kinds of the categorical imperative
that you should remember.
First,“ Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same
time will that it should become a universal law.” the universal or moral law that
can be explained in a way that it can be universal if each and everyone of us
bows to follow the rule equally. Thus, the actions that can be considered as
right or wrong is are the same to each and everyone of us.
Second, “Act so that you treat humanity both in your own person and in
the person of any other human beings, never merely as a means, but always at
the same time end.” You should treat other human beings as ends, and not a
means of any sort. In other words, you should take into consideration the life
of individual human beings as equally important to your life and should not be
used as a means. To have said this, apparently, respect for others is but a
necessity so as not to use others as a means (Kant, 2002).
Third, “Act as if you were through your maxim a law-making member of
a kingdom of ends.” Since you are bound to treat human beings as an end
themselves, then you should bring it into the level of society. In this manner,
everyone is treated as an end, and morality is not only taken individually but as
a foundation of society as a whole. This maxim fundamentally establishes that
our reasons can be universalized, thus the ultimate goal of Kant’s Categorical
Imperative (Kant, 2002).
Let us try to elucidate further the first element of the Categorical
Imperative since it is a strong foundation in Kant’s morality. Take into
consideration this example: Supposing you steal something from others and it
is perfectly fine with you, it would faultlessly mean that you allow stealing to be
universal, and that includes you being the victim. The maxim concerning the
universalization of an act presupposes the idea that there is a colossal chance
for such an act to be accepted. However, in the deliberation process, the
proposal is met with different oppositions before it can be considered a law
and eventually becomes a duty to follow.

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Kant’s Deontological Ethics reiterated the idea of duty and obligation

that, one should act according to his duty and responsibility. In so doing,
goodwill is attained in such a way that you should act based on your duty
patterned in reason. For example, you have a duty as a student to submit your
class requirements on time. Thus you are bound to follow this duty in turn will
give you the freedom to do other things in the future (Schneewind, 2010).

Legal and Moral Rights

The modern understanding or rights stems from the idea of the

permissibility of actions. Consequently, a deliberation is but necessary in
choosing what kinds of rights should an institution offer to its constituents.
Thus, in the acceptance of giving rights presupposes the recognition of the
approval of the distribution of freedom and authority, in turn, there is an
unblemished endorsement of certain views of what are the right things to be
done and wrong things that should not be done (Zalta, 2016).
Trite as it may seem, but the proposition that states, “Not all legal are
moral” you might not be held responsible legally of such actions but morally
you are guilty of doing such. First, we have to define legal rights and moral
rights. The former is defined as “rights which exist under the rules
of legal systems or by virtue of decisions of suitably authoritative bodies within
them” (Zalta, 2016). And the former is defined as a right that belongs to any
moral entities who experience freedom, rationality, and is sentient. The
mentioned attributes basically predicated to human beings. Thus, moral right
pertains only to human beings (Gallenero, et al 2018). The fight for the rights
of a human being is twofold. First, you should consider your legal rights e.g.
right to life, right to vote, right to free speech, and so forth. Second, your moral
right that is very encompassing but sometimes experiencing an overlapped by
the legal rights. In legal rights, you usually hear that your rights stop when you
step on somebody else’s rights. This is true, however, this is usually realized in
the legal parlance where proper court proceedings are done, e.g. in a lawsuit.
Consequently, when the moral rights, or let us say the fundamental rights you
have, are being stepped upon by somebody else’s legal rights, conflict
ultimately arises. Let us take for example the fundamental right to life -the
moral right of an individual does not warrant to be upheld in a self-defense
situation where a perpetrator is killed because the victim defends oneself and
fights back the aggression. Although each individual possesses the moral right
to life, in a legal context, there is always the right to self-defense. Briefly, in
protecting one’s life brings the possibility of putting somebody else’s life in
danger, and that is acceptable legally. The right to self-defense is
constitutional. In the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines Book 1 Chapter II
Article. 11 states that:
CHAPTER TWO
Justifying Circumstances and Circumstances which Exempt from
Criminal Liability
ARTICLE 11. Justifying Circumstances. — The following do not incur any
criminal liability:
1. Anyone who acts in defense of his person or rights, provided that the
following circumstances concur:
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First. Unlawful aggression;

Second. Reasonable necessity of the means employed to prevent or
repel it;
Third. Lack of sufficient provocation on the part of the person defending
himself.
2. Anyone who acts in defense of the person or rights of his spouse,
ascendants, descendants, or legitimate, natural or adopted brothers or
sisters, or of his relatives by affinity in the same degrees, and those by
consanguinity within the fourth civil degree, provided that the first and
second requisites prescribed in the next preceding circumstance are
present, and the further requisite, in case the provocation was given by
the person attacked, that the one making defense had no part therein.
3. Anyone who acts in defense of the person or rights of a stranger,
provided that the first and second requisites mentioned in the first
circumstance of this article are present and that the person defending
be not induced by revenge, resentment, or other evil motive.
4. Any person who, in order to avoid an evil or injury, does an act which
causes damage to another, provided that the following requisites are
present:
First. That the evil sought to be avoided actually exists;
Second. That the injury feared be greater than that done to avoid it;
Third. That there be no other practical and less harmful means of
preventing it.
5. Any person who acts in the fulfillment of a duty or in the lawful
exercise of a right or office.
6. Any person who acts in obedience to an order issued by a superior for
some lawful purpose (Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines,
1930).

Learning Tasks/Activities

1. List down 5 duties that you find difficult to accomplish as a student. For
each duty, give one or two ways on how you cope with the challenges.
1._________________________________________________________________

2._________________________________________________________________

3._________________________________________________________________

4._________________________________________________________________
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5._________________________________________________________________

Lesson 3.4: Classical Utilitarianism

Lesson Summary

In this lesson, we discuss the tenets of Classical Utilitarianism (CU), a

consequentialist framework of normative ethics. As its name suggests, its
argument revolves around the principle of utility (the property of objects that
leads to the production of more pleasure than pain) as the standard of right
actions in relation to the individual and his society. Fundamentally, this school
grounds all acts to the sensations of pain and pleasure. Morality, unlike that of
Deontology (Duty-Based Ethics), is based on the production of utility; thus,
classifies CU as consequential in nature. Since its aim is to provide a criterion
to determine right from wrong actions, thus, more practical, CU is normative
ethics. Moreover, happiness in this tradition is translated to pleasure, unlike
that of Aristotle’s eudaimonia. Suffice to say, its concept on moral and ethical
course of actions depend on the consequences of utility. Its simplicity and its
confirmation of pleasure over pain as the desire of the human being, made it
attractive to many.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson you will be able to:

4. Differentiate Jeremy Benthams’ utilitarianism from John Stuart Mill’s,
5. Know the advantages and dangers of CU,
6. Be able to articulate and critique CU of Bentham and John Mill, and
7. Apply CU to circumstances where moral judgment is needed.

Motivation Question

When society wants to kill the drug lords and drug addicts to protect itself
from criminal acts, is society morally justified? Thus, Is there such a thing as
inalienable right/s of man?

Discussion

Jeremy Bentham
Influenced by proto-utilitarian, Bentham developed his own theory of
utilitarianism with the principle of utility as the central point of the argument.
The aim is to fix the social standard of society by providing criteria to evaluate
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good or bad laws, norms, or social practices. But for this to be possible a
normative ethical theory is use as a method.
Bentham, in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,
begins by this paragraph:
Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two
sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point
out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall
do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other
the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They
govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think: every effort we
can make to throw off our subjection, will serve but to
demonstrate and confirm it. In words a man may pretend to
abjure their empire: but in reality he will remain subject to it all the
while. The principle of utility recognizes this subjection, and
assumes it for the foundation of that system, the object of which
is to rear the fabric of felicity by the hands of reason and of law
(Bentham 2000).
It tells us the core of his argument, the principle of utility or utility is tied to the
two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure, to which man cannot get over with
since he is subjected to it by nature. Hence, man by nature desires pleasure
and avoids pain. This idea of Bentham is influenced by Thomas Hobbes’
account on human nature in the manner that we are seeking for what benefits
us for the best living. It is by inherent instinct that man pursues acts that
enhance gratification, and resist those that cause dissatisfaction. Thus, utility
refers to the value of things which generates more pleasure than pain.
Following Hume, utility is the criterion of virtue, what to do and what not to do
depend whether such action produces more pleasure than pain or much better
if only pleasure is produced.
The danger of this argument opens morality for bargaining. The
relativity of morality makes it dubious and uncertain since it will depend on the
production of pleasure over pain to a certain group of people to a certain time.
Thus, if society deems it necessary to kill individuals for the sake of the interest
of the many, then it is morally justified. However, it may not be the case to other
society nor may be the same society in a different timeframe since morality
changes. Basic human rights, then, is not based on a universal principle, but on
the pleasure that is produced. If society thinks that it is necessary to deprived
an innocent individual from his right to life, liberty, or property for the sake of
the many, then it is morally and ethically justifiable using the set forth concept
of Bentham.
To determine whether actions are right or wrong, Bentham provides us
with his felicific calculus as a formula to compute the amount of pleasure and
pain produce, the factors that determine the outcome of the formulas are
called circumstances (Bentham 2000).
1. Intensity – strength of pleasure or pain.
2. Duration – how long such pleasure or pain lasts.
3. Certainty or uncertainty – probability of the pleasure or pain
produced by the action.

