CS607 Artificial Intelligence Short Notes

for Mid Term Preparation 1 to 18 lectures

Artificial Intelligence:
What is Intelligence?
Intelligence is the ability to acquire, understand, and apply knowledge and skills. It encompasses
various cognitive functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, learning, and adapting to new
situations. Intelligence can be measured in different ways, including through IQ tests, but it also
includes emotional, social, and practical aspects that contribute to effective functioning in
diverse environments.
Intelligent Machines:
Intelligent machines are systems or devices equipped with artificial intelligence (AI) that enable
them to perform tasks requiring human-like cognitive functions. These functions include
learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. Examples of
intelligent machines include:
1. Robots: Capable of performing complex tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously, such as
manufacturing, surgery, and space exploration.
2. Virtual Assistants: AI-driven software like Siri, Alexa, and Google Assistant that can
understand and respond to voice commands, manage schedules, and control smart home devices.
3. Autonomous Vehicles: Self-driving cars and drones that navigate and make decisions without
human intervention.
4. Recommendation Systems: Algorithms used by platforms like Netflix and Amazon to suggest
products or content based on user preferences and behavior.
5. Chatbots: Automated conversational agents that interact with users, providing customer
support or information.
These machines leverage techniques such as machine learning, neural networks, and natural
language processing to simulate aspects of human intelligence and improve their performance
over time.
Formal Definitions of Artificial Intelligence:
Here are concise formal definitions of Artificial Intelligence (AI):
1. John McCarthy (1956): AI is "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines,
especially intelligent computer programs." This highlights the creation of programs that mimic
human intelligence.
2. Russell and Norvig (2020): AI is "the study of agents that receive percepts from the
environment and take actions that affect that environment." This focuses on developing systems
that perceive and act to achieve goals.
3. European Commission (2018): AI refers to "systems that display intelligent behavior by
analyzing their environment and taking actions – with some degree of autonomy – to achieve
specific goals." This emphasizes autonomy and goal-oriented behavior.
4. AAAI: AI is "the scientific understanding of the mechanisms underlying thought and
intelligent behavior and their embodiment in machines." This stresses the scientific study and
replication of intelligent behavior in machines.
These definitions converge on the themes of simulating human-like intelligence, autonomy, and
goal-directed actions in machines.
History and Evolution:
The history and evolution of Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be summarized as follows:
1. Early Foundations (1940s-1950s):
 1943: Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts proposed the first mathematical model of
neural networks.
 1950: Alan Turing introduced the concept of the Turing Test to evaluate a machine's
ability to exhibit intelligent behavior.
 1956: The term "Artificial Intelligence" was coined by John McCarthy at the Dartmouth
Conference, marking the official birth of AI as a field.
2. Early Enthusiasm and Challenges (1950s-1970s):
 Initial success with programs solving algebra, proving theorems, and playing games like
chess.
 Limitations in computing power and unrealistic expectations led to the first "AI winter"
in the mid-1970s, a period of reduced funding and interest.
3. Expert Systems and Renewed Interest (1980s):
 Development of expert systems, like MYCIN for medical diagnosis, which encoded
expert knowledge into rule-based systems.
 Commercial success in certain applications revitalized interest and investment in AI.
4. AI Winters and Rebounds (1980s-1990s):
 The late 1980s and early 1990s saw another AI winter due to the collapse of the Lisp
machine market and unmet expectations.
 Continued research in machine learning, neural networks, and other areas kept the field
progressing.
5. Modern AI and Machine Learning (2000s-present):
 Breakthroughs in machine learning, especially deep learning, fueled by increased
computing power and large datasets.
 Significant achievements in image and speech recognition, natural language processing,
and game-playing AI (e.g., AlphaGo).
 AI technologies integrated into everyday applications like virtual assistants, autonomous
vehicles, and recommendation systems.
The evolution of AI has been marked by cycles of optimism and disappointment, but recent
advancements have solidified its role as a transformative technology across various domains.
Applications:
AI has a wide range of applications across various fields. Here are some key examples:
1. Healthcare:
 Disease diagnosis and personalized treatment plans.
 Medical imaging analysis.
 Predictive analytics for patient outcomes.
2. Finance:
 Fraud detection.
 Algorithmic trading.
 Risk assessment and management.
3. Transportation:
 Autonomous vehicles.
