Endocrine system and

common pathologies 6
The nervous and endocrine systems work together to control
the functions of all the body’s systems and help to maintain
homeostasis. The endocrine system consists of glands situated
throughout the body. The endocrine glands are ductless and
secrete (release) chemical messengers called hormones directly
into the bloodstream. Like nerves, they carry messages from
one part of the body to another. The hormones are carried in the
bloodstream and only affect certain cells, called target cells, in
which they produce a response.

Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts and include

salivary, eccrine, apocrine, sebaceous and mammary glands. don’t forget
The trigger needed for the glands to secrete their hormones may All the body systems
be a nerve impulse, a chemical change in the blood or another work together to maintain
homeostasis (for example,
hormone passing by that influences its release. Although minute
correct body temperature,
amounts of hormones are produced by endocrine glands, they pH (acidity), and oxygen
can have powerful effects upon the body. levels in the body), which
ensures survival of cells.
The endocrine glands consist of the 1 pituitary gland,
2 pineal gland, 3 thyroid gland, 4 parathyroid gland,
5 thymus, 6 adrenal glands, 7 pancreas, 8 ovaries
and 9 testes.

The pituitary gland

The pituitary gland is situated in the middle of the brain, just
behind the nose, and is about the size of a pea. It is attached
by a stalk to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is made up

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of nerve tissue, so this stalk is where the nervous system meets

the endocrine system. The hypothalamus controls many bodily
activities, such as the heart rate and emptying of the bladder.
It also controls the pituitary gland by stimulating, or interfering
with, the release of hormones from it. Emotions such as joy
and anger, as well as long-term stress, influence the endocrine
system through the hypothalamus.

ACTIVITY 6.1

1
3
2
4

Thymus
5

Islets of 6
Langerhans

Figure 6.1 The main endocrine glands

Label the diagram in Figure 6.1, matching the numbers to the numbered terms in the text
on page 173. Use this key to colour the endocrine glands.

Unshaded – pituitary and pineal glands Brown – pancreas

Yellow – adrenal glands Green – thymus
Red – thyroid and parathyroid Orange – ovaries and testes

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The pituitary gland is called the master gland because it releases

several hormones that control most of the other endocrine
glands, such as the ovaries, testes, thyroid gland and adrenal
glands. It secretes hormones that affect growth, kidney function,
delivery of babies and milk production.

The pituitary gland consists of two parts: the anterior lobe and
posterior lobe.

Hypothalamus

Posterior pituitary

Anterior pituitary

Capillaries Sphenoid bone

Figure 6.2 The pituitary gland

The anterior lobe

The anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland are
controlled by the hypothalamus. The following hormones are
secreted by the anterior lobe (the numbers refer to Activity 6.2
on page 177).
1 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), which controls the
activity of the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland. The
adrenal glands are found above each kidney.
2 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which controls the
activity of the thyroid gland in the neck.

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3 Growth hormone, sometimes called somatotropin, which

controls the growth of the skeleton, muscles, connective
tissues and organs such as the kidneys and liver.
4 Lactogenic hormone (prolactin), which is responsible for
stimulating milk production in the breasts. It has a direct
effect on the breasts after pregnancy.
5 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which increases
skin pigmentation by stimulating the release of melanin
granules in melanocytes. However, only a tiny amount is
produced in humans and its exact function is uncertain.
Two gonadotrophic hormones control the ovaries in females and
the testes in males.
don’t forget
6 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which:
Alcohol interferes with the
release of ADH from the in women, stimulates the development of ova (eggs) in
pituitary gland. Therefore,
drinking alcohol leads to
the ovaries, and stimulates the ovaries to produce the
an increase in the urine hormone oestrogen
produced, so a person
will need to urinate more in men, stimulates the testes to produce sperm.
frequently. Drinking a great
7 Luteinising hormone (LH), also known as interstitial
deal of alcohol can lead
to dehydration, which is cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) which:
largely responsible for the
headache the following in women, stimulates release of the egg from the ovary
morning. (ovulation) and production of progesterone by the ovary

in men, stimulates the testes to make the hormone

testosterone.

