[Link].

in

Activities

1. Prepare a winding diagram with table for 4 poles 6 slots simple lap winding
2. Prepare a winding diagram with table for 4 poles 6 slots for simple wave winding

Glossary

Gauge number கதவு எண்

Winding coil உல்லைச் சுருள்
Phase நிலை
Stator நிலையி
Rotor சுழலி
Armature மின்னகம்

Evaluation

PART-A (1 Mark)
4. The instrument used to measure the
Choose the correct answer diameter of a conductor is
1. Heart of a motor is a) Wire gauge plate
a) Stator b) Feeler gauge
b) Rotor c) Dial gauge
c) Winding d) Screw gauge
d) Bearings 5. Example for the liquid insulating
material is
2. The basic property needed for a good
conductor is a) Asbestos
a) Low resistance b) Varnish
b) High mechanical strength c) Glass
c) Best soldering property d) Mercury
d) High dielectric strength 6. The winding placed in the rotating
part of DC machine is
3. The diameter of the SWG plate is
a) Main field winding
a) 3 ¼ inches
b) 3 ½ inches b) Armature winding
c) 3 ¾ inches c) Inter pole winding
d) 4 ¾ inches d) Compensating winding

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7. The closed type of slots are used in 13. The number of brushes in a DC
a) Stators of small size motors machine is
b) Stators of medium size motors a) Equal to the number of parallel
c) Stators of squirrel cage induction paths.
motors b) Equal to the number of slots.
d) Rotors of squirrel cage induction c) Equal to the half of the number
motors of slots.
d) Equal to the half of the number
8. The value of back pitch will be in
of poles.
a) Odd number
14. The distance between two active
b) Even number
sides of a coil in DC winding is called
c) Fraction
d) Decimal a) Front pitch
b) Coil pitch
9. The value of ‘m’ in simplex winding
c) Back pitch
is
d) Fractional pitch
a) 1
15. The distance between the starting
b) 2
ends of two adjacent coil is
c) 3
d) 4 a) Front pitch
b) Back pitch
10. Which law is applicable to know
c) Coil pitch
the direction of current in a DC
d) Pole pitch
machine?
a) Fleming’s right hand rule 16. The type of winding used in DC

b) End rule armature is

c) Fleming’s left hand rule a) Main field winding
d) Ohm’s law b) Inter pole winding
c) Open type winding
11. The number of parallel paths in DC
d) Closed type winding
lap winding is
a) P/2  b) 2P 17. Pole pitch is referred to as

c) 2P  d) 2 a) The number of slots per pole

12. The number of parallel paths in DC b) The number of slots per phase
wave winding is c) The number of slots per pole per
a) P phase
b) 2P d) Half of the number of slots
c) P/2 18. In full pitched winding, the electrical
d) 2 angle between two coils are
a) 60°   b) 120°
c) 180°  d) 360°

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19. The number of coils in single layer 5. What are the three types of windings
winding is used in AC machines?
a) Equal to the half of the number 6. Write briefly about concentric
of slots winding?
b) Equal to the number of slots 7. What is called pole pitch?
c) Equal to the half of the number 8. Define pitch factor.
of poles
9. What is whole coil winding?
d) Equal to the number of poles
20. If the numbers of coils are equal to PART-C (5 Mark)
the number of slots, then the type of
Answer the questions in one
winding is
page
a) Single slot winding
b) Double slots winding 1. Draw the diagram of a standard wire

c) Single layer winding gauge plate and explain how to find

the thickness of a conductor.
d) Double layer winding
2. Write short notes on –
21. If the coil groups of a phase winding
a. Back pitch
having unequal number of coils, then
the winding is called as b. Front pitch