 Traffic management systems.
 Predictive maintenance.
4. Customer Service:
 Chatbots and virtual assistants.
 Sentiment analysis.
 Automated support systems.
5. Retail:
 Recommendation engines.
 Inventory management.
 Personalized marketing.
6. Manufacturing:
 Predictive maintenance.
  Quality control.
 Supply chain optimization.
7. Education:
 Personalized learning experiences.
 Automated grading systems.
 Educational content recommendation.
8. Entertainment:
 Content creation and curation.
 Interactive gaming experiences.
 Personalized media recommendations.
9. Security:
 Surveillance and threat detection.
 Cybersecurity threat analysis.
 Biometric authentication systems.
10. Agriculture:
 Precision farming.
 Crop monitoring and management.
 Automated harvesting systems.
These applications demonstrate how AI enhances efficiency, accuracy, and personalized
experiences across various sectors.
Chap#2
Problem solving
2.1 Classical Approach
The classical approach to problem-solving in AI, also known as symbolic AI, relies on the
explicit representation of knowledge and the use of formal logic to infer solutions. Key
characteristics include:
 Symbolic Representation: Problems and knowledge are represented using symbols and
logical statements.
 Search Algorithms: Algorithms such as A*, breadth-first search, and depth-first search
are used to explore possible solutions within a defined problem space.
 Rule-Based Systems: Solutions are derived by applying a set of rules to manipulate
symbols and reach conclusions.
 Formal Logic: Uses propositional and predicate logic for reasoning and theorem proving.
2.2 Generate and Test
Generate and test is a basic problem-solving strategy that involves:
 Generate: Creating possible solutions to the problem.
 Test: Evaluating each generated solution to see if it meets the criteria for a successful
solution.
This method is straightforward but can be inefficient if the solution space is large, as it may
require testing many possible solutions before finding the right one.
2.3 Problem Representation
Problem representation involves defining the problem in a way that makes it manageable for an
AI system to process. Key aspects include:
 State Space: Defines all possible states or configurations that the problem can have.
 Initial State: The starting point of the problem.
 Goal State: The desired solution or end state.
 Operators: Actions that can be taken to move from one state to another.
 Constraints: Rules that must be followed or limitations within the problem space.
Effective problem representation is crucial as it directly affects the efficiency and success of the
problem-solving process.
2.4 Components of a Problem
The essential components of a problem in the context of AI problem-solving are:
 Initial State: The condition or situation at the start of the problem-solving process.
 Goal State: The desired condition or outcome that defines the solution to the problem.
 Operators: Actions or transformations that can be applied to move from one state to
another within the problem space.
 State Space: The entire set of possible states that can be reached through the application
of operators from the initial state.
 Path Cost: A function that assigns a cost to each path or sequence of states and operators,
helping to evaluate the efficiency of different solutions.
Understanding and defining these components help structure the problem-solving process and
guide the development of algorithms to find solutions effectively.
The Two-One Problem
The Two-One Problem involves converting a mathematical or logical problem into a form that
can be solved using AI techniques. While specific details of this problem are not provided, the
general steps would include problem formulation, state space representation, and applying
appropriate search strategies.
2.6 Searching
Searching is a fundamental technique in AI used to navigate through a problem's state space to
find a solution. It involves exploring possible states, starting from an initial state, applying
operators, and aiming to reach a goal state.
2.7 Tree and Graph Terminology
 Tree: A hierarchical structure with nodes connected by edges, having a single root node
and no cycles.
 Graph: A collection of nodes (vertices) connected by edges, which can be directed or
undirected, and may contain cycles.
 Node: A point in a tree or graph representing a state.
 Edge: A connection between two nodes representing a transition from one state to
another.
 Root: The topmost node in a tree.
 Leaf: A node with no children in a tree.
 Path: A sequence of edges connecting a series of nodes.
 Cycle: A path in a graph where the first and last nodes are the same.
 Depth: The length of the path from the root to a node.
 Breadth: The number of nodes at the same level in a tree.
2.8 Search Strategies
Search strategies are methods for exploring the state space to find a solution. They can be
categorized into:
 Uninformed (Blind) Search: No additional information about the state space is used.
 Breadth-First Search (BFS): Explores all nodes at the present depth level before moving
on to nodes at the next depth level.