The posterior lobe

The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is controlled by nervous
system stimulation of nerve cells within the hypothalamus. It
releases two hormones.
8 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates water balance in the
body by controlling the amount of water in urine.

The hormone causes water to be returned (through

reabsorption) into the blood circulation by the kidneys rather
than being lost as urine. On a hot day, sweating increases and

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so water is lost. The body needs to hold on to as much water as

it can. ADH is released, causing the kidneys to reabsorb water
into the bloodstream rather than passing it to the bladder to
be excreted from the body. This results in the production of a
decreased amount of urine, which will be more concentrated.
9 Oxytocin is responsible for the release of milk from the breast
during suckling and for contracting the uterus during labour
and after birth. Synthetic oxytocin is often used to induce
labour and works in the same way as the natural hormone.

ACTIVITY 6.2
Complete the table below. The numbers correspond to the numbered terms on pages
175–177.

Controls or stimulates
Endocrine gland Hormone released Target organ affected
production of

Anterior pituitary 1

Anterior pituitary 2

Anterior pituitary 3

Anterior pituitary 4

Anterior pituitary 5

Anterior pituitary 6

Anterior pituitary 7

Posterior pituitary 8

Posterior pituitary 9

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Conditions associated with the pituitary gland

Acromegaly
If too much growth hormone is produced in adulthood, it can
lead to a condition called acromegaly (ak-roe-meg-ah-lee), in
which there is bone thickening and gradual enlargement of the
hands, feet, jaws, ears and nose.

Diabetes insipidus
Diabetes insipidus is associated with the posterior pituitary
gland. It is either due to the gland not being able to release ADH,
or the kidneys not being able to respond to it. Symptoms include
large quantities of urine, dehydration and thirst.

Dwarfism
If too little growth hormone is produced in a young person, bone
growth will slow down and other organs will also fail to grow. The
person may only grow to 1–1.25 m tall. Children can be treated
with growth hormone to prevent this.

Giantism
If too much growth hormone is produced during childhood, an
abnormal increase in the length of the bones will result. The
long bones continue to grow and the person becomes very tall.
Giantism can be caused by a pituitary tumour.

The pineal gland

The pineal (pin-ee-al) gland is situated in the brain and releases
a hormone called melatonin. More melatonin is released when
a person is in darkness, and this results in sleepiness. In bright
sunlight, less melatonin is produced, so there is a lack of
sleepiness. During sleep, the melatonin level is high and then
decreases to a low level again before awakening. Therefore,
melatonin helps to control body rhythms.

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Condition associated with the pineal gland

Seasonal affective disorder
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a type of depression that
affects some people during the winter months when the days
are short and the amount of daylight is decreased. The cause is
thought to be overproduction of melatonin. Special light boxes
that mimic sunlight are used to help sufferers.

The thyroid
The thyroid is made up of two lobes and is found in front of
the throat, just below the voice box. It produces the hormone
thyroxine, which

controls the body’s metabolism and affects all tissues of the

body. Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical processes
going on inside the body, especially the conversion of glucose
into energy by the cells – the burning of calories to provide
energy for the body. Thyroxine helps to control how energetic
a person is by stimulating cells to burn more or less glucose

has a major influence on the development of the body

mentally and physically after birth.

Another hormone released by the thyroid is called T3

(triiodothyronin). It is essential for normal growth and
metabolism.

Iodine is needed by the thyroid to produce its hormones. The

body obtains iodine from the food we eat.

Conditions associated with the thyroid

Goitre (goy-ter)
This is the result of a lack of iodine and causes the thyroid
gland to enlarge, which causes a lump to develop in the throat.
Symptoms include coughing, hoarseness and a tight feeling in
the throat. Treatment includes taking iodine supplements if the
goitre is caused by an iodine deficiency. Figure 6.3 Goitre

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Hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis – thigh-roe-toxi-co-sis)

Overproduction of thyroxine can result in hyperthyroidism,
also known as overactive thyroid. This causes the metabolism
to speed up so that the sufferer loses weight, has a fast
heartbeat and increased sweating, and also develops bulging
eyes because of the swelling of tissues behind them. This is a
dangerous condition, which needs medical treatment.

