®@ Ive heard that light is wa made of particles—which ss, but I'v also heard that light is iv Light is a complicated phenomenon. Although scientists have long argued over the nature of light, they finally have agreed that light has the properties of both waves and particles. The following section gives a brief history of how scientists have tried to "shed light” on the mystery of light. LIGHT AND THE EYE 3.4. Describe how light travels through the various parts of the eye. 1 was Albert Einstein who first proposed that light is actually tiny “packets” of waves, ‘These “wave packets" are called photons and have specific wavelengths associated with them (Lehnert, 2007; van der Merwe & Garuccio, 1994), When people experience the physical properties of li ofits dual, wavelikeand particl-like, nature, With regard to 1, they are not really aware psychological properties, there are three aspects to our perception of light: Prightess, efor, and saturation. Brightness is determined by the amplitude of the wave—how high or how low the y is, The higher the wave, the brighter the light appears to be. Low waves are dimmer. Color, ar hue, is largely determined by the length of the wave. Short wave- lengths (measured in nanometers) are found at the blue end of the visible spectriem (the portion of the whole spectrum of light that is visible o the human eye; see Figure 3:1), ‘whereas longer wavelengths are found at the red end. waveactuall 138 CHAPTERS Visible Spectrum etna (am) (color) es ae 2 ES Es Figure 3.1 The Visible Spectrum. (Watch this video on MyPsychLab ) Saturatiow refers to the purity of the color people perceive: A highly saturated red, for example, would contain only red wavelengths, whereasa less-saturated red might contain a mixture of wavelengths, For example, when a child is using the red paint from a set of poster paints, the paint on the paper will look like a pure red, butf the child mixes in some ‘white paint, the paint will look pink. The hue is still red, but it will be less ofa saturated red because of the presence of white wavelengths. Mixing in black or gray would also lessen the saturation, (Note that when combining different colors, light works differently than pigments or paint. We will look at this distinction when we examine perception of color) ‘THE STRUCTURE OF THE EYE ‘The best way to talk about how the eye processes light is to talk about what happens to an image being viewed as the photons of light from that image travel through the eye. Refer to Figure 3.2 to follow the path of the image, Figure 3.2 Structure of the Eye. (Watch this video on MyPsychLab) Light entars the eye nvough the comea and pupil. The ifs contols the sie ofthe pupil From the pupil ght [passes through the lens to the retina, wher itis anstormed into nerve impulses, The nerve imaulses vaves to the brain long the opticnerve. © scanned with OKEN ScannerFROM FRONT TO GACK: THE PARTS OF THE EYE Light enters the eye directly from a source (such as the sun) or indirectly by reflecting off of an object. To see clearly, « single point of light from asource or reflected from an object must travel through the structures of theeye and end up on the retina as a single point. Light bends as it passes through substances of different densities, through a process known as refraction. For example, have you ever looked ata drinking straw ina glass of water through the side of the glass? It appears that the straw bends, or is broken, at the surface of the water, That optical illusion is due to the refraction of light. The structures of the eye play a vital role in both collecting and focusing of light so we can see clearly, ‘The surface of the eye is covered in a clear membrane called the coriea. The cor nea not only protects the eye but also is the structure that focuses most of the light ‘coming into the eye. The cornea has a fixed curvature, like a camera that has no option. to adjust the focus. However, this curvature can be changed somewhat through Wi improving techniques that change the shape of the comea. For example, aphthalmolo- gists, physicians who specialize in medical and surgical treatment of eye problems, can use both photorcactive keratectomy (PRK) and leser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) procedures to remove sinall portions of the comea, changing its curvature and thus the focus in the eye, ‘The next visual layer is a clear, watery fluid called the apueous humor. This fluid is continually replenished and supplies nourishment to the eye, The light from the visual image then enters the interior of the eye through a hole, called the pupyl, ina round mus- cle called the iris (the colored past of the eye). The iris can change the size of the pupil, Jetting more or less light