∗ 𝑮𝑹𝑶𝑼𝑷 𝑻𝑯𝑬𝑶𝑹𝒀 ∗

𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩: Let G ≠ ∅ and ∗ be a binary operation on G then (G ,∗ ) is said to be group if

it satisfies the following conditions:
(1) Closure Property ∶ For ∀ a , b ∈ G ⟹ a ∗ b ∈ G
Then G is closed under ∗
(2) Associative Property ∶ For ∀ a , b , c ∈ G ; a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c
(3) Existence of Identity Element: ∃ an element e ∈ G s. t. a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ; ∀ a ∈ G
then e is called an Identity element of G .
(4) Existance of Inverse ∶ For ∀ a ∈ G ; ∃ b ∈ G s. t. a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a then b
is called an inverse of a .

𝐀𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧 (𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞) 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 ∶

A group (G ,∗ ) is said to be Abelian or Commutative group if for ∀ a , b ∈ G ∶ a ∗ b = b ∗ a

𝐄𝐱: 𝟏 𝐒𝐡𝐨𝐰 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐞𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐮𝐛𝐞 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧.

3
Here x = √1 ⟹ x3 = 1
⟹ (x − 1) (x 2 + x + 1) = 0

−1 ± i √3
⟹ x = 1 or x =
2
−1 ± i √3
⟹ x = 1 , w , w 2 where w =
2
−1 ± i √3
∴ Set G = { 1 , w , w 2 } where w =
2
⋮ 1 w w2
∘
⋯ ⋯ ⋯
Now Composition table is ∶ 1 ⋮ 1 w w2
w ⋮ w w2 1
w2 ⋮ w2 1 w

∎ Closure ∶ From table it is clear that ∶ a , b ∈ G ⟹ a ∙ b ∈ G

∴ G is closed under ∙
∎ Associative ∶ From table it is clear that ∶ a ∙ (b ∙ c) = (a ∙ b) ∙ c ; ∀ a , b, c ∈ G
∴ G satisfy Associative Property
∎ Existence of Identify ∶ Here e = 1 ∈ G and ∶ a ∙ e = a = e ∙ a ; ∀ a ∈ G
∴ e = 1 is Identity element of G
∎ Existence of Inverse ∶ Here 1 ∙ 1 = 1 ⟹ inverse of 1 is 1
Also w ∙ w 2 = 1 ⟹ w and w 2 are inverse of each other
∴ Inverse of each elements is Exists in G
Page 1 of 11
∴ G is a group under multiplication .
∎ Commutative ∶ From table it is clear that ∶ a ∙ b = b ∙ a ; ∀ a , b ∈ G
∴ G is an abelian group .

𝐄𝐱: 𝟐 𝐒𝐡𝐨𝐰 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐞𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝟒𝐭𝐡 𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧.
4
Here x = √1 ⟹ x4 = 1
⟹ x4 − 1 = 0
⟹ (x 2 − 1) (x 2 + 1) = 0
⟹ (x − 1 ) (x + 1) (x 2 + 1) = 0
⟹ x = 1 , −1 , i , −i
∴ Set G = { 1 , −1 , i , −i }

⋮ 1 −1 i −i
∘
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
1 ⋮ 1 −1 i −i
Now Composition table is ∶
−1 ⋮ −1 1 −i i
i ⋮ i −i −1 1
−i ⋮ −i i 1 −1

∎ Closure ∶ From table it is clear that ∶ a , b ∈ G ⟹ a ∙ b ∈ G

∴ G is closed under ∙
∎ Associative ∶ From table it is clear that ∶ a ∙ (b ∙ c) = (a ∙ b) ∙ c ; ∀ a , b, c ∈ G
∴ G satisfy Associative Property
∎ Existence of Identify ∶ Here e = 1 ∈ G and ∶ a ∙ e = a = e ∙ a ; ∀ a ∈ G
∴ e = 1 is Identity element of G
∎ Existence of Inverse ∶ Here inverse of 1 is 1 and inverse of (−1) is (−1)
Also 𝑖 and (−𝑖 ) are inverse of each other
∴ Inverse of each elements is Exists in G
∴ G is a group under multiplication .
∎ Commutative ∶ From table it is clear that ∶ a ∙ b = b ∙ a ; ∀ a , b ∈ G
∴ G is a Commutative group under multiplication .