Hypothyroidism (myxoedema – mix-oh-dee-ma)

Undersecretion of thyroxine causes hypothyroidism, also
known as myxoedema or underactive thyroid. This causes the
metabolism to slow down so that the sufferer puts on weight
and becomes lethargic. The hair becomes dry and brittle and
there may be some loss of hair. The skin appears thickened,
coarse and dry. The circulation may be poor so the sufferer feels
the cold more than normal. This condition also needs medical
treatment.

The parathyroid
The four tiny parathyroid glands can be found embedded
on the back of the thyroid gland. They produce the hormone
parathormone.

The parathyroids are sensitive to the levels of calcium in

the blood. Calcium is important as it is needed for muscle
contraction, transmission of nerve impulses and blood clotting.
The main function of parathormone is to control calcium levels
in the blood to maintain normal limits.

If calcium levels become very high, calcitonin is released

from the thyroid gland. This hormone quickly helps to prevent
removal of calcium from the bones.

If calcium levels are low, parathormone will cause calcium to

be taken from bones, decrease the rate at which calcium is
lost from the urine and increase absorption of calcium from the
small intestine to increase levels within the blood.

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Figure 6.4 Parathyroid

Conditions associated with the parathyroid

Hypersecretion
Overproduction of parathormone causes an increased amount
of calcium in the blood. It may cause excess calcium to be
lost from the bones, leading to brittle bones that fracture easily
(osteoporosis).

The hormone oestrogen, produced by the ovaries, interferes

with the release of parathormone. After the menopause,
the oestrogen levels in the body decrease. This means that
parathormone is no longer inhibited, so excess calcium may be
taken from the bones, which can also lead to osteoporosis.

Hyposecretion
Undersecretion of parathormone can lead to a deficiency
of calcium in the body. As calcium is needed for muscle
contraction, it can lead to a condition known as tetany, in which
the muscles become stiff and go into spasm.

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The thymus
The thymus gland is situated in the thorax (chest region) behind
the sternum. It is made up of lymphoid tissue. In an infant, it
is large, but after puberty it begins to waste away. It releases
hormones, one of which is called thymosin. Thymosin is involved
with the production of lymphocytes, which help fight against
viruses and other infections in the body.

ACTIVITY 6.3
Complete the table below.

Endocrine gland Hormone released Effect

Pineal

Thyroid

Parathyroid

Thymus

The adrenal glands

Androgen levels rise in women during puberty, pregnancy and
the menopause.

The adrenal glands are found on top of each kidney. They are
made of two parts: the cortex and the medulla. The cortex is the
outside, and the medulla is the inner part of the gland.

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Figure 6.5 Adrenal gland

Adrenal cortex
The adrenal cortex is essential to life and plays an important role
in states of stress. It is known that the adrenal cortex releases
over 50 hormones. All of these hormones are steroids and are
produced from a fatty substance called cholesterol. They are
grouped into three categories: sex corticoids, glucocorticoids and
mineral corticoids, according to the type of action in which they
are involved.

1 Sex corticoids
These help control the changes in males and females during
puberty. The female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone,
and the male hormones, androgens (for example, testosterone),
are produced in small amounts from this gland.

Conditions associated with sex corticoids

Gynaecomastia
This is a condition affecting males only and is mostly temporary.
It is caused by increased oestrogen levels in the body. The
sufferer develops excessive growth of one breast or both.

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Hirsutism
Oestrogen and androgens are produced in both males and
females. Men produce more androgens than women. If a
woman is particularly sensitive to androgens, excess hair may
develop in the male pattern, for example on the chin. This is
called hirsutism. Androgen levels rise in women during puberty,
pregnancy and the menopause.

Virilism
Virilism is a condition in which there is an oversecretion of
androgens in a female. The increased amount of androgens
causes the woman to become masculine. Symptoms develop,
such as receding hairline, increased growth of body and facial
hair, the voice deepens and the menstrual cycle stops.