into the eye. That also helps focus the image: people try to do the same thing by squinting. Behind the iris, suspended by muscles, is another clear structure called the lens. ‘The flexible lens finishes the focusing process begun by the comea. In a process called visual accommodation, the lens changes its shape from thick to thin, enabling it to focus on objects that are close or far away. The Variation in thickness allows the lens to project a sharp image on the retina. People lose this ability as the lens hardens through aging (a disorder called presbyopia). Although people try to compensate* for their inability to focus on things that are close to them, eventually they usually need bifo- cals because their arms just aren: ong enough anymore. Innearsightedness, or myopia, visual accommodation may occu: but the shape of the eye cnises the focal point to fall short of the retina, {n farsightedness, o hyperopia, the focus point is beyond the retina (see Figure 33) Glasses, contacts, or corrective surgery like LASIK or PRK can correct these issues. Once past the lens, light passes through a large, open space filled with a clear, jelly-like fluid called the vitreous humor. This fui shes the eye and gives it shape. like the aqueous humor, also nour- Narsighaceve Figure 3.3 Nearsightedness and Farsightedness, “compensate: to correct for an error or defect. Sensation and Perception 138 Tisiphot Hsstrates an opticaliasion caused ly tw cation of Rp Ta 0 ay broken, atrough it appears that way visual accommodation the change in the thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects that are far away or close. © scanned with OKEN scannereo OS Figure 3.3. Nearsightedness and Farsightedness comect for an error oF defect. 140 chaptens RETINA, RODS, AND CONES. The finel stop for light within the eye is the retin a light sensitive area atthe bazk of the eye containing three layers: ganglion cells, bipolac cell, and she rods and cones, special weptor cells iphotoreceplors) that respond to the various wavelengths of light. The video Sods ind Cones provides an overview. Dviatch ne Video fads end Zoneson MyPychLab While the retina is responsible for absorbing and processing light informa- tion, the rods and the cones are the business erd of the retina—the part that actu ally receives the photons of light and turns them into neural signals for the rain, ending thom first to the bipolar cells (a type of interneuron; called bipolar or “two- anded" because they have a single dend:ite at ane end and a singleaxon on the other; ODM to Learn-ng Object form the optie nerve. 2.a)and then to the retinal ganglion cells whose axons ‘The rods and cones are responsible for differant aspects of vision. There are 6 milk lion cones in each oye; of these, 50,000 have a private line to the opticnerve (one bipolar cell for ezch come). This means that the cones are the reactors for visual acuity, or ability to see fine det ‘Cones are located all over the rctina but are more concentrated at is very center where there are no rods (she area called the foawa), Cones also need a lot more lightto function than the rods do, so cones work best in bright light, which is also when people see things most le: to they are responsible for color visien ‘Cones are also sensitive to different wavelengths oflight, ‘The rods (about 100 million of tiem in each eye) are found all over the retina except the foven but are concentrated in the periphery: Rods are sensitive to changes in brightness but rot toa variety of wavelengths, se they see on rods vsualsencory receptors found atthe back of theretina, responsible for non- color sensitivity to low levels 0 igh: asea (vdhich sod is actual in black and white and shades of gray. They canbe very sensitive because many rod are connected oa angle bipolar cell, «0 that ifeven only one rod is stimulated bya photon of light, the brain peresives the whole area of those tods as stimulated, But because the brain doesn’t know exacly what pact of the y sending the message, the visual acuity (shazpness)isquite low, That's why things seen in low levels of light, such as twilight ora dimly it wom, are fuzzy cones and grayish Because rafs are located on the periphery ofthe retina, they are also respons ‘vsualsensory receptors foundatthe le for paiphesal vision. back of the retina responsible for eclor ‘The eyes don’t adapt to constant stimuli under rormal circumstances because of vision and sharpness of vsion, saccadic movements, But if people stare with one eye at ene spot lang enough, small Figure 3.8 The Bind Spot Hold the book inant ef you Gloss your right eye ard eta athe petiroct the dog wih jour lt ‘972. Sowing the book Goser to you face. The actu2 ofthe eat wll dsappenr al some pont acs ne gh