𝒂 𝒃] ⁄
𝐄𝐱: 𝟑 𝐒𝐡𝐨𝐰 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐆 = { [ 𝐚𝐛 − 𝐛𝐜 ≠ 𝟎 ; 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 , 𝐝 ∈ 𝐑 } 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫
𝒄 𝒅
𝐦𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 . 𝐈𝐬 𝐢𝐭 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 ?
a b1 a b2
∎ Closure: let A = [ 1 ],B = [ 2 ] ∈ G i. e. a1 d1 − b1 c1 ≠ 0, a2 d2 − b2 c2 ≠ 0
c1 d1 c2 d2
a b1 a b2 a a + b1 c2 a1 b2 + b1 d2
Here A ∙ B = [ 1 ] ∙ [ 2 ]=[ 1 2 ]ϵG
c1 d1 c2 d2 c1 a2 + d1 c2 c1 b2 + d1 d2
Since [a1 a2 + b1 c2 ] [c1 b2 + d1 d2 ] − [a1 b2 + b1 d2 ] [c1 a2 + d1 c2 ] ≠ 0 〈SHOW〉
∴ G is closed under multiplication .
∎ Associative ∶ We know that matrix multiplication is Associative
i. e. ∀ A , B, C ∈ G ; A ∙ (B ∙ C) = (A ∙ B) ∙ C .
Page 2 of 11
 ∴ G satisfy Associative Property
1 0
] ∈ G then for an y A = [ a b]
∎ Existence of Identify ∶ Here e = [
0 1 c d
a b] [1 0 a b
A∙e = [ ] = [ ]= A
c d 0 1 c d
1 0
∴ e=[ ] is Identity element of G
0 1
a b]
∎ Existence of Inverse ∶ If A = [ ∈ G ; ad − bc ≠ 0
c d
1 1 0
Then A−1 = [ d −b] ∈ G s. t. A ∙ A−1 = [ ]= e
ad − bc −c a 0 1
∴ A−1 is Inverse of A
∴ G is a group under multiplication .
∎ Commutative: Since matrix multiplication is not commutative
i. e. A ∙ B ≠ B ∙ A ; ∀ A , B ∈ G
∴ G is not an abelian group .

𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 ∶

(𝟏) 𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐈𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐟𝐲 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨 𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐆 𝐢𝐬 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐞

↦ Let (G ,∗) be a group
Also let e , e′ be two identify element in G
If e be indentify and e′ ∈ G then e ∙ e′ = e′ ∙ e = e′ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (∗)
If e′ be indentify and e ∈ G then e′ ∙ e = e ∙ e′ = e ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (∗∗)
∴ From (∗) and (∗∗) ; we have e = e′

(𝟐) 𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐄𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐢𝐬 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐞

↦ Let a ∈ G and b , c are inverse of a

ab = ba = e
∴ {
ac = ca = e
Now b = b ∙ e = b (a ∙ c)
= (b ∙ a) c
= e∙c = c
∴ Inverse of each element in a group is unique .

(𝟑) 𝐏. 𝐓. [ 𝐚−𝟏 ]−𝟏 = 𝐚 ; ∀ 𝐚 ∈ 𝐆

↦ Let (G ,∙ ) be a group and a ∈ G ⟹ a−1 ∈ G , e ∈ G
∴ a ∙ a−1 = a−1 ∙ a ⟹ a and a−1 are inverse of each other
∴ Inverse of a is a−1
∴ Inverse of ( a−1 = b ) is a ⟹ b−1 = a
⟹ (a−1 )−1 = a

(𝟒) 𝐈𝐟 (𝐆 ,∙ ) 𝐛𝐞 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐚 , 𝐛 ∈ 𝐆 𝐏. 𝐓. (𝐚 𝐛)−𝟏 = 𝐛−𝟏 ∙ 𝐚−𝟏

↦ Let (G ,∙ ) be a group and a , b ∈ G
⟹ a−1 , b−1 ∈ G
Now a , b ∈ G ⟹ a ∙ b ∈ G ⟹ (a ∙ b)−1 ∈ G

Page 3 of 11
 ⨂ Now (a ∙ b) ∙ ( b−1 ∙ a−1 ) = a ∙ ( b ∙ b−1 ) ∙ a−1
= a ∙ e ∙ a−1
= a ∙ a−1 = e ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (∗)
⨂ Also ( b−1 ∙ a−1 ) ∙ (a ∙ b) = b−1 ∙ (a−1 ∙ a ) ∙ b
= b−1 ∙ e ∙ b
= b−1 ∙ b = e ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (∗∗)
∴ From (∗) and (∗∗) we say that (b−1 a−1 ) is inverse of (a b)
∴ (a b)−1 = b−1 ∙ a−1