2 Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids are a group of steroids that affect the
metabolism and have anti-inflammatory effects. They mostly
affect the metabolism of carbohydrates and, to a lesser extent,
fats and proteins in the body. They help to regulate nutrient
levels within the blood and turn food that we eat into energy. One
main glucocorticoid is called cortisol.

Cortisol has several functions.

It affects the metabolism by increasing the use of protein and

fats as a source of energy in the body. Cortisol causes proteins
to be broken down into amino acids. The amino acids can be
converted into glucose by the liver. Cortisol also acts on fats,
which are broken down into fatty acids. The glucose and fatty
acids are used by the body as sources of energy, if required.

Adrenalin is quickly released from the adrenal medulla

FAST FACT whenever danger threatens. Cortisol is released a little while
Cortisol helps reduce the later and prepares the body for the after-effects of danger. It
feelings of pain, which is helps reduce the feelings of pain, which is why people who
why people who are severely
are severely injured may feel no pain until some time later.
injured may feel no pain until
some time later. Cortisol helps the body to return to a normal state after a
high-stress event.

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It provides more rapid breakdown of glycogen into glucose

for extra energy during a highly stressful situation or an
increased need. This raises sugar levels in the blood to
ensure that cells have sufficient glucose for energy.

It helps to control body rhythms. Cortisol levels are highest

between 6 am and 9 am and trigger waking from sleep. The
levels are at their lowest between midnight and 3 am and so
promote sleepiness.

Glucocorticoids have strong anti-inflammatory and

immunosuppressive effects, so are often used to treat
inflammatory conditions. Synthetic forms of cortisol, such
as hydrocortisone, can be used to treat conditions like
rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory skin disorders.

Stress, anger, fright or rapidly falling sugar levels can cause

ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone) to be released from
the anterior lobe of the pituitary. This stimulates the release of
cortisol by the adrenal glands.

3 Mineral corticoids
Mineral corticoids help to maintain the right balance of minerals
such as sodium (salt) and potassium in the body. One of the
mineral corticoids is called aldosterone and is released if sodium
levels drop in the body, for example through sweating a lot.
Aldosterone ensures that the sodium is passed back into the
blood from the kidneys and not excreted in the urine; this helps
to increase sodium levels. Oversecretion of aldosterone causes
increased levels of sodium, which can lead to fluid retention
(oedema).

Conditions associated with glucocorticoids

and mineral corticoids
Addison’s disease
This results from abnormally low levels of aldosterone and
cortisol. Symptoms include low blood glucose levels, low levels
of sodium in the blood, an inability to use fat and protein for

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energy, low blood pressure and excessive urination. Cortisol can

be used to treat Addison’s disease.

Cushing’s syndrome
Cushing’s syndrome is caused by oversecretion of cortisol and
aldosterone. The symptoms include a moon-shaped face,
wasting of muscle tissue, high blood levels of glucose, high
blood pressure and excess fat tissue on the trunk of the body. A
pituitary tumour can cause Cushing’s syndrome.

Adrenal medulla
The adrenal medulla produces hormones called 4 adrenalin
and 5 noradrenalin, which together prepare the body for
action, known as the fight or flight response. In response to a
stress situation, where the body is in danger, the hypothalamus
sends a message via sympathetic nerves to the adrenal glands.
Adrenalin is released and is distributed quickly by the blood.

FAST FACT Adrenalin has the following effects.

Adrenalin may be injected to The heart beats stronger and faster, which increases blood
restart a heart when it stops pressure.
during a heart attack. It can
also be given to someone The arteries supplying the skin and internal organs constrict,
suffering an asthma attack. so blood flow decreases. However, the blood flow increases
in skeletal muscle so that the extra oxygen and glucose can
help to provide extra energy. This is why we can look pale in
an emergency.

Adrenalin also increases the breakdown of glycogen to

glucose in the liver. This ensures that there is a ready supply
for the muscles.

The airway passages dilate (widen), allowing air to move in

and out of the lungs with greater ease.

Adrenalin also stimulates ACTH, so that glucocorticoids

are released, and TSH, to increase the metabolism to help
prepare the body for action.

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ACTIVITY 6.4
Complete the table below. The numbers correspond to the numbered terms in the text on
pages 183–186.