a) Half coil winding c. Coil pitch

b) Whole coil winding

3. Explain the method of calculating
c) Unbalanced winding
the number of coils and coil groups
d) Balanced winding in AC winding.
22. The number of coil groups in a phase
of a full pitched winding is PART-D (10 Mark)
a) Equal to the number of poles Answer the questions in two
b) Equal to the half of the number page
of poles
1. Draw the double layer simplex
c) Equal to the number of slots
lap winding diagram for a DC
d) Equal to the half of the number
machine having 2 poles, 6 slots and 6
of slots
commutator segments. Also mention
the position of brush.
PART-B (3 Mark)
2. Draw the simplex wave winding
Answer the questions in brief diagram for a DC machine having
1. What is the use of winding in motors? 2 poles, 6 slots and 6 commutator
segments. Also indicate the position
2. What is called a conductor?
of brush.
3. What are the devices used to measure
3. Develop the winding table for a single
the thickness of conductors.
layer lap winding of 4 poles, 24 slots,
4. What is lap winding? AC three phase induction motor.

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Reference Book

1. A text book of ‘Electrical Technology’ Volume-III [Link] and [Link],

[Link] & Company Ltd.
Reference Internet Source

1. [Link]
2. [Link]

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09

UNIT
Earthing

learning objective
To understand about Earthing, types, safety measures, lightning arrester and Electro
static discharge.

table of contents 9.4 

L ightning arrester, its importance
and application
9.1 Introduction
9.5 Electro Static Discharge (ESD)
9.2 Earthing importance and types
9.6 Conclusion
9.3 Safety measures followed in earthing

9.1 Introduction thus provides safety to the person operating

the equipment from electrical shock. When
Earthing is defined as “the process in
an earth fault occurs then a heavy current
which the instantaneous discharge of
flows through the circuit and due to this
the electrical energy takes place by
heavy current fuse in the circuit melts or the
transferring charges directly to the earth
MCB of the circuit gets down and the faulty
through low resistance wire.
circuit will be disconnected from the supply.
To ensure safety, earthing can be
done by connecting the electrical appliance Definition
to earthing systems or electrodes placed
near the soil or below the ground level. Earthing is defined as the process of
Selection of earthing is very important for connecting a non–current carrying
human safety, safety for houses and electrical metallic parts of electrical equipment or
equipment. Earthing brings the body of the neutral of the supply system to the
electrical equipment to zero potential and earth.

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FIG. 9.1 Electric power distribution

9.2 Earthing importance So earthing is essential to protect

and types human lives as well as provide safety to
electrical devices and appliances.
Importance of earthing
(A) Minimises risk of electric shock (B) Dissipation of static charge
The main purpose of earthing is to avoid In a perfectly earthed system its potential
or minimize the chance of electrocution. remains approximately equal to zero. So
Any leakage or faulty current in the circuit it can remove most of the static charge
causes the presence of electric charge on build-up in the conductors.
exposed conductive surfaces.
(C) Eliminate stray voltage
Earthing provides a low resistive
conductive path directly to the earth, Similar to static charge it also prevents stray
which carries any such fault or leakage voltage in the line. That is no potential
current. difference in the conductor.
As the earth line is always in contact
with the earth, the entire point of the earth (D) Voltage stabilization
conductor will not have enough potential In a network which has multiple feeders
to cause an accident. That is no potential or sources there must be a common point
difference to cause a serious amount of which acts as a universal reference point.
current flow through another path. Hence, The earthing acts as a balance point.
the metal parts, chassis of the device,
etc., which are connected to the earth (E) Protection from power surges
line will be always safe to touch. So, It is
Earthing can protect sudden excessive
better to earth any non-insulated body of
surges; it also provides protection from
the electrical appliances which may have
lightning strikes. Any lightning strikes
human contact. Also, it is recommended
on the exposed metal or received through
to provide earthing for appliances which
another path which is connected to earth,
have contact with water or liquids.
phase get discharged directly to earth.

