Tuning

Frequencies for equal-tempered scale, A4 = 440 Hz

Other tuning choices, A4 =
432 434 436 438 440 442 444 446

Speed of Sound = 345 m/s = 1130 ft/s = 770 miles/hr

More about Speed of Sound

("Middle C" is C4 )

Note Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (cm)

C0 16.35 2109.89
C#0/Db0 17.32 1991.47
D0 18.35 1879.69
D#0/Eb0 19.45 1774.20
E0 20.60 1674.62
F0 21.83 1580.63
F#0/Gb0 23.12 1491.91
G0 24.50 1408.18
G#0/Ab0 25.96 1329.14
A0 27.50 1254.55
A#0/Bb0 29.14 1184.13
B0 30.87 1117.67
C1 32.70 1054.94
C#1/Db1 34.65 995.73
D1 36.71 939.85
D#1/Eb1 38.89 887.10
E1 41.20 837.31
F1 43.65 790.31
F#1/Gb1 46.25 745.96
G1 49.00 704.09
G#1/Ab1 51.91 664.57
A1 55.00 627.27
A#1/Bb1 58.27 592.07
B1 61.74 558.84
C2 65.41 527.47
C#2/Db2 69.30 497.87
D2 73.42 469.92
D#2/Eb2 77.78 443.55
E2 82.41 418.65
F2 87.31 395.16
F#2/Gb2 92.50 372.98
G2 98.00 352.04
G#2/Ab2 103.83 332.29
A2 110.00 313.64
A#2/Bb2 116.54 296.03
B2 123.47 279.42
C3 130.81 263.74
C#3/Db3 138.59 248.93
D3 146.83 234.96
D#3/Eb3 155.56 221.77
E3 164.81 209.33
F3 174.61 197.58
F#3/Gb3 185.00 186.49
G3 196.00 176.02
G#3/Ab3 207.65 166.14
A3 220.00 156.82
A#3/Bb3 233.08 148.02
B3 246.94 139.71
C4 261.63 131.87
C#4/Db4 277.18 124.47
D4 293.66 117.48
D#4/Eb4 311.13 110.89
E4 329.63 104.66
F4 349.23 98.79
F#4/Gb4 369.99 93.24
G4 392.00 88.01
G#4/Ab4 415.30 83.07
A4 440.00 78.41
A#4/Bb4 466.16 74.01
B4 493.88 69.85
C5 523.25 65.93
C#5/Db5 554.37 62.23
D5 587.33 58.74
D#5/Eb5 622.25 55.44
E5 659.25 52.33
F5 698.46 49.39
F#5/Gb5 739.99 46.62
G5 783.99 44.01
G#5/Ab5 830.61 41.54
A5 880.00 39.20
A#5/Bb5 932.33 37.00
B5 987.77 34.93
C6 1046.50 32.97
C#6/Db6 1108.73 31.12
D6 1174.66 29.37
D#6/Eb6 1244.51 27.72
E6 1318.51 26.17
F6 1396.91 24.70
F#6/Gb6 1479.98 23.31
G6 1567.98 22.00
G#6/Ab6 1661.22 20.77
A6 1760.00 19.60
A#6/Bb6 1864.66 18.50
B6 1975.53 17.46
C7 2093.00 16.48
C#7/Db7 2217.46 15.56
D7 2349.32 14.69
D#7/Eb7 2489.02 13.86
E7 2637.02 13.08
F7 2793.83 12.35
F#7/Gb7 2959.96 11.66
G7 3135.96 11.00
G#7/Ab7 3322.44 10.38
A7 3520.00 9.80
A#7/Bb7 3729.31 9.25
B7 3951.07 8.73
C8 4186.01 8.24
C#8/Db8 4434.92 7.78
D8 4698.63 7.34
D#8/Eb8 4978.03 6.93
E8 5274.04 6.54
F8 5587.65 6.17
F#8/Gb8 5919.91 5.83
G8 6271.93 5.50
G#8/Ab8 6644.88 5.19
A8 7040.00 4.90
A#8/Bb8 7458.62 4.63
B8 7902.13 4.37

(To convert lengths in cm to inches, divide by 2.54)

More information on the equal tempered scale

Equations used for this table

Questions/Comments to: [email protected]

There are no pop-ups or ads of any kind on these pages. If you are seeing them, they are being added by a third party without the consent of the author.