Endocrine gland Hormone released Effect

Adrenal cortex 1

Adrenal cortex 2

Adrenal cortex 3

Adrenal cortex 4

Adrenal cortex 5

The pancreas
Carbohydrates are made up of many sugar molecules, mostly
glucose. Eating carbohydrate food means a rise of sugar in the
blood. Vigorous exercise causes a lot of glucose to be used by
muscles, which lowers the sugar levels in the blood.

The islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are sensitive to sugar

levels in the body. To maintain the balance of sugar in the blood,
the islets of Langerhans release hormones.

When blood sugar levels are too high, the hormone

1 insulin is released. Insulin causes the liver and muscles
to store glucose in the form of glycogen (lots of glucose
molecules joined together). This helps to bring the blood
sugar levels down.

If sugar levels are too low in the blood, the hormone

2 glucagon is released. It causes the liver and muscles to
release glucose into the bloodstream to help restore levels.

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Figure 6.6 Pancreas

Condition associated with the pancreas

Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a disease caused either by the pancreas
producing insufficient amounts of insulin or by the tissues not
responding to insulin. This results in the sugar (glucose) level
in the blood rising too high, which leads to the symptoms and
complications of diabetes such as tiredness and thirst.

Insulin is needed by the body to allow glucose to enter into

the cells. Without insulin the cells cannot process the glucose
to produce energy, which may result in fats being broken
down to provide energy instead. The breakdown of fats
could result in a build-up of chemicals called ketones in the
bloodstream, which are produced by the liver. A build-up of
ketones may lead to illness.

There are two types of diabetes mellitus.

Type 1 is often called insulin-dependent diabetes and

mostly develops in people under the age of 20. This type
is more serious and is often caused by the production of
little or no insulin. With this type, it is essential to have
insulin treatment to survive. The symptoms develop
quickly and include dehydration, excessive thirst,

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increased urination, weight loss, vomiting, drowsiness,

weakness and finally coma.

Type 2 is more common and often affects people over the

age of 35 who are overweight. It is also called maturity-
onset diabetes mellitus. This type usually develops from
the reduced ability of the tissues to respond to insulin,
although insulin is still being produced. Type 2 diabetes
can often be controlled by diet, exercise and weight loss.
The symptoms are similar to type 1, but they develop
gradually and are less severe. Diabetic coma does not
occur with type 2.

Treatment for diabetes rapidly restores health to normal.

However, poorly controlled diabetes over a long period of
time can cause the following problems.

The tissues can become damaged and waste away; for

example, the skin may become paper thin. There may
also be skin infections such as spots and boils.

Eye diseases, such as diabetic retinopathy, can develop

and, in a few people, can lead to blindness. Diabetic
retinopathy is caused by blood leaking from damaged
capillaries.

High blood pressure is more common in diabetics. It can

lead to capillary damage in the kidneys, causing swollen
ankles, fatigue and the build-up of urea, which is a
harmful waste product in the blood.

Damage to nerves (neuritis) can lead to a loss of

sensation in the legs but mainly affects the feet. An
example of this is the diabetic who, while walking, did not
realise that there was a golf ball inside one shoe.

Problems arise because the diabetic may be unaware of

injury to the feet. The injuries may be further aggravated
by poor circulation; therefore, healing is poor, which can
lead to ulcers and infection. This can become serious and
may even lead to amputation.

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Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology for Complementary Therapists