 Depth-First Search (DFS): Explores as far as possible along each branch before
backtracking.
 Informed (Heuristic) Search: Uses problem-specific knowledge to find solutions more
efficiently.
 A*: Uses both the cost to reach the node and a heuristic estimate of the cost to reach the
goal.
 Greedy Best-First Search: Uses only the heuristic estimate to guide the search.
2.9 Simple Search Algorithm
A simple search algorithm involves basic steps that can be adapted to different search strategies.
The general process includes:
1. Initialize: Start with an initial state and add it to a list of nodes to be explored.
2. Expand: Remove a node from the list, and expand it by generating its successors.
3. Goal Test: Check if the node is the goal state.
4. Add Successors: If not the goal, add the successors to the list of nodes to be explored.
5. Repeat: Continue until the goal state is found or the list is empty.
2.10 Simple Search Algorithm Applied to Depth-First Search (DFS)
1. Initialize: Place the initial state on a stack.
2. Expand: Pop the top node from the stack.
3. Goal Test: Check if this node is the goal state.
4. Add Successors: If not, push all its successors onto the stack.
5. Repeat: Continue the process until the goal is found or the stack is empty.
2.11 Simple Search Algorithm Applied to Breadth-First Search (BFS)
1. Initialize: Place the initial state in a queue.
2. Expand: Dequeue the front node from the queue.
3. Goal Test: Check if this node is the goal state.
4. Add Successors: If not, enqueue all its successors.
5. Repeat: Continue the process until the goal is found or the queue is empty.
Both DFS and BFS are fundamental strategies for exploring state spaces, with DFS being
memory-efficient but potentially getting stuck in deep branches, and BFS guaranteeing the
shortest path in an unweighted graph but requiring more memory.
2.12 Problems with DFS and BFS
Depth-First Search (DFS)
 Memory Efficiency: DFS is more memory-efficient than BFS because it only needs to
store a stack of nodes along the current path.
 Incomplete: DFS may fail to find a solution if it goes down an infinitely deep path.
 Non-optimal: DFS does not guarantee the shortest path to a solution.
Breadth-First Search (BFS)
 Memory Intensive: BFS requires significant memory to store all nodes at each level,
which can grow exponentially.
 Time Complexity: BFS can be slow due to the large number of nodes it needs to explore.
 Optimal: BFS guarantees the shortest path if the graph edges are uniform in cost.
2.13 Progressive Deepening
Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search (IDDFS) combines the space efficiency of DFS with the
optimality of BFS. It involves repeatedly performing depth-limited DFS, increasing the depth
limit with each iteration until the goal is found.
 Space Efficiency: Like DFS, uses limited memory.
 Completeness: Ensures all nodes are explored within increasing depth limits.
 Optimality: Finds the shortest path if the depth limit increases appropriately.
2.14 Heuristically Informed Searches
Heuristically informed searches use additional information (heuristics) to guide the search more
efficiently. These heuristics estimate the cost to reach the goal from a given state.
2.15 Hill Climbing
Hill climbing is a local search algorithm that continuously moves towards the highest-valued
neighbor (in terms of heuristic cost) from the current state until no higher-valued neighbors are
found.
 Greedy Search: Can quickly find a solution but may get stuck in local optima.
 Variants: Includes steepest ascent, which evaluates all neighbors, and stochastic hill
climbing, which randomly selects among uphill moves.
2.16 Beam Search
Beam search is a heuristic search algorithm that explores a graph by expanding the most
promising nodes, but only keeps a limited number of nodes (the "beam width") at each level.
 Memory Efficient: Limits the number of nodes stored in memory.
 Incomplete: May miss the optimal solution due to the restricted number of nodes kept at
each level.
2.17 Best First Search
Best-first search (BFS) uses a priority queue and expands the node with the lowest heuristic cost
first.
 Heuristically Driven: Relies heavily on the quality of the heuristic function.
 Greedy Best-First Search: Uses a heuristic to always expand the most promising node,
but may not be optimal.
2.18 Optimal Searches
Optimal search strategies guarantee finding the best (optimal) solution.
 Uniform Cost Search: Expands the least-cost node first, ensuring the shortest path is
found.
 A*: Combines the cost to reach a node and the heuristic cost to reach the goal,
guaranteeing both completeness and optimality if the heuristic is admissible.