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(F) For proper functioning of 9.2.1 Plate earthing

equipments
Plate earthing
Proper earthing is very important for the
functioning of the devices connected to
Funnel
the system. Mainly protective devices like Cement concrete
ELCB, earth fault relays, etc. needs proper
earthing for its functioning. These devices Earth lead / Earth conductor
used for the reference of leakage current
through the earth line. 19 mm diameter pipe

„ Earthing provides a surface around and

under a substation that is at a uniform 12.5 mm pipe
potential and is approximately equal
to zero potential or absolute earth
potential as possible.
„ It provides protection from electrical Coal
shock. Salt
Earth electrod
„ Earthing also improves the Sand
performance of an electrical system.
FIG. 9.2 Plate earthing
„ Earthing is required to maintain the
line voltage constant. „ In this type, a plate is placed vertically
„ It also serves as a return conductor for in the ground and then an earth
telephone and fraction work. electrode is attached to it.
„ In this earthing, a layer of 15 cm of salt
Earthing is broadly classified as a. and a layer of 15 cm of coal is placed
System earthing and b. Equipment earthing. below the earth plate.
a System earthing – In this type of „ The earth plate used here is generally
earthing the conductor having made up of copper of size 60 cm ×
current is connected to the 60 cm × 3.18 mm and this plate is
ground. System earthing is used to embedded 3meter in the ground.
protect from lightning and voltage „ Galvanized iron (GI) is also used as an
stabilization. earth plate having dimensions 60 cm
Examples – Earthing in substation, × 60 cm × 6.3 mm.
generation station. „ Generally for normal work galvanised
b. Equipment earthing- This type of iron plates are preferred due to its
earthing is usually done in houses to lower cost in comparison to copper
protect the household equipment. plates of dimension 30cm × 30cm
which is found to be the most effective
Types of earthing earth electrodes as these electrodes
are not affected by the soil moisture.
1 Plate earthing
„ Here, Galvanised iron is preferred
2. Rod earthing
instead of copper plates due to its high
3. Pipe earthing cost.
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9.2.2 Rod earthing „ The GI pipe is placed up to a depth

of 2.5 to 3 meters from the earth’s
surface.

Pipe earthing
Cast iron lid

Funnel
Earth lead

Earth electrod
pipe

FIG. 9.3 Rod earthing Salt

„ In this type, zinc or copper is used as

an earth electrode.
Coal
„ This type of earthing is used especially
in hill areas where earth pit digging is
difficult.
„ Solid rod should be used in this FIG. 9.4 Pipe earthing
earthing, not hollow.
„ Here the rod is grounded up to 1 meter „ Three layers of 15 cm of salt and coal
to 1.5 meters. are used around the GI pipe.
„ The dimension of the rod used is 12 „ The layer of a mixture of salt and coal
mm to 20 mm. is used to improve the soil condition
and efficiency of the earthing system.
„ This type of earthing is the cheapest
and less time to do. „ The pipe is always placed vertical and
if any rocks come in the pipe’s way then
the pipe would be bent a maximum of
9.2.3. Pipe earthing
up to 300.
„ In this type, the GI pipe having a
„ In case of pipe earthing, the earth wire
diameter of 38 mm and length of 2
connection with the GI the pipe is
meters is used.
fixed above the ground. So it is easy to
„ Here the holes (12 mm diameter) are check for carrying out continuity tests,
made in the GI pipe and earth wire when required. But this is difficult in
of 8 SWG of GI is fastened to the top case of plate earthing.
section of the pipe with the help of
bolt and nuts.

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Value of earthing electrodes at ii) 

D ry sand, lime stone, granite
various places and any stony ground should be
avoided.
Value of earthing
No. Place iii) 
E arth electrode should not be
electrode
Large power installed on high bank or made-
1. 0.5 Ω
station up soil.
Medium power
2. 1Ω
station Funnel