To Physics of Music Notes

To MTU Physics Home
Copyright Info
 Custom Search Search

CELLO BASICS FREE MUSIC CELLO CLASS SCALES CHRISTMAS STORE

Cello Online Music Glossary

by Dr. Robin Kay Deverich

A tempo In tempo. "A tempo" is used after some variation in the tempo, and means return to
the original tempo or speed.

Accelerando Accelerate or gradually increase the tempo or speed of the music.

Accent An accent placed over or under a note means the note should be emphasized by
playing forcefully. Indicated by the sign: >

Accidentals A sign indicating a momentary departure from the key signature by using a flat,
sharp or natural to temporarily alter the pitch of a note by a half step. Accidentals apply to the
note immediately following the symbol, and remain in effect throughout the measure in which it
appears.

Adagio A slow, leisurely tempo, often considered to be slower than andante, but not quite as
slow as largo. Slow movements of a piece are sometimes titled Adagio.

Agitato Agitated or restless. Agitato is a direction to play in an agitated manner.

Air A melody, tune or song. In fiddle music, airs are often played slowly with rubato, and are
not dance tunes. In art music, air is the English word for aria, and both share the same
meaning of a lyrical piece for solo voice, with or without instrumental accompaniment.

Aleatory Comes from the Latin term alea, meaning "a game of dice." Aleatory music is also
called chance music. Chance or indeterminancy may affect compositional elements, the
performance, or both. For example, the performers may throw dice to determine compositional
elements such as rhythmic or pitch choices.

Allegretto A lively and moderately fast tempo. Often considered to be slower than allegro, but
faster than andante.

Allegro A quick, lively and fast tempo (not quite as fast as presto).

Amore Play with love, lovingly.

Andante A moderately slow tempo. Often considered to be a walking speed.

Andantino A slightly slower tempo than andante (andante is a moderately slow tempo).

Animando Play with increasing animation, liveliness, and expression.

Animato "Animated" or spirited. Play in a lively, spirited manner.

Appassionato Play passionately or with intense emotion and feeling.

Arco Arco is Italian for bow. After a pizzicato (plucked) section of music, arco is often used to
indicate the next passage of music should be played with the bow.

Aria An elaborate vocal solo with instrumental accompaniment, used in genres such as an
opera, oratorio or cantata.

Articulation Articulation describes the manner of providing definition and shape to individual
notes or phrases. For string players, this involves both the right and left hand. The main
markings are a dot . which means shorten the note, a line _ or slur which means play the
note smoothly, and an accent > which means add a forceful emphasis. These markings are
often used in combination with each other, and mean many different things to different
musicians.

Assai Assai means "very" in Italian. It modifies other terms when added to them, e.g. allegro
assai means very fast.

Assez Assez means "enough" or "rather" in French. It modifies other terms when added to
them, e.g. assez vif means "rather lively" in French (vif means lively), and assez vite means
"rather fast" (vite means fast).

Atonality Music with an absence of tonality. Traditional tonal structures are intentionally
ignored or abandoned in this contemporary form of music.

Au talon Talon is French for heel, and the term au talon, “at the heel,” means play the music
with the bow hair at the heel or bottom part of the bow, closest to the hand (other terms for
playing music using the bottom part of the bow include "at the frog", heel or nut).

Augmented Augmented means raised, and when the term augmented is combined with a
specific interval between notes, it means to raise the interval by a half-step. For example, an
augmented fourth is a half-step larger than the interval of a perfect fourth.

Ballata A ballata is a 14th century Italian secular song. It is a monophonic composition often
in the following pattern: A b b a A.

Bariolage Bariolage is a French term which means an "odd mixture of colors," and directs the
string player to achieve a contrast in tone colors by playing on different strings. An example of
bariolage is when the same note is played, alternating between open strings and stopped
strings, or by playing a repeated passage and oscillating between two, three, or four strings.
Fingering is often used to indicate bariolage.

Binary Binary means dual or two parts.

Blue notes When the third, fifth, or seventh notes of a major scale are flattened, these notes
are called blue notes. Blue notes are frequently used in blues and jazz music

Bow lift The sign for a bow lift is: and indicates the string player should lift their bow, and
return it to its starting point.

Bravura Play brilliantly with boldness and spirit. The term bravura is sometimes used in
passages where virtuosic skill is required of the performer.

Breve Short.

Brio Spirited and lively. Con brio means play with spirit in a vivacious manner.