(𝟓) 𝐂𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐥𝐚𝐰 ∶ 𝐈𝐟 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 𝐛𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 (𝐆 ,∙ ) 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧

⨂ 𝐚𝐛 = 𝐚𝐜 ⟹ 𝐛 = 𝐜 ( 𝐋𝐞𝐟𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐧. 𝐥𝐚𝐰 )
⨂ 𝐛𝐚 = 𝐜𝐚 ⟹ 𝐛 = 𝐜 ( 𝐑𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐧. 𝐥𝐚𝐰 )

Let ab = ac ⟹ a−1 (ab) = a−1 (ac) Let ba = ca ⟹ (b a) a−1 = (c a) a−1

⟹ (a−1 ∙ a) ∙ b = (a−1 ∙ a) ∙ c ⟹ b (a ∙ a−1 ) = c (a ∙ a−1 )
⟹ e ∙ b=e ∙ c ⟹ b ∙e =c ∙ e
⟹ b=c ⟹ b=c

𝐀𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐦 ∶ Let a, b ∈ Z and m be a fixed + ve integer then addition modulo m is

written as 𝑎 +𝑚 𝑏 and is defind as ∶ a +m b = r ; 0 ≤ r < 𝑚
where r is the least non negative remainder when (a + b) is divided by m
3+3 8 = 2
For ex ∶ { 5+4 7 = 0 etc .
17+3 3 = 2
𝐌𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐦 ∶ Let a, b ∈ Z and m be a fixed + ve integer then multiplication modulo
m is written as 𝑎 ×𝑝 𝑏 and is defind as ∶ a ×p b = r ; 0 ≤ r < 𝑝
where r is the least non negative remainder when (a ∙ b) is divided by p
5 ×4 6 = 2
For ex ∶ { 7 ×6 5 = 5 etc .
3 ×7 8 = 3
𝐄𝐱 ∶ 𝟒 ∶ 𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐙𝟔 = { 𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟓 } 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐚𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 +𝟔 .
Here Composition table is as under

+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

∎ Closure ∶ From composition table it is clear that ∶ a +6 b ∈ Z6 ; ∀ a , b ∈ Z6

∴ Z6 is Closed under +6

Page 4 of 11
∎ Associative ∶ From table it is clear that ∶ a +6 ( b +6 c ) = (a +6 b ) +6 c ; ∀ a , b, c ∈ Z6
∴ Z6 Satisfy Associative Property
∎ Existence of Identify ∶ Here e = 0 ∈ Z6 and ∶ a +6 0 = a = 0 +6 a ; ∀ a ∈ Z6
∴ e = 0 is Identity element of Z6
∎ Existence of Inverse ∶ From the table it is clear that ∶
inverse of 0 is 0
inverse of 1 is 5
0 and 3 are self inverse
inverse of 2 is 4
⟹ { 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
inverse of 3 is 3
2 and 4 are inverse of each other
inverse of 4 is 2
inverse of 5 is 1 }
∴ Inverse of each elements is Exists in Z6
∴ ( z6 , +6 ) is a Group
∎ Abelian ∶ From table is clear that ; a +6 b = b +6 a ∶ ∀ a, b ∈ Z6
∴ ( z6 , +6 ) is Abelian Group

𝐄𝐱 ∶ 𝟓 ∶ 𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐙𝟕 = { 𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 } 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐚𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 +𝟕 .

𝑶𝑹 𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐆 = { 𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 } 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐚𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐫𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝟕 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫
𝐚𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐨 𝟕 .
Here Composition table is as under

+7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 0 1 0 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

∎ Closure ∶ From composition table it is clear that ∶ a +7 b ∈ Z7 ; ∀ a , b ∈ Z7

∴ Z7 is Closed under +7
∎ Associative ∶ From table it is clear that ∶ a +7 ( b +7 c ) = (a +7 b ) +7 c ; ∀ a , b, c ∈ Z7
∴ Z7 Satisfy Associative Property
∎ Existence of Identify ∶ Here e = 0 ∈ Z7 and ∶ a +7 0 = a = 0 +7 a ; ∀ a ∈ Z7
∴ e = 0 is Identity element of Z7
∎ Existence of Inverse ∶ From the table it is clear that ∶
1 +7 6 = 0 1 and 6 are inverse of each other
{ 2 +7 5 = 0 ⟹ { 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
3 +7 4 = 0 3 and 4 are inverse of each other