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4. Propinquity or remoteness – closeness of pleasure or pain

produced by the action.
5. Fecundity – probability of pleasure or pain followed by the same
kind, i.e., pleasure is followed by pleasure or pain followed by pain.
6. Purity – probability that pleasure or pain will be followed by its
opposite kind, i.e., pleasure followed by pain or pain followed by
pleasure.
7. Extent – the number of individuals to whom it extends.
To use this formula, you must compute the intensity, duration, certainty
or uncertainty, and the propinquity or remoteness of pleasure from one side and
pain on the other. Aside from that, the fecundity and purity of the pleasure or
pain is considered – whether the action produces more pleasure in the long run
or it will be followed by pain. After determining this in one individual, the
process must be repeated to every individual involved, thus, its extent. The first
four circumstances refer to measuring the pain or pleasure produced in itself
(if it is a sensation that is pleasurable or painful), while fecundity and purity are
calculated to estimate the probabilities of the pain and pleasure produced by
an act. Lastly, extent is accounted for when there are several others who will
be affected by the act.
The simplicity of Bentham’s utilitarianism relies on the sensations felt
by man, thus, more tangible compared to what Deontology (Duty-Based Ethics)
proposes. However, critics of this tradition counterargued if all forms of
enjoyment are the same, despite their conditions. What Bentham presented in
his felicific calculus only accounts for different conditions of pain and pleasure
but not for the quality of such sensation. He even maintained that pleasure has
only quantitative and no qualitative difference. To ask which produces more
pleasure between sleeping or eating, no answer can be yielded using
Bentham’s method. This implies that the pleasure and pain that animals and
human beings feel are of no difference - no divergence between the production
of pleasure over pain. Hence, dehumanizes morality of human actions as being
no different from animals.
To counter this criticism, we turn to John Stuart Mill.

John Stuart Mill

Bentham holds that there is no qualitative difference on pleasures. This
opens him to criticisms especially concerning the degradation of morality of
the human beings as same with that of the sentient animals. John Stuart Mill
fixed this problem. Mill distinguishes higher from lower pleasures which
corresponds to their respective faculties. These faculties refer to the
functioning of human beings and/or animals. Mill tells us is that there are
certain pleasures which are appropriate than others, this, to account for
intellectual pleasures. Hence, pleasures must be categorized and specified to
two kinds basing on where they correspond to: lower and higher faculties. The
former refers to the experiences gained from the senses that man shares with
the animals, while the latter refers to the pleasure gained from the rational
capacity of the human being which is only exclusive to him.
Thus, a human being enjoying the arts/sciences is of higher pleasure
compared to an animal eating and sleeping despite man unable to eat and
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sleep well. This sets Mill having a different approach from Bentham. His
proposal suggests that pleasures must be evaluated basing on their quality
and not by their quantity. This suggests the pursuit of the fulfilment of human
faculties than mere pleasure gained through sensations. Perhaps to
summarize the qualitative concept of Mill on pleasure:
It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied;
better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the
fool, or the pig, is of a different opinion, it is because they only
know their own side of the question. The other party to the
comparison knows both sides (Mill 2003).

Case Study
In your organization, your leader tasked you to do a case study on a
certain drug coded as Veerus-1 that will immunize individuals infected by an
endemic virus in a certain barangay with the population of 1,000. Further, your
approval is needed for the drug to be administered to the infected. If this virus
is left untreated, it will spread to neighboring barangays, then to the
neighboring cities, and eventually infecting the entire country before it spreads
to other countries. This endemic can be the next pandemic, a ticking time bomb
that will make the world sick. Thus, the mounting pressure of developing a
vaccine is of the essence. In your study, it turned out that there is 100%
probability that those who will be given the drug will be immunized, but 10% of
the hundred will have bad side effects of the drugs, and one of the side effects
aside from cancer is instant death.
Now, given the results of your study and the mounting pressure that this
virus might spread and be the cause of the next pandemic: will you approved it
with the probability of harming 10% of individuals administered or will you
disapprove it for further research and tests to perfect the drug, but risking the
virus to spread? To answer these questions using Bentham’s utilitarianism, the
probability of sacrificing 10% of those who received Veerus-1 is morally and
ethically justifiable since they are overwhelmed by the interest of the majority,
that is, the health of the entire population of the world. Why is this the case? In
the extent alone of the number of individuals that will be affected, the
pleasure/pain of the population of the city or the world overwhelms the
pleasure/pain of the population of a barangay. Thus, approving the drug that
has 100% certainty of immunizing the barangay population and only 10% of it
that will be harmed is the right action since it will prevent it from developing to
be an epidemic or much worse a global-scale pandemic.

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Learning Tasks/Activities
1. What is utility according to Classical Utilitarianism?

2. Explain how Bentham’s and Mill’s Utilitarianism are different.

3. What are the possible advantages and dangers of Classical

Utilitarianism? Explain.

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Assessment
Read “The Greatest Happiness Principle/Utilitarianism” by Michael
Sandel from his book Justice: What is the Right Thing to Do? and then
answer the question below. Answer succinctly.
Rubrics:
Content (Precise Explanation, Analysis, Understanding)
– 10
Clarity/Coherence (Explanation is clear and connected logically)
– 10
20
Copy of the book can be accessed here:
[Link]
o_Do_by_Michael_Sandel
Question: What are the two objections that Michael Sandel Presented?
Explain each in your own words
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Instructions on how to submit student output

Lesson 3.5: Justice as Fairness

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, we discuss the tenets of Justice conceptualized by the
th
20 Century American political philosopher John Rawls. Born and raised in a
family who have less and in an era where great social and economic inequality
exist, Rawls pursued the academe in the aim of using ideas to change the
injustices in the world. His premised begins with the origin of unfairness in
society found in its basic structure while building up an argument that
invalidates the claims of utilitarianism, i.e., what is moral is the greatest
amount of utility. In A Theory of Justice (TJ) and his later works, Rawls
defended Justice as Fairness (JF) to level the playing field of individuals in the
society to provide the basic needs and opportunities to all its members.
Premised on egalitarianism, the principle which holds that individuals have
freedom and are equal thus deserve equal rights and opportunities, JF
proposes equal distribution of wealth and income in the society to cater the
basic needs of its members. To establish his theory, Rawls introduced version
of state of nature which he calls the Original Position (OP), and from their built
his theory of Justice as Fairness.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson you will be able to:

1. Know the thought experiment of John Rawls,
2. Know the principles that ground John Rawls’ JF,
3. Be able to articulate and critique John Rawls’ JF.

Motivation Question

Is justice equality? Is it maximizing utility? Should it even be the virtue of all

social institution?

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Discussion

John Rawls and the Original Position (OP)

The OP holds dear in Rawl’s theory. It is here that he established the

inviolable rights of every individuals secured by justice. Unlike utilitarianism, no
matter how beneficial an action is for the sake of society’s welfare, the act will
still be unjust and will remain that way when it trespasses the inalienable rights
of man. Thus, in Rawl’s justice, rights of man are not open for bargaining. You
may remember that in the previous topic, utilitarianism aims at maximizing
utility to the extent that the so-called rights of the individuals become relative,
juxtaposed to JF. The OP is a thought experiment of a hypothetical social
contract scenario heavily influenced from Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy.
This is a solution to the problem of justice as fairness since evidently, we are
not born equal. Hence,
The idea of the original position is to set up a fair procedure so that any
principles agreed to will be just. The aim is to use the notion of pure
procedural justice as basis of theory. Somehow we must nullify the
effects of specific contingencies which put men at odds and tempt them
to exploit social and natural circumstances to their own advantage. Now
in order to do this I assume that the parties are situated behind a veil of
ignorance. They do not know how the various alternatives will affect their
own particular case and they are obliged to evaluate principles solely on
the basis of general consideration (Rawls 1999).
In the OP, all individuals are free, mutually disinterested, and rational;
however, they don’t know the particularities about their own selves. Through
the Veil of Ignorance (VI) their accidental qualities like their age, sex, gender,
and social status are stripped off so that everyone will be the same. But they
are still knowledgeable of general facts – scientific, biological, and
psychological facts that aid them in their decision making. Rawls holds that
individuals in this position is free in order to account for their agreement to be
voluntary and not coerced. Like Hobbes’, Locke’s, Rousseau’s, and Kant’s State
of Nature all man agree with each other through their freedom. He also holds
that individuals are mutually disinterested in the manner that each of them
holds no interest in the others’ interests. The principles that the individuals in
the OP acknowledge are those that would advance their “ends as far as
possible” (Rawls 1999). This “mutually disinterested” does not make them
selfish, since what concerns them are their goals and neither the goals that
advantaged nor disadvantaged others. Lastly, they are rational as they use the
most effective methods to attain their endeavor, moreover, they will not come
into an agreement that they know they cannot fulfill. Using their reason they
agree to the principles that they need in order to live and self-actualize.