Small power Earthing

3. 2Ω leads Oil pipe
station 19mm
Domestic Reducer
4. 1Ω
application

Methods to reduce the resistance Salt GI pipe

of the earth electrode
Charcol Pipe Earthing
animation
„ By pouring water into the surface
where the earth electrode is dipped.
FIG. 9.5 Pipe earthing animation
„ By increasing the depth of the rod or
plate. 3. The copper coating on earth
„ By adding salt and charcoal (salt and electrode should not be cracked due
charcoal maintain moisture for a to damage during storage / transport
longer period of time). and should be free from corrosion.
„ By increasing the area of the plate we 4. The packing bags of earth
can reduce the earth electrode. enhancement compound should be
in sealed condition.
„ By connecting plates in parallel
(by connecting plates in parallel 5. For the earth pit, a hole of 100mm-
equivalent resistance of the plate 125mm diameter should be drilled
becomes smaller). to a depth of approx. 3m and the
earth electrode is placed in the hole
with about 150mm of bottom part
9.3 Safety measures
inserted in the natural soil.
followed in earthing
6. Earth enhancement material
1. All the material supplied for the (minimum 30-35Kg) shall be filled
earthing work should be inspected into the drilled hole in a slurry form
by RDSO. such that it spreads evenly around
2. Site location for earthing the electrode covering entire length
i) Low line areas close to the building of the hole.
are good for locating earth 7. In order to achieve earth resistance of
electrode. less than or equal to 1 ohm, multiple
earth pits should be provided
depending upon soil resistivity if
required.

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8. The distance between two earth f. Place the correct size of steel disc
electrodes shall be minimum 3m and into the mould crucible and make
maximum up to 6m (approx.). sure the disc sits well at the base of
9. The 25 x 2 copper strip or 8mm the welded metal cavity.
round solid copper inter connecting g. Pour recommended size of weld metal
the earth electrode shall be at a depth powder into the mould crucible.
not less than 500mm below ground h. Check out leaks, make sure that weld
level. metal do not enter into the weld
10. Proper size of cable should be used cavity.
for connection of equipments to i. Ignite the weld powder at the
equi-potential busbar, SPDs, and to lid opening. Use only firm’s
earth electrode. recommended igniter. Make sure that
11. The length of cable connection no inflammable items are around the
between SPDs and equi-potential mould.
busbar and between equipment and j. Once welding is completed, wait for
equi-potential busbar should be as two minutes before opening mould
short without bends. to allow metal to cool.
k. Gently scrap off the un- wanted
9.3.1 Procedures followed during
slag from the crucible with a mould
earthing
scraper.
The following procedures were to be l. Clean the crucible and the weld
adopted during earthing. cavity with a mould cleaning brush.
a. Clean the surfaces of the various m. Welding should be carried out
components i.e. earth electrode, only by the well trained staff of the
cable, copper busbar, copper tape supplier.
and mould etc. With the help of
n. Pour sufficient water so that the salt,
card cloth brush before performing
sand and coal mixture is in paste /
exothermic welding to ensure that
mud form.
surface is free from oil & dust.
o. Allow the pit to absorb the water and
b. Pre heat the welding surfaces of
become compact.
various components to ensure that
the surface is free from moisture. p. Test the earth pit before connecting
to the electrical circuit.
c. Mould used should be correct for the
component size and application. Do q. Avoid excess watering.
not use worn out or broken moulds r. Do not hammer the earth electrode.
which could result in leakage of s. The surroundings of the earth
molten weld metal. electrode should be kept moist by
d. Ensure that handle clamp is attached periodically pouring water through
to the mould and properly adjusted. the pipe in order to keep the
e. Ensure that all the components to be resistance below specified value.
jointed properly fit into the mould and
the mould is in level position.
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t. Coke treated electrodes shall not Definition

be situated within 6 meters of other A lightning arrester is an apparatus or a
metal structure. device which is used in electrical power
u. The protective earth of telecom systems and telecommunication system
system shall not be connected to the for the protection of insulation and
earth of main power supply system. conductors of the system from lightning
A minimum distance of 10 meters is strokes.
desirable.
Lightning is a huge spark developed
due to massive electrostatic discharge
9.4 Lightning Arrester taking place between the electrically
Its Importance and charged regions within the same cloud or
Application between a cloud and a surface of the earth.
A lightning arrester is a device that is used to These electrical discharges occur
provide a path to the static electric discharge between or within clouds than to earth
between the charged clouds and the earth. and most of them are terminated into the
Lightning arresters typically have a high earth results in serious hazards.
voltage terminal and a ground terminal. As A lightning arrester is a protective
it is used for the protection of power system device that is used in substations,
against high voltage surge so it is also called generating stations, DTR structure, etc
a surge diverter.