∴ Inverse of each elements is Exists in Z7

∴ ( z7 , +7 ) is a Group
∎ Commutative ∶ From table is clear that ; a +7 b = b +7 a ∶ ∀ a, b ∈ Z7
∴ ( z7 , +7 ) is Abelian Group
Page 5 of 11
𝐄𝐱 ∶ 𝟔 ∶ 𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐙𝟏𝟏 = { 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ , 𝟏𝟎 } 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐚𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 ×𝟏𝟏 .
Here Composition table is as under

×11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 4 6 8 10 1 3 5 7 9
3 3 6 9 1 4 7 10 2 5 8
4 4 8 1 5 9 2 6 10 3 7
5 5 10 4 9 3 8 2 7 1 6
6 6 1 7 2 8 3 9 4 10 5
7 7 3 10 6 2 9 5 1 8 4
8 8 5 2 10 7 4 1 9 6 3
9 9 7 5 3 1 10 8 6 4 2
10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

∎ Closure: From composition table it is clear that: a ×11 b ∈ Z11 ; ∀ a , b ∈ Z11

∴ Z11 is Closed under ×11
∎ Associative: From table it is clear that: a ×11 (b ×11 c) = (a ×11 b) ×11 c ; ∀ a , b, c ∈ Z11
∴ Z11 Satisfy Associative Property
∎ Existence of Identify ∶ Here e = 1 ∈ Z11 and a ×11 1 = a = 1 ×11 a ; ∀ a ∈ Z11
∴ e = 1 is Identity element of Z11
∎ Existence of Inverse ∶ From the table it is clear that ∶
2 ×11 6=1 2 and 6 are inverse of each other
3 ×11 4=1 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
5 ×11 9=1 ⟹ {
5 and 9 are inverse of each other
{ 7 ×11 8=1 7 and 8 are inverse of each other
∴ Inverse of each elements is Exists in Z11
∴ ( z11 , ×11 ) is a Group

𝐎𝐫𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩: The number of 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐭 elements in a finite group G is called order of a group G
It is denoted by 0(G).
For ex ∶ (1) if G = {1, w, w 2 } then o(G) = 3
(2) if G = {1, −1 , i , −i } then o(G) = 4
𝐎𝐫𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩: Let (G ,∙) be a group and a ∈ G if there exists a 𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐭 + ve
integer n s. t. an = e then n is called the order of a in G.
i. e. an = e ⟹ 0(a) = n

−1 ± i √3
For ex ∶ (𝟏) If G = {1, w, w 2 } where w= and e=1
2
∎ 11 = 1 = e ⟹ 0(1) = 1
∎ w1 = w , w 2 = w 2 , w 3 = 1 = e ⟹ 0(w) = 3
∎ ( w 2 )3 = w 6 = w 3 ∙ w 3 = 1 ∙ 1 = e ⟹ 0(w 2 ) = 3
Page 6 of 11
 (𝟐) If G = {1, −1 , i , −i } then e=1
∎ 11 = 1 = e ⟹ 0(1) = 1
∎ (−1)2 = 1 = e ⟹ 0(−1) = 2
∎ i1 = i , i2 = −1 , i3 = −i , i4 = 1 = e ⟹ 0(i) = 4
∎ (−i)1 = −i , (−i)2 = −1 , (−i)3 = i , (−i)4 = 1 ⟹ 0(−i) = 4

𝐄𝐱: 𝟕 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐫𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐝𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐨 𝟔 (+𝟔 ) 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐆 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓}
Here G = { 0 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 } and e = 0 be identity .
∎ For addition ∶ 0 is identity ⟹ 0(0) = 1
(1)1 = 1
(1)2 = 1 + 1 = 2
∎ (1)3 = 1+6 1+6 1 = 3 ⟹ O(1) = 6
(1)4 = 1+6 1+6 1+6 1 = 4
(1)6 = 1+6 1+6 1+6 1+6 1+6 1 = 0 = e }

(2)1 = 2
∎ { (2)2 = 2 +6 2 = 4 ⟹ O(2) = 3
3
(2) = 2 +6 2 +6 2 = 0 = e

∎ O (3) = 2

(4)1 = 4
∎ { (4)2 = 4 +6 4 = 2 ⟹ O(4) = 3
3
(4) = 4 +6 4 +6 4 = 0 = e

∎ Similarly O(5) = 6

𝐄𝐱: 𝟖 𝐈𝐟 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐆 𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐏. 𝐓 𝐆 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧.