The Principles
Now, in the original position, two principles emerge. First is the principle
of equal liberty: all citizens shall have equal rights to the most comprehensive
scheme of fundamental freedoms consistent with a comparable scheme of
freedoms for others (Rawls 1999). This principle shall be embodied by social

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constitution to allow all members of the society not to be deprived from their
fundamental freedoms – their right to suffrage, or hold public office or
positions; their right to free speech, self-determination, and even the right to be
lawfully arrested. These rights must not be compromised and must not be only
purely formal but substantive, thus, embodied in social constitution.
The second principle is the principle of difference. “Social and
economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both: (a) to the
greatest benefit of the least advantaged…, and (2) attached to offices and
positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity” (Rawls
1999). The second principle admit and even allows social, economic
inequalities and unequal economic distribution as long as it is for everyone’s
advantage, especially those who are least advantaged in the society. For
example, in a certain society those who earn more will be taxed higher than
those who have lower income, this in accordance with gradation method of
taxation. To this, Rawls permits, but what is not allowable is taxing the least
advantaged more than or equal to what they earn. Moreover, fair equality of
opportunities requires that people who have the same willingness to use their
talent, will have the same educational and economic opportunities irrespective
of economic status. Thus, this opens every individual in the society to pursue
whatever endeavor they want to attain in life. This allows members of the
society to fulfill their dreams in life despite their status or their accidental
qualities. Hence, a silver spoon individual may not necessarily be the heir to his
family’s wealth, nor the beggar be poor throughout his life.
What Rawls has set is not only a society that advances their own set of
goals, but individuals who are willing to work in cooperation with each other for
the sake of attaining a just society. Cooperation and solidarity are marked
important in the original position so that each individual will not trespass the
basic right and liberties of their fellow. Despite the inequalities and the
uniqueness of every society and individuals, Rawls was able to build his
concept of Justice through the social contract theory by going back to the
original position, and everyone decides by the veil of ignorance. What we get is
a principle that protects and promotes basic rights, civil and political liberties.
However, this theory of Rawls is not spared from criticisms.

Case Example
The Covid-19 pandemic displaces several people and causing many to
lose their source of income. Many are in peril of having no source of fund to
sustain their basic needs, e.g., food, shelter, medicines, etc. The people who
are heavily affected by this are those who have less in life, especially those who
are paid below the minimum wage and have no extra money to save in case of
emergencies. Thus, living day by day becomes more challenging than it usual
is. Governments all over the world used their emergency funds to aid their
citizens in meeting their basic needs in the form of programs. Perhaps, one of
the programs that many of us know is the “ayuda” wherein the government
through the Local Government Unit (LGU) distributes goods to household no
matter the social status. You may also remember the mayor of Pasig City
providing all family within their city to be given Social Amelioration Program
(S.A.P.) through “Pasig City Supplemental S.A.P. program. This is an initiative
of the city to also provide financial assistance to families who were not
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included in the list of the national or Department of Social Welfare

Development’s (DSWD) SAP. Since all families will be given, the affluent
families will be also be able to receive, and to this the mayor finds no problem
since the goal is to be able to provide for the basic needs of every family.
However, he encourages fortunate families to not accept the financial
assistance or to donate it instead to those families who need it the most.
Perhaps, this is an example of Justice in Rawls. We see that in providing
the needs of every individuals, we are able to deliver the necessities to sustain
their essentials to get over with their day to day living. Although, in other
countries, especially the Welfare States, their “ayuda” is not just in food or
financial assistance to families but also to individuals whose works and
schooling have been disrupted by the pandemic. By going back to the original
position and by not knowing our accidental qualities because of the veil of
ignorance, we will be able to discern the basic needs of individuals to sustain
their basic needs to live and to flourish as a human being. In this sense,
individualism is overcome by social cooperation where individuals in society
help collaborate to create a better society.

Learning Tasks/Activities
1. What does Justice as Fairness mean according to John Rawls?

2. Explain the Original Position and the Veil of Ignorance and what are its
Implications.

3. From what is presented in the discussion above and in your further

readings, critique Rawl’s concept of Justice as Fairness.

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Assessment
In an essay form, answer the question below. Write succinctly.
Rubrics:
Content (Precise Explanation, Analysis, Understanding)
– 10
Clarity/Coherence (Explanation is clear and connected logically)
– 10
20
Question: Explain Justice as Fairness, compare it with Utilitarianism, and
discuss how Rawls’ concept related to Kant’s ethics.
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Instructions on how to submit student output

Answers to the Pretest

1. Virtue ethics is the development of virtue in a human being, as it
makes a man good and ultimately will guide him in reaching
happiness or Eudemonia.
2. A virtuous human being is someone who acquires virtue through
habit.
3. Eudaemonia is happiness and ultimate end of being a virtuous man.
4. Temperance, Fortitude, Justice, Prudence
5. Deontological Ethics “a theory that suggests actions are good or bad
according to a clear set of rules. Its name comes from the Greek word
“deon”, meaning duty. Actions that follow these rules are ethical, while
actions that do not, are not”.
6. What is utility?
- The property of objects that leads to the production of more
pleasure than pain
7. What is morality for Utilitarianism?
- Maximizing utility
8. What is the original position?
- A thought experiment that levels out individuals to determine the
principles of social justice that will be pursued when they are
deprived, through the veil of ignorance, of the information of their
accidental qualities that affects their decision-making.
9. What are the two principles derived from the original position?
- Principle of Equal Liberty
- Principle of Difference

Answer to the Posttest

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5. Deontological Ethics “a theory that suggests actions are good or bad

according to a clear set of rules. Its name comes from the Greek word
“deon”, meaning duty. Actions that follow these rules are ethical, while
actions that do not, are not”.
6. What is utility?
- The property of objects that leads to the production of more
pleasure than pain
7. What is morality for Utilitarianism?
- Maximizing utility
8. What is the original position?
- A thought experiment that levels out individuals to determine the
principles of social justice that will be pursued when they are
deprived, through the veil of ignorance, of the information of their
accidental qualities that affects their decision-making.
9. What are the two principles derived from the original position?
- Principle of Equal Liberty
- Principle of Difference

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Module 4: Conclusion:
Ethics through thick and
thin and Ethics and
Religion
Module Overview
Globalization brought about drastic changes in people’s lives. The rapid
advancement in science and technology has immensely altered the way you
related with yourself and your environment as a whole. Technology, through
the internet and various social media platform has connected people from
anywhere on the globe. On the one hand, this emergence of a “global
community” has brought people closer to one another through more efficient
transport system and ease of mobility and communication. More than ever, you
have experienced a more profound encounter with people of other religious
traditions and cultural backgrounds. These cultural and religious exchanges
have somehow deepened your own understanding of God and altered the way
you look at reality. On the other hand, there are many cases where globalization
has also caused so much damage and wreaked havoc on the lives of people:
families are torn apart, hunger and poverty in the midst of plentitude, massive
unemployment amidst skyrocketing corporate profits, wars and violence,
religious hatred and intolerance, genocide and mass murders, environmental
plunder and ecological degradation. Today, more than ever, you are confronted
with more pressing philosophical questions and moral challenges in the midst
of a highly globalized society.

Motivation Question

Is living an ethical life possible in a globalized and pluralistic society? How can
you live an ethical life in the midst of an ever-changing and fast paced world?
In what way can Ethics strengthen your religious conviction and deepen your
relationship with God?

Module Pretest
Instructions: Read the following questions. Write the letter of the correct
answer on the space provided before the number.
___1. The belief that there are no moral facts, no moral truths, and no moral
knowledge.
a. moral relativism c. moral objectivism
b. moral nihilism d. moral subjectivism
___2. It is a general statement that instructs us to treat others as we want,
and would want, others to treat us
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a. The Golden Rule c. Ten Commandments

b. Theology d. Divine Law

___3. The belief that an act is morally required because it is commanded
by God, and immoral because God forbids it.”
a. Supernaturalism c. Theodicy
b. Theology d. divine command theory
___4. It is the denial that moral values are objectively factual
a. moral relativism c. moral skepticism
b. moral subjectivism d. moral objectivism
___5. It is Pope Francis’ famous encyclical which talks about the dangers of
“dictatorship of relativism”
a. Gaudium Et Spes c. Caritas in Veritate
b. Misericordia Et Misera d. Laudato Si
___6. It is the belief that several values are equally valid and important and yet
they are in conflict with one another.
a. Ethical pluralism c. Ethical individualism
b. Moral subjectivism d. moral nihilism
___7. A British philosopher who asserts that morality has no need of God.
a. John Stuart Mill c. Jeremy Bentham
b. Bertrand Russel d. John Locke
___8. The Medieval philosopher who believed that man, as a rational being is
“naturally good” and is inclined to do the good.
a. St. Thomas Aquinas c. St. Alexander the Great
b. St. Augustine d. St. Francis
___9. A secularist philosopher who believes that religion is not only irrelevant
but a hindrance to a person’s authentic moral development.
a. John Locke c. Bertrand Russel
b. Jeremy Bentham d. David Hume
___10. It refers to the total sell-out of government-owned properties and
services.
a. Deregulation c. Privatization
b. Globalization d. Liberalization

Lesson 4.1: The Challenges of pluralism

and fundamentalism: The search for
universal values

Lesson Summary

Ethics requires global thinking. In a highly globalized society, Filinnials (Filipino

millennials) are confronted with moral challenges which require a fundamental
change in values. Today, more than ever. Filinnials are challenged to respond
to global issues such as poverty, inequality and injustice, environmental
destruction, moral relativism, and peace and security in the midst of religious
fundamentalism. Hence, students are encouraged to make reasoned and
informed choices in dealing with these issues. Ethical frameworks discussed

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in previous chapters can serve as moral guideposts in dealing with moral

dilemmas and in making sound moral judgments.