Lighting arrester

Electrical service board

Earth wire
Sale earth electrode
Back fill compound
Fault
Current

Dissipation

FIG.9.6 Lightning arrester

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to provide protection against surge and The lightning arresters in substations are
lightning strikes. The lightning arresters always connected at the starting side and
are composed of ZnO or SiC material. also at the end side. The lightning arresters
The ZnO or SiC material has the unique always come first in substations.
property that they don’t allow current
to pass through them under normal 9.4.1 Working principle of
conditions but allows current to through
Lightning Arresters
them when a high electric potential is
applied. The principle is that once the voltage surge
travels across the conductor and reaches
The lightning arresters provide
the place where it is to be installed. So it
protection under two conditions, they are
will break the insulation of the conductor
1. Lightning Strikes for a moment so that the voltage surge can
Suppose if a lightning tender or strikes be discharged towards the ground.
occur which has high current, high Once the system is less than
voltage, and high frequency then this the voltage, the insulation will be re-
high current flows through arrester established between the ground and the
then to ground. conductor. The current flowing towards
2. Surge the ground is turned off.
When we suddenly isolate the circuit
in stations, then surge will occur in 9.4.2 Advantages of lightning
lines, these surges are also passed to arrester
ground with the help of lightning The advantages of Lightning arrester are
arresters. The lightning arrester allows as follows:
surge current to pass through them.
„ Damage caused by lightning can be
minimized.
Simple
lighting rod
„ Easy to use.
„ Provides protection of equipment
Earth outside the substation.
down-conductor
(copper strip) „ Damage to the overhead line can be
avoided.
„ Outlet surgeies can be avoided.
Check „ Electromagnetic interference.
terminal

“Crow’s foot”
earth lead
9.4.3 Disadvantages of lightning
arrester
The Disadvantages of Lightning Arrester
are as follows:
FIG.9.7 Line diagram of lightning arrester
„ Installation costs are higher.

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9.5 Electro Static Discharge static discharge can occur. The electro

(ESD) static charge created when this happens
can have destructive effects. Some of the
Electrostatic discharge is when an most affected include sensitive electronics
electrostatic charge builds upon a and even cause fires.
conductor. This is due to a difference in
voltage potential. When we release this
charge, it causes the release of kinetic
electrostatic energy. This energy can have
destructive effects if it can flow through
a conductive medium includes air or
touches something conductive. As a result,
ESD can damage sensitive electronics.
This makes it essential to understand and
control ESD.

FIG. 9.9 Contact of ESD

ESD can occur in four ways: physical

contact, generation (atmospheric),
accumulation, and discharge. The
discharge of static electricity Is a result of
physical contact.

FIG. 9.8 Electro Static Discharge (ESD)

9.5.1 Types of ESD damage
In a typical environment like your
The most common form of ESD damage
home, you will encounter electro static
is the electrical breakdown of air
energy. They come from rubbing your
surrounding an object. When charges
clothes or your bed sheets against the
build upon an object, they cause the air
carpet. This is why you need to store your
around it to become ionized. A conductive
valuables in a dry place away from carpet
path develops when this happens. Then a
and clothing.
discharge will occur, negatively affecting
Electro static charges build upon electronics. In addition, bringing
items that come into contact with one equipment into this electrostatic field can
another. This is when moving between create a short circuit. Damaging effects
points of different potential. If the can occur even if the human body only
potential difference is too great, an electro connects with an object’s surface.