Let (G ,∙ ) be a group and a , b ∈ G ⟹ (a)−1 = a and (b)−1 = b
Also a , b ∈ G ⟹ a b ∈ G and (a b)−1 ∈ G
∴ (ab) = (a b)−1 = b−1 a−1 = (b a)
∴ ∀ a , b ∈ G ; ab = ba
∴ ( G ,∙ ) be an abelian group

𝐄𝐱: 𝟗 𝐋𝐞𝐭 𝐆 𝐛𝐞 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐰 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭: 𝟎(𝐚) = 𝟎(𝐚−𝟏 ); ∀ 𝐚 ∈ 𝐆. 𝐎𝐑

𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐫𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐚𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬.
0 (a) = n
Let { where m, n ∈ N , a ∈ G
0(a−1 ) = m
Then we have to show that ∶ m = n
∎ Since 0(a) = n ⟹ an = e
⟹ (an )−1 = e−1 = e
Page 7 of 11
 ⟹ (a−1 )n = e
⟹ 0(a−1 ) ≤ n
⟹ m ≤ n ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (∗)
−1
∎ Also o(a ) = m ⟹ (a−1 )m = e
⟹ a−m = e
⟹ am = e−1 = e
⟹ 0(a) ≤ m
⟹ n ≤ m ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (∗∗)
∴ From (∗) & (∗∗) we say that: m = n i. e. 0(a) = 0(a−1 )

⋇ 𝐒𝐮𝐛 𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩: A nonempty subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G; if H is it self a group

under the same binary operation of G.
For ex: (1) if G = {1, w, w 2 } and H = {1, w) then H is 𝐧𝐨𝐭 a subgroup of G.
(∵ W inverse w 2 ∉ H: H is not group)
(2) if G = {1, −1, i , −i} and H = {−1,1}
Then H ≠ ∅ and H ⊂ G also H is a group under multiplication
∴ H is a subgroup of G
(3) The additive Group of Even integer is a subgroup of the additive group of All integers.
⋇ 𝐍𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐚 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩:
𝐓𝐡𝐦 : 𝐀 𝐧𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐲 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐭 𝐇 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐆 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐨𝐟 𝐆 𝐢𝐟𝐟 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐚, 𝐛 ∈ 𝐇 ⟹ 𝐚 ∙ 𝐛−𝟏 ∈ 𝐇.

𝐄𝐱: 𝟏𝟎 𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐭𝐰𝐨 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐥𝐬𝐨 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩. 𝐈𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐰𝐨
𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩? 𝐉𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐟𝐲 𝐲𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐰𝐞𝐫.
Let H1 and H2 be two subgroup of G
H ≠ ∅ , H2 ≠ ∅ H ∩ H2 ≠ ∅
∴ { 1 ⟹ { 1
H1 ⊂ G , H2 ⊂ G H1 ∩ H2 ⊂ G
∴ H1 ∩ H2 is a non empty subset of a grou p G
Now let a , b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 then we want to show that a b−1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2
a ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⟹ a ∈ H1 and a ∈ H2
Since {
b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⟹ b ∈ H1 and b ∈ H2
Now H1 is a subgroup of G ; a ∈ H1 and b ∈ H1 ⟹ ab−1 ∈ H1
Similarly H2 is a subgroup of G ; a ∈ H2 and b ∈ H2 ⟹ ab−1 ∈ H2
Thus for any a , b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⟹ a b−1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2
∴ By Necessary and Sufficient condition ; H1 ∩ H2 is a subgroup of G
∎ The 𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐨𝐧 of two subgroup of a group G is 𝐧𝐨𝐭 necessarily a subgroup of G

For ex ∶ (1) Let G = ( Z , + ) = { 0, ±1 , ±2 , ±3 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ }

Then clearly G is a group under addition
Now let H1 = {0, ±3, ±6, ±9 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ }
H2 = {0, ±2, ±4, ±6 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ }
Then clearly H1 and H2 are subgroup of G under addition

Page 8 of 11
 Now H1 ∪ H2 = {0 , ±2 , ±3 , ±4 , ±6, ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ }
Here H1 ∪ H2 is not a subgroup of G
Since ∶ 2 + 3 = 5 ∉ H1 ∪ H2
i. e. H1 ∪ H2 is not closed under addition
But H1 ∩ H2 = {0, ±6 , ±12 , ±18 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ } is a subgroup of G under addition

𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩: Let < 𝐺 ,∗ > be a group. If there exists at least one element a ∈ G s. t.
G = {ak / k ∈ Z } then G is called the cyclic group generated by a .
∎ It is denoted by G = 〈a〉
∎ Here ‘a’ is called the generator of group G.
For ex: (1) Let G = {1, −1, i, −i} then o(G) = 4 & e = 1 is identity