Learning Outcomes
1. Identify the important moral challenges of globalization;
2. Compare responses to shared moral dilemmas of baby boomers
and millennials;
3. Construct a plan for coping with the challenges of globalization;
4. Differentiate ethics from religion and appreciate the role of
religion in a globalized world.

Motivation Question

As a Fillennial, what do you think is the objective basis for morality? Can
religion help us lead ethical lives or is religion a hindrance to living the good
life?

Discussion

If doing “the good” is the foundation and goal of ethical living, then ethics, in as
much as it involves human action, must examine what the good is and how it
can be applied in your daily life. In one of his speeches in front of diplomatic
corps in 2013, Pope Francis lamented the increasing “spiritual poverty” of
young people. According to Pope Francis, “spiritual poverty” is manifested in
two ways. First, is apathy or indifference towards the suffering of the other.
This basically means inaction or not doing anything especially when
confronted with ethical or social problems. So you ask yourself: “When you see
the suffering of people and the injustices being committed towards them, how
do you feel? Do you feel morally obliged to respond in order to alleviate or ease
their suffering or do you feel that you are powerless to change the present
situation? When confronted with social issues, do you avoid them or do you
make a stand?” The second manifestation of “spiritual poverty” is what Pope
Francis calls the “dictatorship of relativism” which finds expression in the
“rejection of God and objective standards of morality.” This is not only
dangerous but can be detrimental to the well-being of others. In his 2015
encyclical letter Laudato Si (LS), the Pope reminds us that cultural relativism
“is the same disorder which drives one person to take advantage of another, to
treat others as mere objects.” (LS 123). The Pope continues:

In the absence of objective truths or sound principles other than

the satisfaction of our own desires and immediate needs, what
limits can be placed on human trafficking, organized crime, the
drug trade, commerce in blood diamonds and the fur of
endangered species? Is it not the same relativistic logic which
justifies buying the organs of the poor for resale or use in
experimentation, or eliminating children because they are not what
their parents wanted? This same ‘use and throw away’ logic

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generates too much waste, because of the disordered desire to

consume more than what is really necessary. We should not think
that political efforts or the force of law will be sufficient to prevent
actions which affect the environment because, when the culture
itself is corrupt and objective truth and universally valid principles
are no longer upheld, then laws can only be seen as arbitrary
impositions or obstacles to be avoided. (LS 123)

Previous Popes, for example, St. John Paul II, likewise condemned “moral
relativism” and “teleological ethical theories” such as “proportionalism” and
“consequentialism” in his encyclical Veritatis Splendor. The Pope maintains
that these ethical theories “are not faithful to the Church’s teaching since they
believe “they can justify, as morally good, deliberate choices of kinds of
behavior contrary to the commandments of the divine and natural law.”
(Veritatis Splendor # 76)

In this chapter, we examine the different ethical issues or challenges brought

about by globalization, namely ethical pluralism and fundamentalism. Second,
we scrutinize the social problems brought about by globalization that has
some serious ethical dimensions. Finally, we examine the difference between
ethics and religion with the hope that you will be able to appreciate the role of
religion in living a good life in a globalized society.

A. Globalization, Pluralism and new challenges to ethics

Ethical pluralism or value pluralism argues that values, beliefs or ethical

principles for that matter are “incommensurable”. To put it in simple terms,
there are several values are equally valid and important and yet they are in
conflict with one another. Therefore, values should not be judged by the same
standard as something because they have no common standard of
measurement. For example, you could not impose the same standard or
criteria when you compare the life of a religious nun and a devout mother. You
could not say “the nun is a better person than the mother because the nun is
more prayerful” simply because both have conflicting values. The mother may
not have the luxury of time praying because most of the time she is at work or
busy taking care of her children. But this does not make her lesser good than
the nun. In addition, we live in a world of varying moral standards and in making
moral judgments, we need to make a moral choice. In most cases, we either
have to follow or choose this moral value or that moral value. In any case, our
preferred choice already excludes the other. If you choose to embrace
utilitarianism, then you already abandon deontological ethics or virtue ethics.

Ethical pluralism differs from moral skepticism in the sense that the latter is a
“denial that moral values are objectively factual. John Leslie Mackie, an
Australian philosopher is one of the proponents of moral skepticism. In his
book Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, Mackie boldly exclaims: “There are no
objective values.” His moral reasoning is anchored on what he calls “objective
facts”, that is, we have no good reason to believe that objective moral facts
exist. In other words, there are no objectively right or wrong actions, only

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subjective “preferences”. Moral nihilism, on the other hand, means that “there
are no moral facts, no moral truths, and no moral knowledge.” (Pojman, 229)

B. Challenges of Filinnials

Millennials (those born between 1980s and 1990s and sometimes extended as
far as early 2000s) comprise a significant number in our country. Your
generation bore witness to the massive technological advances in society.
Your proficiency and adaptability in using modern technology (your digital self)
is one of your distinct characteristics as millennial.

Filinnials are generally hard to describe since they manifest a wide array of
varied (and sometimes contradictory) traits, behaviors, and characteristics. A
TIME magazine article in May 2013 labels them as “Me, Me, Me Generation”
because of their narcissistic or self-centered attitude. Other negative traits
attributed to them include lazy and delusional. They are said to be politically
disengaged, i.e., they don’t normally participate in political affairs. In addition,
they are more focused on material things and not concerned in helping the
larger community. ([Link] article, 2017) On the positive side, they are
regarded as more open-minded, educated, knowledgeable, and more
supportive of human rights. They are more socially conscious and are eager to
express their views on social issues online through various social media
platforms. Moreover, they are known to be optimistic about what future brings
because they are open and adaptive to change.

Given the enigmatic and sometimes puzzling nature of Filinnials, how then can
you effectively respond to the challenges brought about by globalization?
Perhaps, Pope Francis can guide you on how to cope with the challenges you
may encounter in life in the midst of a rapidly changing society.
1. “Speak courageously. Without shame” says the Pope in front of more
than 15,000 young people in March 2018. Don’t be afraid to express
yourself. Make a stand on social and political issues. More importantly,
defend your stand using relevant, ethical and rational arguments. As
Pope Francis reminded you: “Your contribution is essential.”
2. Combat all selfishness and courageously build a better world. A better
world can be built as a result of your efforts, your desire to change and
your generosity. Do not be afraid to take risk or to make a choice. Dare
to set out on new paths, even if it involves risks. The Pope is reminding
you that “a man or woman who does not take risks, does not mature.”
3. In his message to the 31st World Youth Day in 2016, Pope Francis
encouraged young people to “rediscover the corporal works of mercy:
to feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty, clothe the naked, welcome
the stranger, assist the sick, visit the imprisoned…” In addition, he also
reminded the youth not to overlook the spiritual works of mercy which
includes to counsel the doubtful, teach the ignorant, admonish the
sinners, comfort the sorrowful, forgive offence…
4. The ability to see pain, suffering, and death in others. In his 2020 World
Youth Day Pope Francis his young audience: Do you have the ability to
see? When you look at things, do you look carefully, or is it more like
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when you quickly scroll through the thousands of photos or social

profiles on your cell phone? How often do you end up being
eyewitnesses of events without ever experiencing them in real time?
5. Have compassion! Put yourself in the shoes of the other. Make their
pain your own. The Pope admonished young people like you to be
sensitive, to “be attentive to the plea of those who are suffering, and be
moved by those who weep and die in today’s world.”

C. The religious response: The role of religion in ethics

Religion and ethical behavior

For thousands of years, humankind has always looked up to divine entities or

supernatural beings for answers to life’s difficult questions. From
cosmological questions like: “where does the universe come from?” to
questions of morality: “why do the good?” Religions seek to answer these
complex questions. In ethics, supernaturalism is the belief that “moral
judgments describe God’s will.” To say something is “good” means that God
desires or approves it. Ethics, for supernaturalism is based on religion.
(Gensler, 26) For example, a supernaturalist will argue that the ten
commandments and the golden rule taught by Jesus “express God’s will, and
thus form the practical rules for morality.” (Gensler, 27) To do the good simply
means to follow God’s will. Subsequently, to act immorally is to disobey God.
Supernaturalism is very much similar to theistic moral realists who hold that
“moral values exist within God.” (Pojman, 228) According to this view, morality
“depends on God’s will or reason, which… are objective facts within the
universe. (Pojman, 228). All of these assumptions are based on Divine
Command Theory which states that “an act is morally required just because it
is commanded by God, and immoral just because God forbids it.” (Landau, 7)

But how is morality tied to religion? A recent Social Weather Stations (SWS)
survey in December 2019 showed that eighty-three percent of adult Filipinos
believe that religion is “very important” in their lives. The same study revealed
that forty-five percent attend religious activities weekly while thirty-two percent
only go on a monthly basis. (SWS, 2019) This study clearly indicates the
powerful impact of religion on the lives of Filipinos. It shows how religion
affects the way you perceive reality (how it shapes your worldview and
understanding) and how you respond to such reality (how it affects your
behavior and action). As highly religious people, your actions are undoubtedly
determined by your religious outlook. In sociology, this process is called
“socialization”, whereby, starting from his or her childhood days, a child learns
to accept and internalize what are deemed to be “good” or “bad” actions based
on what his or her parents tell him/her. Religion plays a central role in forming
the character of the child since, in most cases, those things that are considered
allowed or forbidden are anchored on ones’ religious teachings. Moreover,
people who are “less religious” or nominal Christians (those maintain affiliation
with a Christian religion but no longer participates in religious activities) and
those who don’t believe in God (atheists) tend to be more tolerant of other
people’s beliefs. These people, tend to be more respectful and are more open
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to diverse views and opinions compared to those raised in a more rigid

religious environment.