### 2.19 Branch and Bound
Branch and bound is a search algorithm that systematically considers and prunes branches of the
search tree to find optimal solutions.
 Bounding: Uses bounds to prune paths that cannot lead to a better solution than the
current best.
 Efficiency: Can significantly reduce the number of nodes explored.
2.20 Improvements in Branch and Bound
Improvements include techniques to tighten bounds and more efficiently prune the search space,
such as dynamic programming and heuristic-based bounding.
2.21 A* Procedure
A* search is an optimal and complete search algorithm that uses both path cost (g(n)) and
heuristic cost (h(n)).
 f(n) = g(n) + h(n): A* expands the node with the lowest f(n) value.
 Admissible Heuristic: Guarantees optimality if the heuristic is admissible (never
overestimates the true cost).
2.22 Adversarial Search
Adversarial search is used in competitive environments (games) where opponents compete to
maximize their own outcomes.
2.23 Minimax Procedure
The minimax algorithm is used in two-player games to minimize the possible loss for a worst-
case scenario.
Maximizer and Minimizer: Alternates between maximizing and minimizing players' turns.
Complete and Optimal: Guarantees the best possible outcome against a rational opponent.
2.24 Alpha-Beta Pruning
Alpha-beta pruning improves the minimax algorithm by pruning branches that cannot affect the
final decision.
 Alpha: The best value that the maximizer can guarantee.
 Beta: The best value that the minimizer can guarantee.
 Efficiency: Reduces the number of nodes evaluated, leading to faster decision-making
without affecting the outcome.
These techniques and algorithms form the foundation of AI search strategies, each with its
strengths and applicable scenarios, optimizing the problem-solving process in various domains.
Chap #3
Genetic Algorithms
3.1 Discussion on Problem Solving
Problem-solving in AI involves formulating the problem, representing it appropriately, and
selecting suitable algorithms to find a solution. Different approaches and strategies can be
employed depending on the nature of the problem, such as heuristic-based methods, search
algorithms, and optimization techniques.
3.2 Hill Climbing in Parallel
Parallel hill climbing involves running multiple hill climbing processes simultaneously, starting
from different initial states. This approach increases the chances of finding a global optimum by
avoiding local maxima and allowing exploration of different parts of the search space.
Efficiency: Parallelization can significantly speed up the search process.
Robustness: Reduces the likelihood of getting stuck in local optima compared to a single hill
climbing process.
3.3 Comment on Evolution
Evolutionary algorithms, inspired by biological evolution, are used for optimization problems.
They mimic processes such as selection, mutation, and recombination to evolve solutions over
generations. These algorithms are highly adaptive and can find solutions to complex problems
where traditional methods might fail.
3.4 Genetic Algorithm
A Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a type of evolutionary algorithm used for optimization and search
problems. It uses principles of natural selection and genetics to evolve solutions over successive
generations.
3.5 Basic Genetic Algorithm
The basic steps of a Genetic Algorithm are:
1. Initialization: Create an initial population of random solutions.
2. Selection: Evaluate the fitness of each solution and select the best-performing ones.
3. Crossover (Recombination): Combine pairs of selected solutions to create new offspring.
4. Mutation: Introduce random changes to some of the offspring to maintain genetic diversity.
5. Evaluation: Assess the fitness of the new generation of solutions.
6. Replacement: Replace the old population with the new generation.
7. Termination: Repeat the process until a termination condition is met (e.g., a satisfactory
solution is found or a set number of generations is reached).
3.6 Solution to a Few Problems using GA
Genetic Algorithms can solve various problems, such as:
 Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP): Finding the shortest possible route that visits each
city exactly once and returns to the origin city.
 Knapsack Problem: Maximizing the total value of items that can be carried in a knapsack
of limited capacity.
 Function Optimization: Finding the maximum or minimum of a complex mathematical
function.
3.7 Eight Queens Problem
The Eight Queens Problem involves placing eight queens on a chessboard such that no two
queens threaten each other (i.e., no two queens share the same row, column, or diagonal). A
Genetic Algorithm can be used to solve this problem:
1. Representation: Each solution (chromosome) can be represented as an array of 8 integers,
where each integer represents the row position of a queen in each column.
2. Fitness Function: The fitness of a solution is determined by the number of non-attacking pairs
of queens.