MEMORY JOGGER Hardening and narrowing of the arteries is more common

in diabetics. This can cause poor circulation in the legs
Flashcards and feet. It can also contribute to heart attack and stroke.
1) Using index cards,
write an endocrine Diabetes mellitus can be treated with insulin injections.
gland name on one The insulin passes directly into the bloodstream and so is
side and the name effective straight away. Occasionally, diabetics can give
of the hormone it themselves too much insulin, which results in a condition
produces on the other
side. Do this for all
called hypoglycaemia – an abnormally low level of sugar in the
endocrine glands blood. The sufferer sweats, trembles, has blurred vision and
and hormones in this lacks concentration. The behaviour of someone suffering from
chapter. Pick up each hypoglycaemia may be mistaken for drunkenness. A sweet
card individually,
snack, such as fruit juice or a small chocolate bar, is needed to
and try to identify the
hormone each gland raise the sugar levels in the blood.
produces. Then, look
at each hormone name
and try to identify the
gland name. Continue The ovaries
going through all of
the cards until you The ovaries are a pair of almond-shaped organs found within
have learned all of the female pelvis, one on either side of the uterus. They produce
the glands and their
the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone, which are
hormones.
2) Using more index responsible for all female secondary sexual characteristics such
cards write the gland as breasts, a female body shape and ova (egg) production.
and hormone on one
side and on the other 3 Oestrogen causes the lining of the uterus to thicken and
side state how the grow during a menstrual cycle. It also stimulates the release of
hormone affects the an egg from the ovary.
body.
Go through these 4 Progesterone maintains the lining of the uterus. When the
cards by viewing the levels of progesterone fall, the lining then breaks down and is
gland and hormone
name and trying to
shed in the menstrual flow.
state the effect of the
hormone. Do this for
all the cards until
you have learned how
the hormones affect
the body. This is a
good way to test your
knowledge for exam
preparation.

Figure 6.7 Ovaries

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Effects of hormones at puberty

Puberty in girls normally begins at around 11 years old. When a
girl reaches puberty, her ovaries grow up to 10 times larger. As
the ovaries grow, they release the hormone oestrogen, which is
responsible for the bodily changes at puberty, such as female
curves and the growth of the breasts. After an egg is released
(ovulation), the ovaries release progesterone to prepare the body
for possible pregnancy. If the egg is not fertilised, the ovaries
stop producing progesterone and the menstrual period follows.

Androgen levels in girls also increase at puberty, causing axillary

(under the armpit) and pubic hair growth. Androgens are also a
main cause of acne because of inflammation of the sebaceous
glands.

Effect of hormones in pregnancy

During pregnancy, various hormones are produced, including
the following (see also Chapter 12).

After conception, human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is

produced.

HCG keeps the pregnancy hormones (oestrogen and

progesterone) at their ideal levels until the placenta has
developed enough to take over this function. During the
first trimester, HCG is responsible for increasing the blood
supply to the pelvis, which results in an increased need
for urination.

HCG is believed to be responsible for many other

FAST FACT
symptoms linked to early pregnancy, including nausea
Large brown patches can
(morning sickness) and vomiting.
appear on the skin during
Oxytocin, which induces contractions in labour, as well pregnancy, especially the
face. These are known as
as Braxton Hicks, and stimulates the mammary glands chloasma or melasma. High
(breasts) to produce milk. levels of oestrogen and
progesterone are thought to
Endorphins, these ‘happy hormones’ are released to help be the cause.
the pregnant woman deal with stress and pain.

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Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology for Complementary Therapists