While supernaturalism links morality with religion, secularists want to separate

the two. Secularists argue that “religion is irrelevant to morality” while others
claim that “religion is actually contrary to true morality.” (Pojman, 193).
Bertrand Russel, a British philosopher asserts that morality has no need of God.
In other words, one can be moral and live a happy life even if he or she doesn’t
believe in God (atheist). Since human beings are free and are endowed with
reason and intellect, then they are “free to think, to evaluate, to create, and to
live committed to ideals.” (Pojman, 194) This makes religion irrelevant to
morality. Another secularist claim is made by David Hume, on the other hand,
asserts that religion is not only irrelevant but a hindrance to a person’s
authentic moral development. Hume’s antireligious ideas are anchored on two
assumptions. First, Hume believes that Christians do the good (and avoid evil)
simply because of fear of punishment and eternal damnation. Humes’ image
of God is somewhat traditional: a God who is angry, tyrant, and cruel; ready to
punish all those who disobey his command. His second argument against
religion has something to do with religious practices. According to Hume,
Christians perform religious rituals in a superficial manner, just to please God.
Hume sees this as childish behavior motivated by reward and punishment.
Hume believes that authentic moral development or true morality should be
“natural”, that is, free from coercive forces, superstitions and frivolous
hypocrisies.

Filipinos as known to be very religious people. There is no doubt that religion

plays an important role in our lives; in the way look at the world, the way we
behave and the way we relate with others. How then, can we appreciate more
the role of religion in a globalized world?

As discussed above, some of the dangers young people are facing right now
are ethical nihilism, ethical relativism, and what Pope Francis calls
“dictatorship of relativism”. All these doctrines assert that morality rests solely
on the individual and certainly not on an objective value. An antidote to moral
relativism is moral objectivism, the position that “there are objective universal
moral principles, valid for all people and all social environments.” (Pojman, 32)
The medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas believes that there are truths
beyond the capacity of the human intellect to comprehend or verify. However,
there are truths that can be grasped using the intellect. These truths fall within
the capacity of the mind to discover, establish and ascertain. Hence Aquinas
distinguishes between truths beyond reason and truths of natural reason. The
truths of natural reason are accessible to us by using the natural light of
reason. As persons endowed with the power of reason, human beings are able
to comprehend, discover, analyze, and prove certain truths which are
discoverable in nature. Aquinas further contended that eternal moral law can
be discerned using the faculty of reason. Now, all created beings have their
own specific purpose or function. For example, the purpose of a knife is for
cutting, the purpose of a tree is to give us oxygen, or to provide shade or food
(fruit). If you remember our discussion in Module 4, we are reminded that all
created beings must adhere to the natural order of the universe which is part
of God’s grand design (which Aquinas calls Eternal Law). Of all created beings,
only human beings are endowed with reason. Hence, as rational beings, this
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poses a serious and difficult challenge for all of us. In other words, we must
act or behave according to our essence or “nature” which is as rational
creatures. Aquinas calls this “natural law”, which are precepts the eternal law
that govern the behavior of beings possessing reason. The first precept of the
natural law is “to do good and avoid evil.” Aquinas grounded his moral
philosophy on the very purpose of or end of man. As Aquinas pointed out: “the
object of moral philosophy is the human action ordered to an end and man
insofar as he acts voluntarily for an end.” (Ethica, no. 1, 3) Therefore, what is
“good” or “evil” is derived from the rational nature of human beings and are
thus, both objective and universal.

At the heart of Aquinas’s moral theology is the fundamental truth that can be
discerned in almost all his works: that all beings are created by God in order to
ultimately return to him. Consequently, Aquinas’s theology can be summarized
into this simple phrase: “all things come from God and all things will return to
God.” The author of the book of Genesis affirmed the inherent goodness of
God’s creation: “God saw all that he had made, and it was very good.” (Gen.
1:31) God created everything out of his infinite goodness and love for us all.
His goodness is stamped in all his creatures, especially man who is imbued
with the highest gift which is Reason. As a rational being, man is “naturally
good”, or to put it in another way, man is inclined to do the good since reason
instructs man to do good and to avoid evil. Paraphrasing Aristotle, Aquinas tells
us that the natural end or purpose of man is towards the ultimate or highest
Good, that is, God. Human goodness, then depends on performing human acts
that are in accordance with our human nature. But it is impossible for us to
attain this blessed state (union with God or salvation) through human endeavor
alone. Eventually, we need God’s grace. It is God’s grace that will actualize our
potentiality to be in union with God.

Ethics and The Golden Rule

In a superbly written book The Golden Rule: The Ethics of Reciprocity in World
Religions editors Jacob Neusner and Bruce Chilton compiled the many variants
of the Golden Rule (GR) in almost all major world religions. According to the
authors, the GR is perhaps “humanity’s most familiar ethical dictum. It is
articulated in many world religions and is considered one of the great ancient
traditions. Neusner and Chilton (2008) defined the GR as a “general statement
that instructs us to treat others as we want, and would want, others to treat us.”
Thus, the GR is and “abstract mandate to use an ethic of reciprocity as the
fundamental guide to the way we consider, conceive, carry out, and assess our
action toward other people.” (Neusner & Chilton, 2). Marcus G. Singer explains
why the GR is considered a “fundamental ethical truth”:

The golden rule has been widely accepted, in word if not in deed,
by vast numbers of greatly differing people; it is a basic device of
moral education; and it can be found at the core of innumerable
moral, religious, and social codes… The nearly universal
acceptance of the golden rule and its promulgation by persons
of considerable intelligence, though otherwise divergent

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outlooks, would… seem to provide some evidence for the claim

that it is a fundamental ethical truth.

Table 7 shows the different world religions and their various

formulations of the Golden Rule.

Religion Golden Rule

Judaism “Love your fellow as yourself.”
(Lev. 19.18)
Greco-Roman “The Good always benefits, it
Religion and does no harm. Be good unto
Philosophy (Socrates, others.”
Plato)
Zoroastrianism “That character is best, one
who does not do to another
that which is not good for
himself.” (Denkard, Book VI)
Jesus/Chistianity “Do unto others as you would
have them do unto you.” (Mt.
7:12)
“Love the Lord your God with
all your heart and with all your
soul and with all your mind
and with all your strength…
Love your neighbor as
yourself.” (Mk 12:30-31)
Islam “Pay Oh Children of Adam, as
you would love to be paid, and
be just as you would love to
have justice!” (Qur’an 83.1-6)
“None of you believes until he
loves for his brother what he
loves for himself!” (Hadĭth)
Buddhism “On traversing all directions
with the mind
One finds no one dearer than
oneself.
Likewise, everyone holds
himself most dear,
Hence, one who loves himself
should not harm another.’
(Udāna)
“All men tremble at the rod, all
men fear death. One should
treat one’s neighbor as
oneself and therefore neither
strike nor kill.” (Dhammapada)

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Hindu “A man should wander about

treating all creatures as he
himself would be treated.”
(Sutrakritanga 1.11.33)
“One should not behave
towards others in a way which
is disagreeable to oneself.
This is the essence of
morality. All other activities
are due to selfish desire.”
(Anusasana-parvan 113.8)
Confucianism “Although you have left your
home, still behave as if you
are receiving important
guests. Although you are
delegating commoners, still
behave as if you ar
undertaking great sacrifices.
Do not impose upon others
those things that you yourself
do not desire. If in your state
you generate no resentment,
then in your clan you generate
no resentment.” (Analects
12.2)
“Zigong asked:
‘Is there a single doctrine that
one may put into practice
throughout one’s life?’ The
Master said: “It is ‘reciprocity.’
Do not impose upon others
those things that you yourself
do not desire.” (Analects
15.24)
Table 7: Source: “The Golden Rule: The Ethics of Reciprocity in World Religions” Edited by Jacob
Neusner & Bruce Chilton. (2008) NY: Continuum International Publishing Group.:

D. Globalization and the South: The Philippine experience

Globalization can be viewed from different angles or various perspectives:

technological, sociological, environmental, economic, political, cultural, and
philosophico-ethical. This section examines the adverse effects of profit-
oriented and market-led globalization in Philippine society and provide people-
centered and nationalist alternative for development.