3. Selection: Select solutions with higher fitness scores for reproduction.
4. Crossover: Combine pairs of selected solutions to produce new offspring.
5. Mutation: Randomly change the position of a queen in the offspring to maintain diversity.
6. Iteration: Repeat the process until a solution with maximum fitness (all queens non-attacking)
is found.
By using these steps, a Genetic Algorithm can efficiently search the solution space and find
configurations that solve the Eight Queens Problem.
Chap #4
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
4.1 The AI Cycle
The AI cycle consists of the following stages:
1. Perception: Collecting data from the environment.
2. Representation: Structuring and storing the information in a useful format.
3. Reasoning: Processing the stored information to draw conclusions or make decisions.
4. Action: Executing decisions and interacting with the environment.
5. Learning: Updating the knowledge base and improving performance over time.
4.2 The Dilemma
The dilemma in AI often refers to the challenge of balancing between the complexity of
knowledge representation and the efficiency of reasoning processes. More expressive
representations can capture more detailed knowledge but may slow down reasoning, while
simpler representations might be less expressive but faster.
4.3 Knowledge and Its Types
Knowledge in AI can be categorized into several types:
 Declarative Knowledge: Facts and information that can be explicitly stated (e.g., "Paris is
the capital of France").
 Procedural Knowledge: Instructions or procedures on how to perform tasks (e.g.,
algorithms, recipes).
 Semantic Knowledge: General world knowledge, often represented in networks or graphs
(e.g., concepts and relationships).
 Episodic Knowledge: Specific events and experiences stored in memory (e.g., a personal
trip to Paris).
 Meta-Knowledge: Knowledge about other knowledge (e.g., understanding the reliability
of a source).
4.4 Towards Representation
Moving towards effective knowledge representation involves selecting appropriate methods to
structure and encode information. This includes ensuring the representation is:
 Expressive: Capable of capturing all necessary information.
 Efficient: Allowing for quick retrieval and reasoning.
 Scalable: Managing large amounts of information.
 Understandable: Being interpretable by both humans and machines.
4.5 Formal KR Techniques
Formal Knowledge Representation (KR) techniques include:
 Logical Representations: Use formal logic to encode knowledge.
 Semantic Networks: Graph structures that represent concepts and their relationships.
 Frames: Data structures that represent stereotyped situations.
 Ontologies: Define a set of concepts and categories in a subject area, showing their
properties and the relations between them.
4.6 Facts
Facts are statements about the world that are considered to be true. In AI, facts can be
represented in various ways, such as:
  Atomic Facts: Basic assertions (e.g., "Socrates is a man").
 Complex Facts: Combinations of atomic facts using logical connectives (e.g., "If Socrates
is a man, then Socrates is mortal").
4.7 Rules
Rules are conditional statements that describe relations between facts and dictate the reasoning
process. They can be of various types:
 Production Rules: "If-Then" rules used in expert systems (e.g., "If it is raining, then carry
an umbrella").
 Inference Rules: Logical rules that infer new facts from existing ones (e.g., Modus
Ponens).
4.8 Semantic Networks
Semantic networks represent knowledge as a graph of nodes (concepts) and edges
(relationships). They are useful for visualizing and reasoning about the relationships between
different concepts.
4.9 Frames
Frames are data structures for representing stereotyped situations, consisting of slots (attributes)
and fillers (values). They provide a structured way to encode knowledge about objects and their
properties.
4.10 Logic
Logic is a formal system for reasoning and inferring new knowledge. Key types of logic in AI
include:
 Propositional Logic: Deals with propositions and their connectives (e.g., AND, OR,
NOT).
 Predicate Logic: Extends propositional logic by including quantifiers and predicates,
allowing more expressive representations.
 First-Order Logic (FOL): A type of predicate logic that includes quantifiers like "forall"
(∀) and "exists" (∃).
4.11 Reasoning
Reasoning is the process of deriving new information from existing knowledge. It involves
applying logical rules to known facts and rules to infer new conclusions.
4.12 Types of Reasoning
Different types of reasoning used in AI include:
  Deductive Reasoning: Deriving specific conclusions from general rules or premises. It is
logically sound and guarantees the correctness of conclusions if the premises are true.
Example: "All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."
 Inductive Reasoning: Inferring general rules from specific observations. It is probabilistic
and can lead to generalizations that may not always be correct.
Example: "All observed swans are white. Therefore, all swans are white."