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„ Conductive material rubbed on

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) Flooring system
conductive materials like vinyl floors
or carpets

ESD can be a damaging force for

Electronic
components
Electric
shock
For safety
many industries, and it is essential to know
High glass coating material
Conductive ground
about it and how to prevent it. Some of the
Concrete substance most common electronic equipment used
in heavy industry is ICs. They are very
AC electrical ground susceptible to ESD.
FIG. 9.10 ESD flooring system
9.5.2 The most common times
for ESD damage are during
a) Catastrophic damage
(i) Goods input:
Suppose there is something conductive
As you bring goods into a storage area,
close to the ESD discharge, as equipment.
ESD damage can occur when you move
In that case, the discharge can transfer all
the material into an ESD field.
its energy into the conductive object. If the
object is a person, it could result in death. (ii) Acceptance
In addition, it could cause a huge loss
When picking goods from storage, ESD
of damage to expensive electronics and
damage can occur when the material
equipment. Some types of ESD damage
comes into contact with another ESD field.
are so serious that they can cause fires.
Risk areas include computer labs or copy (iii) Transfer
shops with expensive type-in machines.
The transfer of goods around a workplace
increases the risk of ESD damage. For
b) Latent damage
example, as you move goods from one
ESD can cause slight damage to sensitive place to another on forklifts, ESD occurs.
electronics. But the damage isn’t
immediately obvious. However, the large (iv) Production
discharge will destroy the device if moved When producing goods, they risk ESD
into another electrostatic field. Therefore, damage, causing potential differences.
ESD is a real issue for all work areas for This means that machines close to
health and safety at work, industrial each other can generate enough voltage
settings, and heavy industry. differences. This will cause electrostatic
ESD occurs due to friction from discharges.

„ Human contact (v) Assembly

„ Machinery rubbing against other Complex electronics, particularly
machinery computers and other equipment, that
„ Materials rubbing against each other ESD can fail. You should be careful not to

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assemble them within an ESD zone. It is creates a conductive layer of air around
essential to consider ESD protection when each object to protect it from electrostatic
developing machinery or equipment. buildup.
There are a few different methods to
help prevent electrostatic damage from (xi) Packing
occurring. These include insulation, Packing can cause electrostatic damage. It
grounding, air ionization, and shielding. occurs if you do not handle the materials
within an ESD-safe environment. For
(vi) Insulation example, you should wrap the materials
This involves wrapping the item that with non-conductive bubble wrap and
could cause a discharge with an insulating wrapped in a plastic, non-conductive
material. It helps the material cannot come film. In addition, you should seal the
into contact with something conductive. plastic bags that hold cords and computer
mice when not used. Packing is vital for
(vii) Testing ESD prevention because goods get to your
Testing is an integral part of preventing facility.
ESD damage. You need to test your
machinery and equipment before using (xii) Shipping
them. This ensures that they are not We often ship goods from one facility to
causing electrostatic discharge. Also, another. ESD damage can occur if you do
perform tests if the machinery needs to not pack the goods in a way that avoids
contact something conductive. You can ESD damage. You must send materials
test to see the ESD damage that may result without any conductive material that can
from this type of contact. Each time you generate ESD.
move the equipment, one must do the
testing. (xiii) Sorting
We use sorting machines, especially when
(viii) Storing delivering goods. Unfortunately, sorting
It’s essential to store electrical and machines have wires that can become
electronic materials in an ESD safe charged by ESD. So, you must protect the
area. This means you should not store goods from them.
electronics or other sensitive items on the
floor. (xiv) Maintenance:
Proper maintenance of ESD-safe
(ix) Grounding machinery can help prevent electrostatic
You need to ground electronic components damage from occurring. Dust and debris
and equipment when brought into the accumulating on sensitive machinery can
building. This helps prevent electrostatic build up enough static electricity to cause
damage from occurring within the facility. a discharge. Therefore, maintaining ESD-
safe machinery is essential for avoiding
(x) Air ionization ESD-damaged equipment.
Air ionization is vital for preventing
electrostatic damage within a facility. It

122 UNIT 09 Earthing