The term “globalization” is closely associated with concepts in political

economy such as world systems, neoliberalism, imperialism, post-Fordism and

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even postmodernism. In the Philippines, nationalist economists often

associate “globalization” with neoliberalism or neoliberal globalization.
Neoliberal globalization started in the 1980s by then UK Prime minister
Margaret Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan. During that time, both
leaders introduced market reforms which seek to limit State intervention. As a
result, government has less control over big corporations were left on their own
to compete. Governments are only allowed to intervene when pro-business and
pro-capitalist laws are needed. In essence, neoliberal globalization means
freedom of capitalist to accumulate super-profits. The ultimate goal of
neoliberalism is to maximize profits of big corporations by creating policies
that are beneficial to them. As a consequence, millions of workers from around
the world suffered from termination and job loss, unemployment, high prices
of basic commodities brought about by anti-labor policies. In the Philippines,
neoliberal globalization has become synonymous with suffering, worsening
poverty, inequality, job insecurity, and foreign plunder of our natural resources.

Neoliberal policies in the Philippines can be categorized into three:

liberalization, privatization or denationalization, deregulation. Trade
liberalization means unrestrained (or free) entry of foreign capital, goods and
investments. It opened up our domestic market and economy to foreign
corporations. Trade barriers were removed in order to open up our market to
surplus products of big capitalists. Tariffs of imported goods even those with
local production like food and agriculture were lowered. Cheap agricultural
products from China, Europe, USA and other parts of the world flooded our
market. As a result, our local farmers suffered since they could not compete
with imported products.

Privatization is the total sell-out of government-owned properties and services.

Government services including health, education, public transportation
(including roads, expressways, and bridges) and housing and government
utilities such as mining, power, telecommunications, oil, media, and banks are
privatized and turned into commodities to be bought and sold to the market.
As a result, these services become inaccessible to the people, especially the
poor who could not afford to buy such services. For example, in the past three
decades we have seen accelerated privatization of government hospitals in the
country. Water, which is a basic human need as well as power, and
telecommunication utilities such as Meralco, Manila Waters, Maynilad, and
PLDT are now owned and controlled by private corporations. Denationalization
happens when foreign investors are given extended rights which were reserved
for Filipinos.

Deregulation happens when governments give more freedom to corporations.

For example, prices of goods and services, including wages are given to direct
control of big capitalists. In most cases, corporations influence lawmakers
thereby creating laws and policies that are more suited for business or
corporate interests. For example, laws and policies on environmental
protection are relaxed and health and safety of workers are removed. Pro-labor
or pro-worker policies are likewise removed and anti-worker laws such as
contractualization and “no union policy” are approved. In the Philippines, oil
companies are deregulated, meaning they can increase the prices of oil
anytime without consulting the government.

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Towards a nationalist, people-oriented, and progressive economics

These three neoliberal policies are not only anti-poor; they are also anti-Filipino.
For example, denationalization blatantly violates the 60-40 investment policy
of the 1987 Philippine Constitution (60% Filipino-40% foreign owned). Today,
lawmakers are again attempting to revise the Constitution through charter
change (cha-cha) in order to allow foreign corporations 100% ownership of
enterprises and properties in the country.

A nationalist, pro-poor and pro-Filipino economic policy puts the welfare of the
vast majority of the people (farmers, workers, students, urban poor, women,
children, OFWs, etc.) at the forefront. It should put people over profits, not
profits over people. Neoliberal globalization is detrimental to authentic national
development because it benefits only big corporations and capitalists. What
are needed are concrete socio-economic programs that will truly alleviate the
poor from their present conditions. National sovereignty should be protected
and defended against foreign aggression. Anti-people and anti-poor laws and
policies should be abolished. Trade agreements between and among countries
should be equal and fair. Government should protect the welfare of local
producers as well as small and medium business enterprises. Genuine
agrarian reform should be implemented and lands should be distributed to
farmers for free. National industries should be constructed with the support of
government. Social services such as health, education, housing should be
accessible especially for the poor and marginalized sectors of society.

Learning Tasks/Activities

4. Compare and contrast ethical pluralism from the “dictatorship of

relativism” discussed by Pope Francis. What are the dangers of such
beliefs especially in contemporary society?

5. How does ethics differ from religion? Give examples.

6. What are some of the ethical issues brought about by liberalization,

privatization and deregulation? Choose one ethical theory discussed
in the previous chapters. Use this to address some of the ethical
issues brought about by globalization.

Instructions on how to submit student output

You need to use a separate sheet of paper for your answer in this assessment
portion. You may print your answer in a bond paper or you can write in a yellow
pad.

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The important thing is you write your name and course offering number.
Place the assessment in every lesson to avoid getting lost of documents.
Please refer to page ix for the general instructions.

Lesson 4.2: Environmental Ethics

Lesson Summary

The issue of climate change, ecological destruction, and the impact of

Learning Outcomes

1. Point out the main views in environmental ethics

2. Identify the issues and problems in environmental ethics and formulate
concrete plan of action to address these environmental issues using the
ethical frameworks discussed in previous modules.

Motivation question/task

Why is climate change an ethical issue? How can ethics help us address the
pressing environmental problems today?

Discussion
As mentioned above, humankind has benefited so much from the progress
brought about by globalization. However, nations and peoples of the world
are also facing serious threats to the planet’s survival due to unsustainable
use of our already depleting natural resources. Furthermore, various
“postmodern” ideas and beliefs proliferate which reinforce a sort of ethical
pluralism that poses serious challenges to widely accepted objective truth
and universal values. In this section, we will discuss the various ethical
challenges brought about by globalization.

A. Global inequality

In January 2020, Oxfam International reported an alarming rate of extreme

global inequality. According to the report, “the world’s 2,153 billionaires have
more wealth than the 4.6 billion people who make up 60 percent of the
planet’s population. This means that while the number of billionaires have
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doubled over the past decade, the world’s poorest got even poorer, with 735
million people still living in extreme poverty. Wealth and income inequality is a
serious ethical problem is as much as it is inextricably linked with man’s
search for meaning and well-being. Global inequality inevitably touches on the
fundamental aspects of man’s existence such as human dignity and the right
to life, happiness and well-being, freedom and access to opportunities in life
like education and healthcare, and the right to have an equal share of the
goods of the earth (common good).

Families sleeping with empty stomachs because of poverty is an assault on

Mill’s utilitarian principle of “happiness for the greatest number.” Children
dying of common diseases and illnesses simply because they don’t not have
access to basic health care poses some serious ethical problems. Students
who are forced to drop out of school in order to assist their family earn a
living is an ethical problem of justice and fairness. Workers who are forced to
work in slave-like, subhuman conditions go against the second formulation of
Kant’s categorical imperative which stipulates that we should always treat
humanity, “never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.”

B. Ecological devastation and environmental plunder

The issue of climate change, ecological destruction, and the impact of

environmental plunder on the lives of the poor in developing countries has
recently caught the attention of philosophers in the academic field. These
philosopher-activists, as they are commonly called, are trying to bridge the
gap between theory and practice, i.e., their approach to philosophy is more
justice-centered, hence, linked to the struggle for social justice and social
change (Tokar, 2014). For example, scholars are unanimous in affirming the
ethical dimension of climate change (Roser and Seidel, 2017; Singer, 2009)
Most of their arguments are centered on the devastating impact of climate
change on the lives of the poor in developing countries. According to them,
poor countries are more vulnerable to the destruction brought about by
extreme weather conditions such as drought and super typhoons. Super
typhoons like Yolanda and Pablo have caused the loss of thousands of lives
and billions worth of agricultural products affecting mostly poor farmers. It
has also displaced millions of urban poor families and rural communities due
to massive flooding and storm surges.

Posner and Weisbach (2010) talked about the “ethics of climate change” in
order to understand how climate change affects people from around the
world. These scholars argue that our present generation has a moral
obligation to engage in climate mitigation in order to prevent a serious
environmental catastrophe in the near future. Recognizing that poor nations
are likely to suffer most from climate change, they are suggesting a “welfarist
approach” to climate change. According to them, welfarism is more
appropriate for “addressing a phenomenon that is a matter of concern mainly
because of its impact on people’s well-being.” (Posner and Weisbach, 9)
Using the “principle of distributive justice”, climate justice advocates believe
that climate change affects all human beings and hence its prevention is a
joint task of all mankind. However, they also propose a just and fair
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distribution of the burdens of climate change prevention. Adopting what they

call the “grandfathering principle” (Roser and Seidel, 112) they argue that
some countries have contributed more to the problem of climate change. For
example, developed or highly industrialized countries (US, Canada, Japan,
Australia and European countries) contribute more to the warming of the
planet since they emit more harmful and toxic materials (like carbon dioxide)
into the atmosphere. “both the largest per capita emissions and the largest
total emissions of greenhouse gases are from the US-Canada grouping.”
(Karoly, 2009) As Peter Singer (puts it correctly:

“If the affluence of the rich nations has come at the expense
of the poor—if, whether intentionally or not, we have harmed
them in order to prosper, and if our continuing affluence is at
least part due to the fact that we are continuing to harm
them—then it seems that the rich nations owe the poor
compensation for the harm that they have done—and are
continuing to do—to them. The facts of climate change make
it very probable that what the rich have done has already
harmed many of the world’s poor and in decades to come,
will harm hundreds of millions more.” (Singer, 44-45)
Peter Newell (2009) holds big corporations accountable for the destruction of
the environment especially among developing countries around the world.
From the colonial up to the present post-colonial period, the global North have
been exploiting the rich natural, mineral, and human resources of the global
South in order to fuel their industries. This unhindered plundering of the
natural resources has caused irreversible damage to the environment
specifically among poor countries, leaving these countries almost like
wastelands. Newell cited various “corporate abuses of human rights”,
committed by Transnational Corporations (TNCs) and Multinational
Corporations (MNCs) to poor countries. In the Philippines, for example,
Lumad communities are driven away from their ancestral lands in order to
pave the way for big foreign mining corporations.