Caccia Caccia means chase or hunt, and describes a canonic form of music, often with two
voices chasing each other with an underlying third part. Hunting music themes were often used
in this form of music.

Cantabile Cantabile means singing, and is a musical direction to play in a singing vocal style.
Cantata The term cantata means "to be sung" (as opposed to sonata, an instrumental work
which means "to be played"). A cantata is a vocal work with instrumental accompaniment. It
may be sacred or secular, and often contains sections such as solos, choruses, and
recitatives.

Chamber music The term chamber music describes music suitable for performance in a
chamber, meaning a room or small hall instead of a large concert hall. Today, chamber music
is used to describe instrumental music performed by a small ensemble such as a quartet, trio
or chamber orchestra.

Coda An Italian word for "tail," coda is a musical term referring to a concluding section of a
composition.

Col legno "With the wood." Col legno means to strike the string with the stick of the bow rather
than the hair (it is also called col legno battuto). When there are extended col legno passages
in music, some professional violinists use inexpensive bows to avoid damaging their expensive
bows. Col legno tratto is a less commonly used bowing direction. It indicates draw the wood of
the bow across the string (use with caution, this can damage the wood of the bow).

Collé Collé means glued. It is a very short stroke, and begins with the bow lightly contacting
the string with a distinct and short, sharp pinch. The bow is then lifted to prepare for the next
stroke.

Comodo Comodo is Italian for a comfortable, leisurely and convenient tempo or speed,
neither too fast nor too slow.

Con Con means "with" or in a style expressive of a certain quality. It is often used to modify
another term such as con spirito, meaning to play with a spirited style.

Concerto An instrumental composition for solo instrument(s), often in three movements,

frequently accompanied by an orchestra. The sequence of the movements in a concerto
generally is fast-slow-fast.

Concerto grosso An instrumental concerto for a small group of soloists (called the
concertino), which play in contrast to the main body of instrumentalists or orchestra (called the
ripieno or tutti).

Continuo Also known as basso continuo or figured bass, the term continuo describes a bass
part in a composition, often with numbers over the notes to indicate harmonic intervals that
should be played above the bass line. During the Baroque period, the figured bass or continuo
was commonly used by a keyboard player such as a harpsichord to provide harmonic
accompaniments (a cello frequently played the continuo part along with the harpsichord).

Crescendo Crescendo (cresc.) means to gradually become louder, and is indicated by the
sign:

Da capo (D.C.) repeat from the beginning.

Da segno (D.S.) repeat from the sign.

D.C. al Coda means go back to the beginning of the piece, play to the "Coda" sign: , then
jump to the Coda section to finish the piece (Coda means "tail," and refers to a concluding
section of a piece).

D.C. al Fine means go back to the beginning, and end at the Fine marking (D.C. is an
abbreviation for "da capo," and means "from the beginning" and Fine means "end").

Détaché Détaché indicates a smooth, separate bow strokes should be used for each note (it
does not mean detached or disconnected). Notes are of equal value, and are produced with an
even, seamless stroke with no variation in pressure.

Détaché lancé Détaché lancé is a variation of the détaché bow stroke, and is a slightly
separated bow stroke that gently articulates the notes with an unaccented, distinct break
between each note. It is often used in combination with the louré or porté stroke to perform
several separated notes in the same bow. A combination of a line with a dot over or under it is
often used to indicate this bowing.

Diminuendo Diminuendo (dim.) means to gradually become softer. The term decrescendo
(decresc. or decr.) also means to become softer, and is indicated by the sign:

Dolce Dolce is a direction to play sweetly, softly and gently.

Down bow The sign for down bow is and indicates a downward stroke of the bow from
frog to tip.

Drone A drone is a continuous pitch, held for an extended time beneath the melody to serve
as an aural reference point. In early music, drones generally were not notated in manuscripts,
so performers should use their judgment in using them. In fiddle music, drones are often
played as double stops, with the fiddler playing a drone on one string, while playing the melody
on another.

Dynamics A term that indicates the degree of loudness or softness in music. When the
dynamic level is changed instantaneously, it is called terraced or changed dynamics (this was
popular during the Baroque period). When the Italian word "issimo" is added to a dynamic
term, it means very, extremely, or as much as is possible. e.g. pianissimo means "as soft as is
possible" and fortissimo means "as loud as is possible."

