QUARTER 3 LESSON 1 NUCLEIC

WEEK 4 ACIDS
LESSON 2 THE
HEREDITY, CENTRAL DOGMA
OF LIFE

INHERITANCEAND
LESSON 3 MUTATION

VARIATION
MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES:
Explain how protein is made using information from DNA, and S10LT-IIId-37
Explain how mutations may cause changes in the structure and function of a protein.
S10LT-IIIe-38

Objectives:
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate DNA and RNA in terms of location, function, sugar, structure and
base pairing,
2. identify the role of DNA and RNA in protein synthesis,
3. describe DNA replication,
4. relate DNA replication to its complementary structure,
5. describe transcription and translation, and
6. explain the different types of mutation and their possible results.
Nucleic acids (DNA & RNA)
LESSON 1 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Heredity is the process of transmitting biological traits from parent to offspring through genes, the
basic units of heredity.
Inheritance is the transmission of genetically controlled characteristics or qualities from parent to
offspring
Variation is a biological deviation, a significant deviation from the normal biological form, function,
and structure.
Nucleic acids are the carriers of genetic information.
** In all living organisms, the hereditary information is stored in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
which is a molecule formed by the repetition of nucleotides (making DNA a polymer).
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), the other kind of nucleic acid, is a related molecule to DNA.
WHAT ARE NUCLEIC ACIDS?
Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity
of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions
for the functioning of the cell.
Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids: they are the
monomers which, repeated many times, form the polymers DNA and
RNA. Nucleotides are composed of a five-carbon sugar covalently
attached to a phosphate group and a base containing nitrogen atoms.
Watson and Crick discovered the double helix by building
models to conform to X-ray data

In April 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick shook the scientific world with an
elegant double-helical model for the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.

Watson and Crick began to work on a model of DNA with two strands, the double
helix.
FUNCTION
DNA encodes all genetic information and is the blueprint from which all
biological life is created. DNA is a storage device, a biological flash
drive that allows the blueprint of life to be passed between generations.
RNA functions as the reader that decodes this flash drive. This reading
process is multi-step and there are specialized RNAs for each of these
steps.
 A gene is a small region in the DNA.

Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information

There are two types of nucleic acids:
1)- ribonucleic acid (RNA);
2)- deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
DNA also directs mRNA synthesis, thus, controls protein synthesis.
Organisms inherit DNA from their parents.
Each DNA molecule is very long and usually consists of hundreds to thousands of
genes.
When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed to the next generation of cells.
The mRNA interacts with ribosomes to direct the synthesis of amino acids in
a polypeptide (protein)
STRUCTURES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS (DNA & RNA)

3 o5 Bases
o P o
o DNA Adenine
Base nucleotide (A)
Phosphate
group
5 CH2 o Purine
4 H H 1
H
H
Guanine
3 2H (G)
o Deoxyribose
o P o
o
Base Cytosine
CH2 o (C) Pyrimidine
H H
H
H Thymine
3
5 3 H
(T)
Sugar-phosphate backbone
 The PO4 group of one
nucleotide is attached
to the sugar of the next
nucleotide in line.
The result is a
“backbone” of
alternating phosphates
and sugars, from which
the bases starts.

Fig. 16.3, Page

 NITROGENOUS BASES
3 5
Hydrogen bonds

Cytosine Guanine
(C) (G)

Thymine Adenine
(T) (A)
Uracil (U)
Pyrimidines Purine
5 3
N
it
Sugar-phosphate
backbones
ro
[Link]
watch?v=MA-ouz1LtpM
 THE NUCLEIC ACID STRAND IS A POLYMER OF NUCLEOTIDES

Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.

Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and
a phosphate group.
The nitrogen bases (rings of carbon and nitrogen) come in two types: Purines
and Pyrimidines.
The pentose sugar joined to the nitrogen base is ribose in nucleotides of
RNA and deoxyribose in DNA.
The only difference between the sugars is the lack ‫ نقص‬of an oxygen atom on
carbon 2 in deoxyribose.
Polynucleotides are synthesized by connecting the sugars of
one nucleotide to the phosphate of the next with a
phosphodiester link.
This creates a repeating backbone of sugar-phosphate units
with the nitrogen bases as appendages.
The sequence of nitrogen bases along a DNA or mRNA
polymer is unique for each gene.
Genes are normally hundreds to thousands of nucleotides
long.
The linear order of bases in a gene specifies the order of
amino acids (the monomers of a protein).
An RNA molecule is single polynucleotide chain (single strand).
DNA molecules have two polynucleotide strands (double strand) that spiral around
to form a double helix
 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)

a)- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the blueprint for construction of a protein.

b)- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the construction site where the protein is made in
the ribosome.

c)- Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the truck delivering the proper amino acid to the site
at the right time.
 DNA RNA
CH o2

H H
CH2 o
H H H
H H
H H
O
Deoxyribose sugar (O H
Ribose sugar
on C2 is missed) (no missed O)

Deoxiribo-Nucleic-Acid Ribo-Nucleic-Acid

Double stranded nucleic acid Single stranded nucleic acid

Bases: A, G, C, T Bases: A, G, C, U
LESSON 2 THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF LIFE
Your DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid contains the genes that determine who you
are. How can this organic molecule control your characteristics?
DNA contains instructions for all the proteins your body makes.
Proteins, in turn, determine the structure and function of all your cells.
What determines a protein’s structure?
It begins with the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein. Instructions
for making proteins with the correct sequence of amino acids are encoded in the
DNA.
REPLICATION: DOUBLING UP ON DNA

[Link]
An enzyme called helicase breaks the bond between
nitrogenous bases. The two strands of DNA split.
The bases attached to each strand then pair up with the free
nucleotides found in cytoplasm.
The complementary nucleotides are added to each strand
by DNA polymerase to form new strands. Two new DNA
molecules, each with a parent strand and each with a new
strand are formed. The DNA replication is known as semi-
conservative replication because one of the od strands is
conserved in each new molecule.
WHAT ARE THE THREE TYPES OF RNA?

Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies portions of genetic code, a process called

transcription, and transports these copies to ribosomes, which are the cellular
factories that facilitate the production of proteins from this code.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is responsible for bringing amino acids, basic protein
building blocks, to these protein factories, in response to the coded instructions
introduced by the mRNA. This protein-building process is called translation.
Finally, Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of the ribosome factory itself
without which protein production would not occur.
TRANSCRIPTION
the first phase of the protein-making process, even though the actual protein synthesis doesn’t happen until the second
phase. Essentially, what happens during transcription is that an mRNA copies down the instructions for making a protein
from DNA.

[Link]
Ribonucleic acid polymerase enzyme binds and opens the
DNA molecule that will be transcribed.
As the DNA molecule opens, the RNA polymerase slides
along the DNA strand and links free RNA nucleotides that
pair with the nitrogenous bases of the complementary
strand.

When the process of base-pairing is completed, the RNA

molecule breaks away as the DNA strands rejoin. The
RNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm.
TRANSLATION
After it’s all cleaned up and ready to go, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes out to
fulfill its destiny: taking part in translation, the second half of protein construction.
In the cytoplasm, the mRNA must interface with tRNA with the help of a ribosome.
tRNA is a type of RNA that has a place to bind to free amino acids and a special
sequence of three nitrogenous bases (an anticodon) that binds to the ribosome.
Ribosomes are organelles that facilitate the meeting of tRNA and mRNA. During
translation, ribosomes and tRNA follow the instructions on the mRNA and assemble
amino acids into proteins.
TRANSLATION
[Link]
As translation begins, mRNA binds to a ribosome. Then,
tRNA molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid,
approach the ribosome. The tRNA anticodon pairs with the
first mRNA (start) codon to form the initiation complex.
The two molecules temporarily join together.

Usually, the first codon on mRNA, which codes for the

amino acid. Where it signals the start of protein synthesis.
Then, the ribosome slides along the mRNA to the next
codon.
A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid pairs with
the second mRNA codon.
When the first and second amino acids are in place. An
enzyme joins them by forming a peptide bond between
them.