Learning Task/activity

1. In what way is global inequality an ethical problem? Elaborate using

any ethical framework discussed in previous topics.

2. Give an example of a particular environmental problem in your locality.

What moral dilemma can you identify? Why is it a moral dilemma?
Choose any ethical framework which will help you make a decision or
moral action.

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Assessment

Write a position paper on a particular social, political, economic,

environmental, cultural or religious issue. Present arguments from both sides.
What is your moral stand on the issue? What course of action should you
take? Defend your stand using any ethical framework. Make a critique of the
other side using another ethical framework discussed in Module 3.

Module Posttest
___1. The belief that there are no moral facts, no moral truths, and no moral
knowledge.
a. moral relativism c. moral objectivism
b. moral nihilism d. moral subjectivism
___2. It is a general statement that instructs us to treat others as we want,
and would want, others to treat us
a. The Golden Rule c. Ten Commandments
b. Theology d. Divine Law
___3. The belief that an act is morally required because it is commanded
by God, and immoral because God forbids it.”
a. Supernaturalism c. Theodicy
b. Theology d. divine command theory
___4. It is the denial that moral values are objectively factual
a) moral relativism c. moral skepticism
b) moral subjectivism d. moral objectivism
___5. It is Pope Francis’ famous encyclical which talks about the dangers of
“dictatorship of relativism”
a. Gaudium Et Spes c. Caritas in Veritate
b. Misericordia Et Misera d. Laudato Si
___6. It is the belief that several values are equally valid and important and yet
they are in conflict with one another.
a. Ethical pluralism c. Ethical individualism
b. Moral subjectivism d. moral nihilism
___7. A British philosopher who asserts that morality has no need of God.
a. John Stuart Mill c. Jeremy Bentham
b. Bertrand Russel d. John Locke
___8. The Medieval philosopher who believed that man, as a rational being is
“naturally good” and is inclined to do the good.
a. St. Thomas Aquinas c. St. Alexander the Great
b. St. Augustine d. St. Francis
___9. A secularist philosopher who believes that religion is not only irrelevant
but a hindrance to a person’s authentic moral development.
a. John Locke c. Bertrand Russel
b. Jeremy Bentham d. David Hume
___10. It refers to the total sell-out of government-owned properties and
services.
a. Deregulation c. Privatization
b. Globalization d. Liberalization

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Answers to the Pretest

1. b 6. a
2. a 7. b
3. d 8. a
4. a 9. d
5. d 10. C

Answer to the Posttest

1. b 6. a
2. a 7. b
3. d 8. a
4. a 9. d
5. d 10.

References and Additional Resources

Agapay, Ramon (1991). Ethics and the Filipino. Philippines: National Book Store, Inc.
Aristotle, (1999). Nicomachean Ethics. (Trans) W.D. Ross. Kitchener: Batoche Books.
Aquinas, Thomas (1947) Summa Theologica. (Trans) Dominican Fathers. Perrysburg: Benziger
Bros.
Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Kitchener:
Batoche Books, 2000.
Driver, J. The History of Utilitarianism. 2014.
URL=<[Link]
(accessed August 1, 2020).
Freeman, S. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward Zalta. 2019.
URL=<[Link]
(accessed August 1, 2020).
Gallinero, W., et al (2018). Ethics. Philippines: Mutya Publlishing House, Inc.
Hurthouse, R., & Pettigrove, G. (2016). Virtue ethics. In E. Zalta (Ed.), Stanford encyclopedia of
philosophy. [Link]
Karoly, D. J. (2009). “The Blame Game: Assigning Responsibility for the Impacts of
Anthropogenic Climate Change”, in Climate Change and Social Justice edited by
Jeremy Moss, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 25-37.
Kant, Immanuel. (2002). Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. (Trans) Allen W. Wood.
London: Yale University Press
Kenny, Anthony (2004). A New History of Western Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Kochuthara, S. G. (2017). “Economic Inequality: An Ethical Response,” Religions 8: 141, 4-14.
Mill, John Stuar. Utilitarianism and On Liberty. Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2003.
Neusner, J.N. & Chilton, B. (Editors) (2008). The Golden Rule: The Ethics of Reciprocity in World
Religions. NY: Continuum International Publishing Group

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Newell, P. (2009). “Climate change, human rights and corporate accountability” in Human
Rights and Climate Change edited by Stephen Humphreys, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 112.
Posner, E. and Weisback, D. (2010). Climate Change Justice, NJ: Princeton University Press,
10-24
Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice: Revised Edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press, 1999.
Roser, D. and Seidel, C. (2017). Climate Justice: An Introduction translated by Ciaran Cronin,
NY: Routledge, 1-16.
Schneewind, J (2010). Essays on the History of Moral Philosophy. Oxford: University Press
The Revised Penal Code of the Republic of the Philippines.
[Link]
Thérèse, . (1975). Story of a soul: The autobiography of St. Therese Of Lisieux
Sandel, Michael. Justice: What is the Right Thing to Do? New York: Farrar Straus Grioux, 2009.
Singer, P. (2009). “Climate Change as an Ethical Issue”, in Climate Change and Social Justice
edited by Jeremy Moss, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 44-45.
Singer, M.G. (1967). “Golden Rule” in Encyclopedia of Philosophy. NY: Macmillan, 356-67
Social Weather Stations (2020). “Fourth Quarter 2019 Social Weather Survey: Record-high 38%
Filipinos say religion is ‘very important’” SWS Special Report, April 12, 2020
[Link]
20200412155426 accessed 21 May 2020
Thagard, P. (2018). “Is inequality immoral?” Psychology Today, May 14, 2018
[Link]
immoral accessed 04 May 2020
Tokar, B. (2014). Toward Climate Justice: Perspectives on the Climate Crisis and Social
Change, Norway: New Compass Press

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ABRIDGED OUTCOMES-
BASED TEACHING-
LEARNING SYLLABUS
1st Semester SY 2020 – 2021

PHLO 11 – ETHICS
Class Schedule

Course Information

Name of the GENERAL EDUCATION COURSE

Program
Course Code Phlo 11
Course Title Ethics
Pre-requisite N/A
Co-requisite N/A
Credit 3.0
Semester Offered 1st semester and 2nd semester
Number of hours 3-hour lecture per week
Course Description Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in
modern society at the level of the person, society, and
in interaction with the environment and other shared
resources (CMO 20 s 2013). The course also teaches
students to make moral decisions by using dominant
moral frameworks and by applying the seven-step
moral reasoning model to analyze and solve moral
dilemmas. The course is organized according to the
three (3) main elements of the moral experience: (a)
agent, including context – cultural, communal, and
environmental; (b) the act; and (c) reason or
framework (for the act).

Page 101 of 129

Course Outcomes CO1: Learning the basic concepts of Ethics: Moral

and Non-Moral Standards, Moral Dilemma, and
Freedom.

CO2: Learning the basic concepts that affects the

moral framework of a person: culture, virtue, morality,
habit. Also, learning the basic concepts that affects
the act of the moral agent: Feelings/Emotions,
Reason and Impartiality, Moral Courage, Importance
of the Will.

CO3: Examining the different Moral Frameworks and

Principles in judging whether the act of moral agent is
moral, amoral or immoral through the lenses of: Virtue
Ethics, Natural Law Theory, Deontology,
Utilitarianism, and Justice as Fairness.

CO4: Exploring the relevance of Ethics in the modern

world and understanding the difference between
Ethics and Religion.

Course Content Plan

Week Topic Learning Assessment Schedule of
Task Task Submission

Page 102 of 129

Abridged
OBTL Course
Syllabus

Class Policies

Requirements

Grading
System and
Activities
1

Learning
Guide /
Instructional
Workbook /
Laboratory
Manual

Submission of
requirements

CO1. Learning the basic concepts of Ethics: Moral and Non-Moral

Standards, Moral Dilemma, and Freedom.
Module 1:
Basic
Concepts
Lesson 1.1: End of Scheduled
Preliminaries lesson First Retrieval
Assessment
in Ethics activity: of Outputs
#1
through LGU
- Questions Lesson # 1.1: Kiosks
when you Essay on
2 were a Republic Act
child. No. 6713.
Lesson 1.2: End of Assessment Scheduled
The Moral lesson #2 First Retrieval
Experience activity: Lesson # 1.2: of Outputs
Human act Essay Article through LGU
or act of on human act Kiosks
human.
Page 103 of 129
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
V0 07-15-2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No. DLABS-IM-013
104 PHLO11: ETHICS

vs. Act of
Man
Lesson 1.3: End of Assessment Scheduled
Moral lesson #3 First Retrieval
Standards vs. activity: Lesson # 1.3: of Outputs
Non-Moral through LGU
Why do you Moral
Standard Kiosks
need to Standards
differentiate [Link] Moral
moral Standards.
standards
from non-
moral
3 standards?
Lesson 1.4: End of Assessment
Scheduled
Moral lesson #4 First Retrieval
Dilemma activity: Lesson # 1.4: of Outputs
through LGU
Find a moral Identity the
Kiosks
dilemma in moral
news dilemma in
articles. the story.