Fermata The sign under or over a note or rest indicates the note or rest should be held
and prolonged at the discretion of the performer or conductor (this sign is also called a "hold"
or by the nickname "bird’s eye").

First and second endings First and second endings are repeat signs, and should be played
as follows: play the first ending the first time through the music, repeat to the beginning of the
section, then skip over the first ending and play the second ending.

Flautando Flautando is a bowing direction to bow slightly over the fingerboard to produce a
flutelike sound effect.

Forte Forte means loud, and is indicated by the marking: f

Fortissimo Fortissimo means the music should be very loud, and is indicated by the marking:
ff
Fortississimo Fortississimo means the music should be played as loudly as possible, and is
indicated by the marking: fff

Frog The bottom part of the bow, a block of wood (often ebony) that bow hairs are attached
to. When music indicates “play at the frog,” it means to use the bottom part of the bow hair,
closest to the frog, for that section of music. Some scholars postulate the frog is named after
the bottom soft part of a horse’s hoof, also called a frog (e.g. Robin Stowell, Cambridge
Companion to the Violin, 1992: 24-29). Other terms used to indicate play at the bottom part of
the bow include “play at the nut”, heel or au talon (French for “at the heel”).

Fuoco Fuoco means "Fire" and indicates the musician should play with fire in a fiery, spirited
manner.
Glissando Glissando is an ornamental effect notated by a wavy or straight line between two
notes, indicating a continuous slide in pitch.

Grace note A grace note is used to ornament a note, and is written in a small font indicating
the musician should quickly play the grace note, then the note it is attached to (the grace note
is not part of the rhythmic value of the measure).

Grandioso Play with majestic grandeur.

Grave Play in a slow and solemn manner.

Harmonics Harmonics are overtones of the string and produce soft flutelike sounds when the
string is lightly touched at specific fractional divisions (nodal points). Natural harmonics are
produced on open strings, and artificial or stopped harmonics are produced on stopped strings.

Harmony Harmony is created when pitches are combined simultaneously.

Homophonic A form of musical texture with a melody and chordal accompaniment.

Hornpipe A lively British dance, popular during the 16th–18th centuries. The country dance
version of the hornpipe was similar to the jig, but with a different meter (often in 3/2).
Composers frequently used the lively country dance rhythm of the hornpipe dance for
movements in dance suites and incidental theater music. Other meters used in the hornpipe
dance were 2/4 and 4/4.

Impressionism Impressionism began as an artistic movement, and was used to describe a

style of art which was designed to convey an impression rather than a literal depiction of the
scene. This term was applied to music, particularly to compositions written by French
composers in the early 20th century such as Debussy and Ravel when they wrote music that
sought to convey subtle impressions, moods and emotions through compositional techniques
such as new chord combinations, sonorities and harmonies, colorful instrumentation, and
exotic scales.

Incidental music Music supplementing a spoken drama such as music composed for a play.
Incidental music could be introducing a play (such as an overture), between acts (an interlude),
or as a supplement to spoken parts or dramatic elements.

Jeté Jeté means "thrown" in French. In this bow stroke, the bow is thrown on the string, and
then bounces for several notes in the same bow direction. The height and speed of the bounce
are regulated through factors such as the amount of pressure used by the index finger, and
where the bow is initially thrown or placed. Dots above or under the notes may be used to
indicate jeté.

Largamente Play with a large, broad and sustained tone.

Larghetto Slightly faster than largo, larghetto is a similarly broad, large and stately tempo and
style.

Largo A broad, slow tempo that is dignified and stately in style. Largo is the slowest of tempo
markings.

Legato Legato indicates the notes should be smoothly connected, played either in one or
several bows. Slurs are often used to indicate legato.

Lento Lento means slow in Italian (lent in French). Lento and lent are both slow tempos in
between largo and andante.
Louré Louré strokes are a short series of gently pulsed legato notes executed in one bow
stroke (it is also known as portato).

Madrigal A madrigal is an Italian song form, often with Italian text. It is a short work in one
movement, sung by a small group of vocalists. Madrigal texts were often set to music using
word painting (where the melody would follow the line of the text, e.g. waterfall would have
music in the contour of falling water).

Maestoso Majestic and dignified.

Marcato An Italian term which means marked or accentuated.

Martelé Martelé is a French term meaning hammered. Each note is percussive, and
commences with a sharp accent or "pinch" at the beginning of the note, followed by a quick
release. Martelé may be notated in more than one way: with dots, hammer heads or accents.