ae a tae need lng ye! apf yu oe ad our bird st, yg movirg the book rote sows. objects that slowly cross their visual field may at one point disappear briefly because there fs a hola” in the retina—the place where all the axons of thase gangtion cells leave the retina to become the optic nerve, the optic disk. There are no rods ar cones here, 30 this bs referred to as the blind spot. You can demonstrate the blind spot for yourself by {ollowing the directions in Figure 3.4. THE VISUAL PATHWAY 8.5 Explain how light information reaches the visual cortex. You may wantto fist lok atFigure 35 for s moment before rsdn this sexton, ing the eyes can be separated into the left and right visual fick’. Light from the right visual eld falls on the lef- side ofeach eye's etna; light from the lef: vistal fil fells onthe righ: sideof each retina, Light travel ina straight line Uwough the comes and ens, resulting inthe mage paajected on the retina actualy being upside dow and reverse from left 0 Fight as compared tothe visual fields. Thank goodness our brains can compensae for this! “Thorens of the rtina can be divided in halves, with the halves teward the tem- plesof the head referred to as the temporal retinas and the halves toward the center, o: Sensation and Perception 141 © scanned with OKEN scannerFigure 3.4 The Blind Spot Hotline book in ont of yu. Glos your pt oye and star at th picture of ho dap wn your lt ‘9. Stony brng he Goon claro yu ace, Th plete oe eat wl daar st se pat cause the ight or he pte che cat fall an your bie spt you cant sem to Se your scr, 17g moving he book mere slow. ‘objects that slowly cross their visual field may at one point disappear briefly because there isa “hole” in the retina—the place where all the axons of those ganglion culls leave the retina to become the optic nerve, the optic disk. There are no rods or cones here, so this is referned to as the blind spot. You can demonstrate the blind spot for yourself by following the directions in Figure 3 ‘THE VISUAL PATHWAY. 3.5. Explain how light information reaches the visual cortex. ‘Youmay wantto firstlock at Figure 35 for moment before reading this section, Light enter= ing the eyes can be separated into the left and right visa fields, Light from the right visual fold falls om the lft side of each eye's retin; ight from the left visual field falls on the right side ofeach retina, Light travels ina straight linethrough thecornea and lens, resulting in the image projected on the retina actually being upside down and reversed fron left to right as compared to the visual fields. Thank goodness our brainscan compensate fr this! The areas ofthe retina can be divided into halves, with the halves toward the ples of the head referred to as the temporal retinas and the halves toward the center, of rose, called the nasal retinas. Look at Figure 3.5 again, Notice thatthe information from the left visual fled (falling on the right side ofeach retina) goes tothe right visual corte, Uhile the information from the right visual field (falling on the left side of each retina) _goes to the left visual cortex. This is because the axons from the temporal halves of each retina project to the visual cortex om the same side of the brain, while the axons from the zasal halves cross over to the visual cortex on the opposite side of the brain. The optic chiasm is the point of crossover, Because rods work well in low levels of light, they are also the cells that allow the eyes to adapt to low light. Dark adaptation occurs as the eye recovers its ability to see when going from a brightly lit state to a dark state, (The light-sensitive pigments that allow usto sceare able to regenerateor “recharge” inthe dark.) The brighter the light was, the longer it takes the rods to adapt to the new lower levels of light (Bartlett, 165). This is why the bright headlights of an oncoming ear can leavea person less able to see fora while after that car has passed. Fortunately, this is usually a temporary condition because the bright light was on so briefly and the rods readoptto the dark night relatively quickly. Full dark adaptation, which occurs when going from more constant light to darkness, such as {tuming out one’s becroom lights, takes about 30 minutes, As people get older this process takes longer, causing many older persons to be less able to sev al night and in darkened woms (Klaver etal, 1998), This age-telated change can cause night blimdness, in which a person has difficulty seeing well enough to drive at night or get around in a darkened blind spot areain the retina where the axons of the three layers of retinal cells ext the eye to form the optic nerve; insensitive to light. dark adaptation the recovery of the eye's sensitivity to visual stimu