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Ch. 5 DNA & RNA
Monday, September 24, 2018 12:29 PM
All cells come from previously existing cells; requires cell division
Protein synthesis is vital to nuclear division and human reproduction
DNA
DNA – large molecule made up of many smaller molecules that are similar to
one another (nucleotides)
Nucleotide – a compound formed by combining phosphoric acid with a 5-
carbon sugar and a nitrogenous base
-Nitrogenous bases:
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
DNA looks like a double spiral or double helix (Figure 5-1)
Sides of the DNA “ladder” consist of a chain of alternating phosphate and
deoxyribose units
The “rungs” are made of pairs of bases that always combine with the
same partner base
Obligatory base pairing – adenine always pairs to thymine (A-T), and
cytosine always pairs with guanine (C-G)
Bases of DNA are held together by comparatively weak hydrogen bonds
The Gene – segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein
Codon – transcript (copy) code that is read in segments of three
nucleotides
Cell transfers a given gene's information from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm by transcribing the genetic code onto shorter RNA molecules (Figure 5-2)
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RNA
Major types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Transcription from DNA to RNA
Protein synthesis – begins when a single strand of RNA forms along
a segment of one strand of a DNA molecule (Figure 5-3)
A single strand of mRNA (messenger RNA) is formed along a strand
of DNA
Complementary base pairing – uracil attaches to adenine, adenine
to thymine, guanine to cytosine, and cytosine to guanine
Transcription – production of RNA molecule by copying or
“transcribing” a gene within the DNA strand
Translation – “translating” the genetic code to form a specific sequence of
amino acids (Figure 5-5)
Specific transfer RNAs (tRNA) carry and transfer amino acids to the
ribosome for placement in the prescribed sequence
Each tRNA is connected to a specific amino acid and has a specific
anticodon for any type of codon
After picking up its amino acid from a pool of 20 different types of amino
acids floating freely in the cytoplasm, a tRNA molecule moves to the ribosome, where its
anticodon attaches to its complementary mRNA codon
Ribosome moves down the mRNA molecule until it reaches a codon that
informs the ribosome to detach and stop; forms a polyribosome
Translation can be inhibited or prevented by a process called RNA interference
(RNAi)
As specific polypeptides are formed, chaperone proteins and other enzymes in
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, or cytosol step into action; they help fold and
link the new polypeptides correctly
The complete set of proteins synthesized by a cell is called the proteome of the cell
Human proteome is much larger than the genome—the entire set of
genes in a cell
Proteome is larger because proteins coded by DNA can be combined
with other proteins and other types of molecules
Growth and Reproduction of Cells
Cell growth and reproduction are the most fundamental of living functions
Together, they make up the cell life cycle (Figure 5-6)
Cell growth depends on using genetic information to make the structural and
functional proteins needed for cell survival
Cell reproduction ensures that this genetic information is passed from one
generation of organisms to the next
Cell Growth – when a new cell is formed, it begins growing, generating new cytoplasm,
cell membrane, cell fibers, and other structures (structural proteins) necessary for growth
Production of Cytoplasm
In order to grow, a cell must produce new cytoplasm and new membrane to contain it
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Accomplished by protein synthesis
DNA Replication – synthesis of new DNA during interphase (Figure 5-6)
As a cell becomes larger, regulatory mechanisms in the cell trigger the synthesis of a
complete copy of the cell's genome
Cell will undergo mitosis; one complete set of DNA molecules will go to one
daughter cell and one complete set will go to the other
Occurs during a period of the cell’s interphase
S-phase – DNA is replicated
G1 and G2 phases – growth phases that occur before and after the S-phase
Cell Reproduction – process by which a cell divides its duplicated genome and its
cytoplasm to generate two new, genetically identical daughter cells
Mitosis – process of organizing and distributing nuclear DNA during cell division
Mitosis consists of four phases
Prophase – the nuclear envelope falls apart as the paired chromatids coil up to form
compact chromosomes; centriole pairs move toward opposite ends of the parent cell as
they arrange spindle fibers across the cell
Metaphase – begins when the chromosomes are aligned along a plane at the center
or the “equator” of the cell; one chromatid of each chromosome faces one pole of the cell
and its identical sister chromatic faces the opposite pole
Anaphase – centromere of each chromosome splits to form two single
chromosomes; pulled toward the pole it faced as a chromatid during metaphase
Telophase – two new nuclear envelopes begin to form around the separated
chromosomes; a furrow begins to form in the plasma membrane between the two new
nuclei
Cytokinesis – furrow completely separates the two new daughter cells; begins at the end
of anaphase and completes during or just after telophase
Meiosis – special type of cell division that generates sex cells (Figure 5-8)
When a diploid parent sex cell goes through meiosis, it undergoes two divisions;
splits its homologous pairs of chromosomes in half to generate four new haploid cells
Changes in Cell Growth, Reproduction, and Survival
Cells can use genes to adapt to changing conditions, increase chances of survival, or
become more efficient
Abnormal cell growth may occur if mitosis doesn’t occur normally; new mass of cells
is a tumor or neoplasm
Cell death occurs because of injury or pathological condition (necrosis) or through
programmed mechanisms if the cell is no longer needed or malfunctions (apoptosis)
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