Mass The Mass is the principal act of worship of the Catholic Church. As a vocal form, the
Mass has been used in almost all periods of music history. It has two basic parts—the Proper
and the Ordinary. Sections of the Mass that vary from day to day in each musical service are
called the Proper. The Ordinary of the Mass consists of sections that are constant for every
Mass. The fixed order of the Ordinary of the Mass is 1) Kyrie, 2) Gloria, 3) Credo, 4) Sanctus,
and 5) Agnus Dei. The text of the Mass is given either as a Low Mass or High Mass. A Low
Mass involves spoken text, while a High Mass is sung.

Meno Meno means less. It often is used with other terms such as meno mosso (less rapid or
less motion).

Meter The grouping of beats in stressed and unstressed patterns.

Mezzo forte Moderately loud. Mezzo forte is indicated by the marking: mf

Mezzo piano Moderately soft. Mezzo piano is indicated by the marking: mp

Mode Modes are often used to structure the melody or tonality of a piece, and are comprised
of notes arranged in a specific scale or pattern of intervals.

Moderato Moderato means to play at a moderate tempo or speed. This term sometimes
modifies others such as Allegro moderato, which means moderately fast.

Modo ordinario Modo means "manner" or "style" and ordinario means ordinary. Modo
ordinario means play in the ordinary way (often used after an unusual way of playing such as
col legno).

Monophony Monophony is a musical texture for a single melodic line without any
accompaniment or other melodic lines.

Mosso Mosso means moved. When used alone as a tempo term, the meaning of mosso is
similar to con moto: with motion. Mosso is sometimes used with other qualifying terms such as
piu mosso, meaning a little faster (more motion).

Motet Motet generally means a vocal piece with sacred text, musically composed in the style
of the period. During the 13th-15th centuries, motets were sacred, unaccompanied choral
works, often based on a preexisting melody and text. New melodies were then added to the
preexisting melody, usually in counterpoint. Beginning in the 16th century, the preexisting
melody frequently was secular.

Motive A short melodic or rhythmic idea that recurs throughout a musical composition.

Moto Moto means motion. It is often used with other terms such as con moto (with motion).
Multiple stops Multiple stops describe chords played on a stringed instruments. For example,
double stops describe playing notes simultaneously on two strings, and triple stops mean
playing notes simultaneously on three strings.

Muted A direction for the musician to play with a mute. For string players, mutes are small
clamps of wood, metal, rubber, leather or plastic, which fit onto the bridge and result in a softer,
muted sound with a veiled quality. To mute something is also indicated by the Italian term con
sordino or the German term mit dampfer. The terms arco (bow), via sordini (take off mute) and
senza sordino (without mute) are used to indicate when the muted section ends and the
musician should resume playing with a bow.

Notation The writing down of musical notes and symbols to represent pitch, rhythm, and
melodies.

Office The regular round of prayer and worship in monastic communities.

Opera A musical form of drama, originating in Italy, set to music. In an opera, most or all of the
text is sung, using musical forms such as arias, songs, recitatives, duets, and choruses, with
instrumental accompaniment. A few of the various subcategories of opera include heroic or
grand opera, comedy opera and comic opera.

Oral tradition Oral tradition means that music is passed down from one musician to another
orally, instead of through notated music.

Oratorio An oratorio is a large musical work, generally based on a sacred text or religious
topic, with soloists, chorus and orchestra. Although many musical elements of an oratorio are
similar to opera, no costumes, sets or acting are used, and oratorios are usually performed as
a concert.

Ordinario Ordinario or ord. means ordinary, and is used to indicate a return to ordinary
playing after playing a special effect such as col legno or sul ponticello.

Ostinato Ostinato means "obstinate" in Italian. An ostinato is a short musical pattern, e.g. a
melodic, rhythmic or harmonic figure, persistently repeated throughout a composition. A
melodic pattern set in the bass is called basso ostinato (and is also known as ground bass).

Overture An instrumental piece composed as the introduction to an opera, suite, play,

oratorio, or other large work (a concert overture is written as an independent composition).

Patronage A system of employment for musicians whereby a composer agreed to exclusive

employment under the auspices of a patron. Patrons often were wealthy aristocrats or the
church.

Phrase A musical idea or passage of music that is short, continuous and unbroken; similar to
a musical sentence.