Lesson 1.5: End of Assessment Scheduled

Freedom and lesson #5 First Retrieval
Responsibility activity: Lesson # 1.5: of Outputs
through LGU
Reflection Propose
4 Kiosks
on freedom three topics
in a poem, for the final
drawing, paper
etc.
CO2. Learning the basic concepts that affects the moral framework of
a person: culture, virtue, morality, habit. Also, learning the basic
concepts that affects the act of the moral agent: Feelings/Emotions,
Reason and Impartiality, Moral Courage, Importance of the Will.
Module 2:
Moral Agent
and Moral Act

6 Lesson 2.1: End of Assessment Scheduled

The Moral lesson #6 First Retrieval
Agent as a activity: Lesson # 2.1: of Outputs
Cultural Being through LGU
Essay on
Kiosks
how culture
affect your
Page 104 of 129
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
V0 07-15-2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No. DLABS-IM-013
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021 105

Dyahe decision
Piece making.
flowchart.

Lesson 2.2: End of Assessment Scheduled

Moral Agent lesson #7 First Retrieval
as a Person activity: Lesson # 2.2: of Outputs
with Feelings through LGU
What will Essay on
7
you feel and how feelings Kiosks
what will affect your
you do? decision
making
Lesson 2.3: End of Assessment Scheduled
Moral Act lesson #8 First Retrieval
activity: Lesson # 2.3: of Outputs
through LGU
Applying the Essay about
7-step using reason, Kiosks
8
model in a instead of
life situation feelings or
culture in
decision
making
Week 9 – Midterm Examinations
CO3. Examining the different Moral Frameworks and Principles in
judging whether the act of moral agent is moral, amoral or immoral
through the lenses of: Virtue Ethics, Natural Law Theory, Deontology,
Utilitarianism, and Justice as Fairness
Module 3: End of Assessment Scheduled
Frameworks lesson #9 Second
and Principles activity: Lesson # 3.1: Retrieval of
Behind our Top 5 things Essay about Outputs
Moral through LGU
that makes how virtue
Disposition Kiosks
you happy and balance
is the key to
a happy life
9
Lesson 3.1: End of Assessment Scheduled
Virtue Ethics lesson # 10 Second
activity: Lesson # 3.2: Retrieval of
Define the Essay about Outputs
through LGU
cardinal man-made
virtues laws that are Kiosks
devoid to
Natural Law

Page 105 of 129

Lesson 3.2: St. End of Assessment Scheduled

Thomas: lesson # 11 Second
Natural Law activity: Lesson # 3.3: Retrieval of
Theory Explaining Essay about Outputs
10 through LGU
basic rights and
Kiosks
concepts of duties
Utilitarianis
m
Lesson 3.3: End of Assessment Scheduled
Immanuel lesson # 12 Second
Kant and the activity: Lesson # 3.4: Retrieval of
Rights Explaining The Greatest Outputs
11 Theorists through LGU
basic Happiness
Kiosks
concepts of Principle/Utilit
Utilitarianis arianism
m
Lesson 3.4: End of Assessment Scheduled
Classical lesson # 13 Second
Utilitarianism activity: Retrieval of
Lesson # 3.5:
Outputs
Explaining Essay
through LGU
basic explaining
Kiosks
concepts of the concept
Justice and of Justice
12 Fairness and Fairness
in
comparison
to
utilitarianism
and a
Kantian
ethics
Lesson 3.5: End of Assessment Scheduled
Justice as lesson #9 Second
Fairness activity: Lesson # 3.1: Retrieval of
Top 5 things Essay about Outputs
13 through LGU
that makes how virtue
Kiosks
you happy and balance
is the key to
a happy life
CO4: Exploring the relevance of Ethics in the modern world and
understanding the difference between Ethics and Religion.

Page 106 of 129

Module 4:
Conclusion:
Ethics
Through Thick
and Thin, and
Ethics and
Religion
14 - Lesson 4.1: End of Assessment Scheduled
15 The lesson # 14 Second
Challenges of activity: Lesson # 4.1: Retrieval of
Pluralism and Questions Essay about Outputs
Fundamentalis through LGU
about ethics Challenges
m: The Search Kiosks
and religion on pluralism
for Universal and
Values fundamentali
smo
Lesson 4.2: End of Assessment Scheduled
Environmental lesson # 14 Second
Ethics activity: Lesson # 4.1: Retrieval of
Outputs
Questions Position
about ethics paper on a through LGU
Kiosks
16 - and particular
17 environment political,
economic,
environmenta
l, cultural or
religious
issue.
Week 18 – Final Examinations

Course Assessment and Evaluation

Ite Individual
Percentage No. of
m Assessment Tasks Task %
Contribution Times
No. Contribution
1 Quizzes (Q) 15% 4 3.75/Q
Term Examination
2 25% 1 25/TE
(TE)
3 Project (Pr) 60% 1 60/Pr

Grading System (60% Passing)

Range Grade Range Grade
96-100 1.00 68 - 71 2.50
Page 107 of 129
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
V0 07-15-2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No. DLABS-IM-013
108 PHLO11: ETHICS

92-95 1.25 64 - 67 2.75

88-91 1.50 60 - 63 3.00
84-87 1.75 50 - 59 3.25
80-83 2.00 40 - 49 3.50
76-79 2.25 30 - 39 4.00
72-75 2.50 01 - 29 5.00
Course Policies

a. The official virtual classroom is VSU E-Learning Portal

([Link] ). A class orientation will be
done in relation to the use and navigation of the platform.

b. ZOOM or Google Meet will be used for web-conferencing and

real-time class meetings. Username and password link will
be posted in VSU E-Learning Portal.

Attending the virtual meeting is highly - encouraged but not

compulsory. If you cannot attend due to internet connection
limitation, there is no problem. Just keep up with the lessons
and do all the necessary exercises that is required of you.

The virtual meeting is our avenue for synchronous learning.

Class interaction and participation is encouraged, sharing of
ideas, feedbacking of your outputs and other related
concerns in the subject will be done during this time.

c. All requirements will be submitted preferably through the

VSU E-Learning Portal / email but if internet connection is not
stable or you do not have an internet connection. You may
send your exercises to the office through a courier.

The office address is DEPARTMENT OF LIBERAL ARTS

AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES, COLLEGE OF ARTS AND
SCIENCES, Visayas State University, Baybay City, Leyte,
Philippines.

d. Quizzes is set on VSU E-Learning Portal. All quizzes are

announced and will open every after a topic has been
discussed. You have one week to comply with the quiz and
answer it anytime you think that you are ready.

e. The Learning Guide / Instructional Workbook / Laboratory

Manual in PHLO 11: ETHICS will be our official instructional
material in this subject. It will serve as your guide for the
whole semester. Whether you have internet connection or
not, use it.

f. In the submission of exercises, there are no deduction for

late submissions.

Page 108 of 129

g. Term Examinations are ___________. It will be done in either

of the following:

1) With internet connection: VSU E-Learning Portal or

through email
2) Without/not stable internet connection: Answers can be
sent through a courier.

h. If you have any inquiries/clarifications, you may contact the

course instructor during official class schedule; Monday to
Friday only.

i. University policies are strictly followed. Please be guided

accordingly.

j. Lastly, as we embark in this “new normal”. Let us have an

open mind and heart as we adjust in this new way of
delivering the teaching-learning process and still continue to
aim for quality in education.

This class policy serves as our written agreement for the whole
semester. If there are any changes to enhance the class learning
opportunity within the semester, it will be communicated accordingly.

Instructor/Professor Information

Instructor/Professor Information
Name of John Martin A. Diao
Instructor/Professor
Office and Department Department of Liberal Arts and
Behavioral Sciences
Telephone/Mobile (+63) 915 163 9115
Numbers
Email Address [Link]@[Link]
Consultation Time
Name of Errol C. Fernandez
Instructor/Professor
Office and Department Department of Liberal Arts and
Behavioral Sciences

Page 109 of 129

Telephone/Mobile (+63) 928 701 8441

Numbers
Email Address [Link]@[Link]
Consultation Time

Name of Jerry D. Imbong

Instructor/Professor
Office and Department Department of Liberal Arts and
Behavioral Sciences
Telephone/Mobile (+63) 916 495 1029
Numbers
Email Address [Link]@[Link]
Consultation Time

Name of Romeo J. Toring Jr.

Instructor/Professor
Office and Department Department of Liberal Arts and
Behavioral Sciences
Telephone/Mobile
Numbers
Email Address [Link]@[Link]
Consultation Time

Page 110 of 129

College of Arts and Sciences

For inquiries, contact:

JETT C. QUEBEC, Ph.D.

[Link]@[Link] ‧ dlabs@[Link]
+63 53 565 0600 Local 1028

Use this code when referring to this material:

TP-IMD-02 v0 07-15-20 • No. DLABS-IM-013

Visca, Baybay City, Leyte

Philippines 6521
information@[Link]
+63 53 565 0600

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