(i)1 = i
(i)2 = −1
Now ⟹ G is cyclic group generated by i. ∴ G = 〈 i 〉
(i)3 = −i
( i) 4 = 1 }

(−i)1 = −i
(−i)2 = −1
Also ∴ (−i) is also generator of the group. ∴ G = 〈−i 〉
(−i)3 = i
(−i)4 = 1 }
−1±i√3
(𝟐) Let G = {1, w, w 2 } where w = and e = 1
2

(w)1 = w
Here (w)2 = w 2 } ∴ G = 〈w〉
(w)3 = 1
(w 2 )1 = w 2
Also (w 2 )2 = w 3 w = w } ∴ G = 〈w 2 〉
(w 2 )3 = w 3 w 3 = 1

𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦: 𝐏. 𝐓. 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧.

⟼ Let G be a cyclic group generated by a
∴ G = 〈a〉 = {ak /k ∈ Z}
Take any two elements ap , aq ∈ G; p, q ∈ Z
Now ap ∙ aq = ap+q
= aq+p = aq ∙ ap
∴ G is commutative group.
i. e. Every cyclic group is commutative.

Page 9 of 11
𝐄𝐱: 𝟏𝟏 𝐏. 𝐓. ( 𝐳𝟔 , +𝟔 ) 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩.
Here z6 = { 0,1,2,3,4,5}
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

We know that ( z6 , +6 )is a Group.

⟼ Now 1 ∈ 𝑧6
(1)1 = 1
(1)2 = 1+6 1 = 2
(1)3 = 1+6 1+6 1 = 3
Here ∴ 1 is generator of (z6 , +6 )
(1)4 = 1+6 1+6 1+6 1 = 4
(1)5 = =5
6
(1) = =0 }
⟼ Similarly 5 ∈ 𝑧6
(5)1 = 5
(5)2 = 5 +6 5 = 4
(5)3 = 5+6 5+6 5 = 3
Here ∴ 5 is generator of ( z6 , +6 )
(5)4 = =2
(5)5 = =1
6
(5) = =0 }
Hence 1 and 5 are only generator of ( z6 , +6 )
∴ G is a cyclic group generated by 1 and 5 i. e. G = 〈1 〉 = 〈5 〉
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: Other Cyclic groups with its generator are as under:

𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩𝐬 𝐆𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫

( z3 , +3 ) 1 ,2

( z4 , +4 ) 1 ,3

( z5 , +5 ) 1 ,2 ,3 ,4

( z6 , +6 ) 1 ,5

( z7 , +7 ) 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6

( z8 , +8 ) 1 ,3 ,5 ,7

( z9 , +9 ) 1 ,2 ,4 ,5 ,7 ,8

Page 10 of 11
𝐄𝐱: 𝟏𝟐 𝐏. 𝐓. (𝐳𝟓 ,×5 )𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩.
Here z5 = {1,2,3,4}

×5 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
⟼ Clearly 1 is 𝐧𝐨𝐭 a generator of ×5

(2)1 = 2
(2)2 = 2 ×5 2 = 4
⟼ Now ∴ 2 is generator of (z5 ,×5 )
(2)3 = 2 ×5 2 ×5 2 = 4 ×5 2 = 3
(2)4 = 2 ×5 2 ×5 2 × 5 2 = 3 ×5 2 = 1 }

(3)1 = 3
(3)2 = 4
⟼ Similarly ∴ 3 is generator of (z5 ,×5 )
(3)3 = 2
(3)4 = 1 }
Hence 2 and 3 are only generator of (z5 ,×5 )
∴ G is a cyclic group generated by 2 and 3. i. e. G = 〈2〉 = 〈3〉
𝐄𝐱: 𝟏𝟑 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐟 (𝐳𝟕 ,×𝟕 )
Here z7 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}

×7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1
(3)1 = 3
(3)1 = 3 ×𝟕 3 = 2
⟼ Here (3)3 = 3 ×𝟕 3 ×𝟕 3 = 6 ∴ 3 is generator of ( z7 ,×7 ) i. e. G = 〈3〉
(3)4 = = 4
(3)5 = = 5 }

⟼ Similarly: G = 〈5〉
∴ G is a cyclic group and its generated are 3 and 5.

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: If G is a finite group whose order is a prime number P then G is cyclic.

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