Pianissimo Very soft. Pianissimo is indicated by the marking: pp

Pianississimo As soft as possible. Pianississimo is indicated by the marking: ppp

Piano Soft. Piano is indicated by the marking: p

Pitch Pitch is the relative "highness" or "lowness" of a sound when compared with other
notes. It can also indicate an absolute fixed position in a range of musical notes (e.g. the pitch
"middle C").

Piu More.

Pizzicato Pizzicato (pizz.) is a term that means the string is plucked with the finger instead of
being bowed.

Plainchant Also known as plainsong, chant or Gregorian Chant. Plainchant is a single

melody, sung in unison by a soloist or choir, often using Latin words and a liturgical text.

Poco Poco means "little" or slightly. A poco a poco means little by little or gradually. Poco
modifies other terms when added to them such as poco diminuendo, meaning to become
slightly softer.

Polyphony Polyphony is a form of musical texture with several interdependent, overlapping

melodic lines.

Portamento Portamento is an expressive device, and is a slide from one pitch to another.

Prelude A prelude is a piece which often serves as a musical introduction or prelude to a

larger musical work (it sometimes is a short, independent instrumental piece in one
movement).

Presto A fast, rapid and lively tempo, faster than allegro.

Program music Instrumental music which represents extra-musical concepts such as

emotions, scenes or events through the music, not through words. It is also sometimes called
descriptive music.

Punta d’arco Punta d’arco is a bowing direction to bow at the point or tip of the bow (punta
means point, and arco means bow).

Quasi Quasi means "as if," "almost," or "nearly." It is often used to modify terms e.g. allegretto
quasi andantino, meaning an allegretto tempo almost at an andantino tempo.

Rallentando Rallentando means gradually becoming slower. It also is abbreviated as rall.

Recitative A speechlike, declamatory form of singing used in vocal works such as operas,
oratorios, and cantatas. Recitatives are often characterized by rhythmic freedom.

Religioso Play in a devotional or religious style.

Repeat Signs. A double bar with two dots is a repeat marking, and indicates the music in
between the repeat signs should be repeated. If there is only one repeat sign with the dots
facing to the left, go back to the beginning and play the entire section of music again (for more
repeat sign variations, see Da capo, da segno, D.C. al Fine, D.C. al Coda, and first and
second endings).

Requiem A Requiem Mass is a Mass for the dead.

Ricochet Ricochet is a bow stroke where the bow is dropped on the string and rebounds
(bounces) on the string for several notes in the same bow direction.

Riff A riff is a short, repeated melodic pattern, and is often used in jazz.

Risoluto Resolutely; play in a resolute and decisive manner.

Ritardando Gradually become slower and slower (the same meaning as rallentando).
Ritardando is often abbreviated as rit.

Rondeau A French musical term used during the Baroque era to describe a musical
composition with a main section or theme which alternates with subsidiary sections or themes.
This musical form was later expanded during the Classical era to become the musical form
Rondo.

Rubato Rubato means "robbed." It refers to a temporary robbing of time by either slowing or
speeding the tempo or rhythmic value of notes in a passage of music.

Sautillé Sautillé is a fast, bouncing or springing stroke in which the bow naturally bounces off
of the string, producing a lighter, more rapid, and less percussive sound than spiccato.

Scale An ascending or descending arrangement of pitches.

Scherzo The term scherzo literally means "joke." In music, it is used to either describe an
instrumental piece with a light, humorous character, or the second or third movement of a
symphony or quartet (in place of the minuet). Scherzos often have a quick triple meter, a
vigorous rhythm and a sharply contrasting harmony.

Scordatura Scordatura means abnormal tuning, and indicates one or more strings should be
tuned higher or lower than usual (specific tuning directions for the new pitches are generally
provided).

Semplice Simply. Semplice means to perform in a simple, unadorned, natural manner.

Sforzando Sforzando means forced or accented, and is usually attached to a single note or
chord. It generally indicates the note should be played loudly with a sudden, accented
emphasis, and is indicated by the marking: sfz

Simile In a similar manner. Simile is often used to indicate a passage of music should be
performed in the same manner as a preceding section.

Slur A slur is a curved line grouping notes together, and means the notes included in the slur
should be played in the same bow . Unless otherwise indicated, notes in the slur should
be played legato (smoothly). When slurs are used with dots over or under the notes, this
indicates a slight separation should be used between the notes (the terms slurred staccato or
dotted slurs are often used to describe this technique). When a slur is placed between two
notes with the same pitch, this is called a "tie" and the two notes are played in one bow for the
duration of both notes.