As the process continues, a chain of amino acids is formed

until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA
strand. The polypeptide chain is released. Protein synthesis
is complete.
 REVIEW
1) A huge molecule made up of
amino acids (adenine, cytosine,
guanine, thymine)
DNA
2) A process that produces the sex
cells with half the chromosomes of a MEIOS
body cell
IS
3) Strands of genetic material CHROMOSO
ME
GENE
4) Factors that control traits
LESSON 3 MUTATION
Mutation is a change that occurs in our DNA sequence where mistakes happen
when the DNA is copied.
Mutations can also occur as the result of exposure to environmental factors
such as smoking, sunlight and radiation.

. Mutations can also be inherited, particularly if they have a positive effect or can
also disrupt normal gene activity and cause diseases like cancer.
Mutation may be induced by factors called mutagens. Mutagens are commonly in
the form of toxic chemicals, and harmful radiation . Sometimes, mistakes
occur in DNA replication, mitosis, and meiosis. All of these can alter the DNA
sequence and length.
LESSON 3 MUTATION
Mutations can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive
cells and body cells. Only mutations in sex cells pass on to
offspring.
Mutations affect the reproductive cells of an organism by
changing the sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or
an egg cell. If these cells are fertilized, then the mutated gene
becomes a part of the genetic makeup of the offspring. If mutation
is severe, the resulting protein may be nonfunctional, and the
embryo may not develop.
Some mutations in a body cell are known to
cause CANCER, while mutations in sex cells
can cause BIRTH DEFECTS.
A severe mutation can lead to cell death and
may have no effect on the body.
Sometimes mutations can be useful for species.
Ex. A mutation in blood proteins prevents
viruses or parasites to thrive in host organisms.

When is mutation inherited? Why are mutations in sex cells heritable?

Many diseases are caused by the effects of inherited genes. In most cases, there is only a
small difference between DNA sequences in the detective gene and a normal one. These
disease-causing genes are the result of a mutation. They may passed from one generation
to the next if present in gametes.
NOTE
Mutations can be inherited. This means that if a parent has a
mutation in his or her DNA, then the mutation is passed on to his
or her children.

Mutations can be acquired. This happens when environmental

agents damage DNA, or when mistakes occur when a cell copies
its DNA prior to cell division.

Mutations can be…

1) helpful
2) harmful
3) neutral (no effect)
Some forms of albinism
are caused by a mutation.
Other forms are actually
inherited by a recessive
allele on the X
chromosome. Only
genetic testing can tell
what type of albinism
has been inherited.
• Gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a
gene

Change in the nucleotide Include:

sequence of a gene Point
May only involve a single
nucleotide
Mutations
May be due to copying Substitutions
errors, chemicals, viruses, Insertions
Deletions
Frameshift
POINT MUTATION
Change of a single Sickle Cell disease is
nucleotide the result of one
Includes the nucleotide
deletion, insertion, substitution
or substitution of Occurs in the
ONE nucleotide in hemoglobin gene
a gene
Amino Acid Sequence
Changed
 Gene Mutation
NOTE Animation
 Chromosomal mutation occurs at the chromosome level resulting in gene
deletion, duplication or rearrangement that may occur during the cell cycle
and meiosis. It maybe caused by parts of chromosomes breaking off or
rejoining incorrectly.

May Involve:
Five types exist:
Changing the structure of a
Deletion
chromosome
Inversion
The loss or gain of part of a
Translocation
chromosome
Nondisjunction
Duplication
 Deletion Inversion
Due to breakage Chromosome segment breaks off
Segment flips around backwards
A piece of a chromosome is lost
Segment reattaches
Duplication Translocation
Occurs when a gene Involves two chromosomes that aren’t homologous
Part of one chromosome is transferred to another
sequence is repeated chromosomes
 Nondisjunction
Failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis
Causes gamete to have too many or too few chromosomes
NOTE Chromosome Mutation
Animation