in darkness after exposure to bright lights © seamnea with oxen Scannerut slowly cross their visual field may at one point disappear briefly because hole” in the retina—the place where all the axons of those ganglion cells leave to become the optic nerve, the optic disk. There are no rods or cones here, so rred to as the blind spot. You can demonstrate the blind spot for yourself by the directions in Figure 3.4. WAL PATHWAY ain how light information reaches the visual cortex. ‘ant to first look at Figure 3.5 for a moment before reading this section. Light enter- ‘scan be separated into the left and right visual fields. Light from the right visual sn the left side of each eye's retina; ight from the left visual field falls on the right 1 retina. Light travels ina straight line through the comea and lens, resulting in the ected on the retina actually being upside down and reversed from left to right as to the visual fields. Thank goodness our brains can compensate for this! areas of the retina can be divided into halves, with the halves toward the tem- head referred to as the temporal retinas and the halves toward the center, or d the nasal retinas. Look at Figure 3.5 again. Notice that the information from ual field (falling on the right side of each retina) goes to the right visual cortex, nformation from the right visual field (falling on the left side of each retina) + left visual cortex. This is because the axons from the temporal halves of each ect to the visual cortex on the same side of the brain, while the axons from the es cross over to the visual cortex on the opposite side of the brain. The optic he point of crossover. use rods work well in low levels of light, they are also the cells that allow the apt to low light. Dark adaptation accurs as the eye recovers its ability to see 1g from a brightly lit state to a dark state. (The light-sensitive pigments that + see are able to regenerate or “recharge” in the dark.) The brighter the light was, it takes the rods to adapt to the new lower levels of light (Bartlett, 1965). This is ight headlights of an oncoming car can leave a person less able to see for a while :ar has passed. Fortunately, this is usually a temporary condition because the twas on so briefly and the rods readapt to the dark night relatively quickly. Full tation, which occurs when going from more constant light to darkness, such as t one’s bedroom lights, takes about 30 minutes. As people get older this process dark adaptation er, causing many older persons to be less able to see at night and in darkened the recovery of the eye's sensitivity aver ot al., 1998). This age-related change can cause night blindness, in which a to visual stimuli in darkness after sulty seeing well enough to drive at night or get around ina darkened exposure to bright lights. blind spot area in the retina where the axons of the three layers of retinal cells exit the eye to form the optic nerve; insensitive to light, R3 — rue a ‘optic eniasm — MWY __— Optic act ‘opti radiations guctate Left visual cortex Fight visual cortex Figure 3.5 Crossing of the Optic Nerve Light faling on the left side of each eye's retina (rom the right visual field, shown in yellow wil stimulate & ‘neural message that wil travel along the optic nerve to the thalamus and then on to the visual cortex in the ‘occipital lobe of the lft hemisphere, Notice that the message from the temporal half ofthe left retina goes 10 ‘he loft occipital lobe, while the message trom the nasal hal ofthe right retina crossas over to the left her sphere (the optic chiasmn isthe point of crossover). The optic nerve tissue from both eyes joins together to ‘orm the left optic tract before going on to the lateral geniculate nucleus ofthe thalamus, the optic raclatons, and then the left occipital lobe. For the eft visual fld (shown in blue), the messages from both right sides of ‘he retinas wil travel along the right optic tract to the right visual Cortex in the same mannor, room or house, Some research indicates that taking supplements such as vitamin A can reverse or relieve this symptom in some eases (Jacobson et al., 1995). When going from a darkened room to one that is brightly lit, the opposite process occurs. The cones have to axlapt to the increased level of ight, and they accomplish this light adaptation much more quickly than the rods adapt to darkness—it takes a few seconds at most (Hood, 1998). seem to see telatively zorring headlights of a {Lit may only take a tow 3.6 Compare and contrast two major theories of color vision, and explain how aption toocew, but untl_—_golor-deficient vision occurs. sable to tly se9, so PERCEPTION OF COLOR @ Earlier you said the cones are used in color vision. There are so OF scanned wth oxen camer