 Abductive Reasoning: Inferring the most likely explanation for a set of observations. It is
used to generate hypotheses.
Example: "The grass is wet. The most likely explanation is that it rained."
 Analogical Reasoning: Solving a problem by finding a similar past problem and applying
its solution.
Example: "This new device operates similarly to the old one. Therefore, it likely has similar
maintenance procedures."
These reasoning techniques form the foundation of how AI systems can mimic human thought
processes to solve complex problems.
Chap#5
Expert Systems
5.1 What is an Expert?
An expert is an individual with extensive knowledge and experience in a specific domain,
capable of solving complex problems and providing reliable advice.
5.2 What is an Expert System?
An expert system is a computer program designed to emulate the decision-making abilities of a
human expert. It uses knowledge and inference rules to solve problems that typically require
human expertise.
5.3 History and Evolution
Expert systems emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, with early systems like DENDRAL (for
chemical analysis) and MYCIN (for medical diagnosis). Over time, they evolved to cover
diverse domains such as finance, engineering, and customer support.
5.4 Comparison of a Human Expert and an Expert System
Knowledge:
 Human Expert: Possesses tacit and explicit knowledge, capable of learning and adapting.
 Expert System: Encodes explicit knowledge, limited to predefined rules and lacks
adaptive learning.
Consistency:
 Human Expert: May be inconsistent due to fatigue or bias.
 Expert System: Provides consistent outputs given the same inputs.
Speed and Scalability:
 Human Expert: Limited by cognitive and physical constraints.
 Expert System: Can process information rapidly and handle large volumes of data
simultaneously.
5.5 Roles of an Expert System
 Adviser: Provides recommendations and solutions based on expert knowledge.
 Assistant: Aids in decision-making processes.
 Instructor: Educates users by explaining reasoning and solutions.
 Integrator: Combines knowledge from multiple sources to provide comprehensive
solutions.
5.6 How are Expert Systems Used?
 Medical Diagnosis: Assisting doctors in diagnosing diseases.
 Financial Services: Providing investment advice and risk assessment.
 Customer Support: Offering troubleshooting and support for products.
 Manufacturing: Monitoring and optimizing production processes.
5.7 Expert System Structure
1. Knowledge Base: Contains domain-specific knowledge, including facts and rules.
2. Inference Engine: Applies logical rules to the knowledge base to derive new information and
make decisions.
3. User Interface: Facilitates interaction between the user and the system, allowing for input and
output.
4. Explanation Facility: Provides reasoning and explanations for the system’s conclusions.
5. Knowledge Acquisition Module: Helps in updating and refining the knowledge base with new
information.
5.8 Characteristics of Expert Systems
 High Performance: Capable of solving complex problems accurately.
 Reliability: Consistently provides correct solutions.
 Understandability: Offers clear explanations and reasoning.
 Flexibility: Adaptable to different domains and problems.
5.9 Programming vs. Knowledge Engineering
 Programming: Involves writing code to perform specific tasks.
 Knowledge Engineering: Involves gathering, structuring, and encoding expert knowledge
into a system.
5.10 People Involved in an Expert System Project
 Domain Expert: Provides the knowledge and expertise.
 Knowledge Engineer: Translates expert knowledge into a form that the system can use.
 System Developer: Builds and maintains the expert system.
 End User: Utilizes the expert system for decision-making and problem-solving.
5.11 Inference Mechanisms
Inference mechanisms are methods used by the inference engine to derive conclusions from the
knowledge base. Common mechanisms include:
 Forward Chaining: Starts with known facts and applies rules to infer new facts until a
goal is reached.
 Backward Chaining: Starts with a goal and works backward, applying rules to determine
the necessary conditions to achieve that goal.
5.12 Design of Expert Systems
Designing an expert system involves several steps:
1. Problem Definition: Identify the problem domain and objectives.
2. Knowledge Acquisition: Gather information from domain experts.
3. Knowledge Representation: Encode the acquired knowledge in a structured form.
4. System Development: Develop the inference engine, user interface, and other system
components.
5. Testing and Validation: Ensure the system performs accurately and reliably.
6. Deployment and Maintenance: Implement the system in the target environment and update it
as necessary.
Expert systems play a crucial role in leveraging artificial intelligence to solve complex problems,
providing consistent and reliable solutions across various domains.