ASK FRAN... Relaxin, which causes softening of ligaments and tissues to

help increase flexibility in the pelvic joints and lower back in
Q. How does hormone
preparation for birth.
replacement therapy work?
A. Oestrogen and Sometimes, excess androgens can be produced, resulting in
progesterone levels become
low during the menopause
excess hair growth. It is usually only temporary and returns to
and can cause a number normal after the baby is born.
of unwanted symptoms. To
help with these symptoms, Most pregnancy symptoms are due, or partly due, to increased
women are often treated with levels of oestrogen and progesterone during pregnancy, and
hormone replacement therapy include:
(HRT), which consists of
oestrogen and progesterone. fatigue
There are different ways to
take HRT, including a cream, increased heartburn and acid reflux
gel, tablets, a patch on the
skin, and an implant that breast soreness
can be inserted under the
increased sensitivity of the sense of smell
skin. HRT can give relief
from menopausal symptoms, feeling emotional and mood swings.
including hot flushes, vaginal
dryness and mood swings,
and can help with the laying Effect of hormones at the menopause
down of new bone to protect
against the development of The menopause usually begins between the ages of 45 and
osteoporosis. The oestrogen 55. The ovaries decrease in size and no longer respond to
also helps to keep the skin the gonadotrophic hormones of the anterior pituitary gland.
and hair in good condition.
A healthy diet, exercise
Oestrogen levels therefore decrease. Oestrogen helps to
and lifestyle factors have protect the bones and so the decrease in oestrogen levels may
been shown to offer identical lead to osteoporosis, a condition in which the bones become
benefits to HRT but without brittle and fracture easily.
the risks. HRT slightly
increases the risk of certain The low levels of oestrogen also cause the menstrual cycle
types of cancer. There is also to become irregular and gradually stop. The breasts start to
a small risk of stroke and
heart attack. Fat produces
shrink and there is thinning of the axillary and pubic hair.
oestrogen and, as the During the menopause, increased levels of androgens can
oestrogen levels decrease cause excess facial and body hair.
during the menopause, body
fat becomes an alternative Symptoms of the menopause
manufacturing plant for
making oestrogen. Oestrogen
Symptoms of the menopause include hot flushes, headaches,
can help protect the older depression, insomnia, fatigue and inability to concentrate, and
woman from osteoporosis so the skin and hair can become dry. Many of the symptoms of
it is advisable to have a diet the menopause, especially hot flushes, appear to be a result of
that includes some fat.
altered function of the hypothalamus.

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The testes FAST FACT

The oestrogen contained in
HRT is taken from plants or
The testes are found in the groin area of the male in a sac the urine of pregnant horses!
called the scrotum. The testes produce the hormone
5 testosterone, which is responsible for all male secondary
sexual characteristics at puberty, such as body hair, deep voice
and muscle development.

The testes also contain fine tubes in which sperm are produced
when stimulated by follicle-stimulating hormone.

The production of testosterone from the testes decreases with

age, although many older men still produce active sperm in
normal numbers.

Relationship of the endocrine

system to other body systems
Nervous system
The nervous and endocrine systems work together to control the
functions of all the body’s systems and maintain homeostasis.

Circulatory system
The endocrine system releases hormones that are carried in the
bloodstream.

Digestive system
The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon that help to control
blood sugar levels in the body. Glucocorticoids, produced by the
adrenal glands, help to control nutrient levels within the blood.

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ACTIVITY 6.5
Complete the table below. The numbers correspond to the numbered terms in the text on
pages 187, 190 and 193.

Endocrine gland Hormone released Effect

Pancreas 1

Pancreas 2

Ovaries 3

Ovaries 4

Testes 5

Reproductive system
The pituitary gland produces lactogenic hormone, which is
responsible for milk production in the breasts. Oxytocin is
responsible for the release of milk from the breasts. Follicle-
stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone control the ovaries
and testes. Sex corticoids help to control changes in males
and females during puberty. Ovaries produce oestrogen and
progesterone, and the testes produce testosterone.

Integumentary system
The pituitary gland releases melanocyte-stimulating hormone,
which stimulates the release of melanin.

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 Chapter 6: Endocrine system and common pathologies

What you should know

adrenocorticotrophic hormone, human

Functions of the endocrine growth hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone,
system luteinising hormone, lactogenic hormone,
Hormone secretion into the bloodstream antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin, melatonin,
Maintenance of homeostasis thyroxine, T3, calcitonin, parathormone, insulin,
Control of body’s functions – stimulation/ glucagon, aldosterone, cortisone, testosterone,
inhibition of growth, induction/suppression oestrogen, progesterone, adrenalin,
of cell death, inhibition of immune system, noradrenalin
regulation of metabolism, preparation for new Relationship of endocrine system with other
activity, preparation for new phase in life, body systems – nervous, circulatory, digestive,
controlling reproductive cycle reproductive, integumentary
Growth and repair (see Chapter 1)

Location, structure and

function Pathologies
Endocrine glands – hypothalamus, pituitary,
Conditions associated with the following
pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal,
including their causes, signs and symptoms
pancreas, ovaries, testes
– pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid,
Associated hormones and hormone
parathyroid, sex corticoids, glucocorticoids and
actions – thyroid-stimulating hormone,
mineral corticoids, pancreas

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