Sonata The word sonata comes from the Italian word sonore, meaning "to be played" (as
opposed to cantata, a vocal work which means "to be sung"). A sonata is an instrumental form
of music, and describes a multi-movement work for an instrument, often with accompaniment.
The term has had varied meanings during different music eras, and during the Baroque period,
the trio sonata was one of the most popular forms of sonata (often for two violins and
continuo). During the Classical period, sonata came to mean a multi-movement work for a solo
instrument with piano accompaniment, or piano alone.

Sonata form Sonata form is often used in the first movement in multi-movement works such
as symphonies. It consists of an exposition section, followed by a development section, and
concludes with a recapitulation.

Spiccato Spiccato is an off-the-string, controlled bouncing bow stroke which produces a crisp
sound and very short notes. It is the slowest of the bouncing strokes. Dots above or under the
notes may be used to indicate spiccato.

Staccato Staccato indicates the bow should remain on the string to play shortened and
detached notes, distinctly separate from successive notes. Staccato is sometimes used with
slurs (slurred staccato) for a series of short, stopped notes played in the same up or down bow
(many violinists perform slurred staccato as a series of slurred martelé strokes).

String Quartet A string quartet is a composition for four stringed instruments: two violins, a
viola and a cello. String quartet music generally is composed in a multi-movement form. The
term string quartet is also used to describe a performance group comprised of four stringed
instruments.
Suite A suite may be described as a collection of pieces, put together in an ordered manner.
During the Baroque era, pieces in a suite were often dance forms such as: prelude, allemande,
courante, saraband, gigue, bourre, gavotte, and minuet. After the Baroque era, suites were
generally pieces extracted from a larger work such as The Nutcracker Suite, a compilation of
pieces taken from the ballet The Nutcracker.

Sul Sul means "on the" or "near the." Sul is used in terms such as sul tasto (bow over or near
the fingerboard), sul ponticello (bow near the bridge), or sul G (play on the G string and only
the G string until otherwise indicated). In violin music, when only a specific string should be
used for particular passages, sul is sometimes used with numerals such as sul IV to indicate
only one string should be used (G, the fourth string, is indicated by the numeral IV, A is III, D is
II and E is I).

Sul ponticello Sul ponticello is a bowing direction to play with the bow near the bridge. The
result is a glassy, whispery sound.

Sul tasto Sul tasto is a bowing direction to bow over or near the fingerboard. The resulting
sound is soft and flutelike (see flautando).

Syllabic In vocal music, syllabic, neumatic and melismatic are terms used to indicate whether
the syllables of the text are sung to a single note (syllabic), several notes (neumatic), or many
notes per syllable (melismatic).

Symphonic Poem A symphonic poem is a programmatic orchestral work, often in one

movement. It is also known as a tone poem. In a symphonic poem, extra musical ideas such
as emotions, scenes or events, are expressed through the music, not through words.

Symphony A symphony is an extended composition for orchestra and is often comprised of

three to five movements.

Syncopation Rhythmic patterns with unexpected accents. Syncopation is generally achieved

by shifting the musical accent from a strong beat to a weak one. This results in an irregular feel
to the rhythm.

Tempo Tempo means the rate of speed or pace of the music. Tempo also may be used with
other qualifying words such as "a tempo," meaning return to the original tempo or speed.
Various tempo markings are used to indicate directions for the rate of speed such as andante
(moderately slow) and allegro (fast). Metronome markings are another way to specify even

more precisely the tempo of music e.g. = 60 means each quarter note should be played at
the speed of 60 quarter notes per minute.

Tempo di valse Play the music at the rate of speed or pace of a waltz.

Tenuto Tenuto means the note(s) should be played sustained or broadly, and held for its
whole value. A line placed under or over the note is usually used to indicate tenuto: _.

Theme A theme is the main musical subject of a composition such as a melody, phrase or
short motive.

Theme & variations A composition with a theme and variations of that theme.

Tie When a slur is placed between two notes with the same pitch, this is called a "tie" and the
two notes are played in one bow for the duration of both notes.

Time Signature A sign or fraction placed at the beginning of a piece to show how many beats
are in each measure. For example, a time signature of 3/4 indicates each measure contains
three quarter notes.
Tremolo Tremolo means rapidly repeating a single note or chord (see bowing chart for more
details).

Trill A trill ornaments a note, and is a rapid alternation between two pitches, usually a major or
minor second above the note. The letters tr and a wavy symbol are used as trill markings.
Accidentals are often used to indicate whether the trill is a major or minor trill.

Troppo Troppo means "too much." It is often used to modify other terms such as Adagio ma
non troppo, meaning, slow but not too slow.

Turn Turns are ornaments mainly used in 17th-19th century music, and generally indicate four
notes should be played, encircling the notated note. The following symbol for a turn is placed
above the note: .

Twelve tone technique The twelve tone technique refers to a system where the composer
arranges the twelve notes of the chromatic scale in a fixed order. This ordered sequence of the
twelve notes is called a twelve-tone row or series that forms a unique melody. Composers
using this method generally would not repeat any note in the tone row until the entire series of
twelve notes had been heard. Variations to the tone row include mathematical approaches
such as retrograde, inverted and transposed versions of the tone row. The twelve-tone
technique was later called serialism, and continues to be used by some composers today.

Up bow The sign for up-bow is and indicates an upward stroke of the bow from the point (or
tip) to the frog (or nut).

Vibrato Vibrato for stringed instruments is similar to vocal vibrato—it is a slight and rapid
fluctuation in pitch, and is used to add warmth and expression to music. There are three types
of vibrato: finger, hand, arm or a combination of all three. Many violinists use a combination of
finger and hand vibrato. This type of vibrato is produced by a back and forth rolling motion of
the finger and hand on the string, resulting in the pitch being lowered and raised. Variations in
the width and speed of the vibrato can produce a wide range of expression.

Virtuoso Virtuoso means "exceptional performer" in Italian, and is used to describe a highly
proficient, technically skilled performer. When the descriptive term virtuosic playing is used, it
generally means the performer is playing difficult music in a highly skilled manner.

Vivace Lively and brisk. As a tempo marking, vivace is often considered slightly faster than
allegro.

Waltz A dance in triple meter which was very popular during the late eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries.

Whole Bow Initials are sometimes used in music to indicate what part of the bow should be
used:
WB = Whole Bow; LH = Lower Half; UH = Upper Half; MB = Middle of the Bow.

RETURN TO THEORY

© Copyright 2020 RK Deverich. All rights reserved.

List of musical symbols
Musical symbols are marks and symbols used since about the 13th century in musical notation of musical
scores. Some are used to notate pitch, tempo, metre, duration, and articulation of a note or a passage of music.
In some cases, symbols provide information about the form of a piece (e.g., how many repeats of a section) or
about how to play the note (e.g., with violin family instruments, a note may be bowed or plucked). Some
symbols are instrument-specific notation giving the performer information about which finger, hand or foot to
use.

Contents
Lines
Clefs
Notes and rests
Breaks
Accidentals and key signatures
Common accidentals
Key signatures
Quarter tones
Time signatures
Note relationships
Dynamics
Articulation marks
Ornaments
Octave signs
Repetition and codas
Instrument-specific notation
Bowed string instruments
Guitar
Piano
Pedal marks
Other piano notation
Other stringed instruments
Four-mallet percussion
Six-mallet percussion
See also
References
External links
Lines
Staff/Stave

The staff is the fundamental latticework of music notation, on which symbols are
placed. The five staff lines and four intervening spaces correspond to pitches of
the diatonic scale; which pitch is meant by a given line or space is defined by
the clef. In British usage, the word "stave" is often used.

Ledger or leger lines

These extend the staff to pitches that fall above or below it. Such ledger lines are
placed behind the note heads, and extend a small distance to each side.
Multiple ledger lines can be used when necessary to notate pitches even farther
above or below the staff.
Bar line
These separate measures (see time signatures below for an explanation of
measures). Also used for changes in time signature. Bar lines are extended to
connect multiple staves in certain types of music, such as for keyboard or harp,
and in conductor scores, but such extensions are not used for other types of
music, such as vocal scores.
Double bar line, Double barline
These separate two sections of music, or are placed before a change in key
signature and/or time signature.

Bold double bar line, Bold double barline

These indicate the conclusion of a movement or an entire composition.

Dotted bar line, Dotted barline

Subdivides long measures of complex meter into shorter segments for ease of
reading, usually according to natural rhythmic subdivisions.

Bracket
Connects two or more lines of music that sound simultaneously. In general
contemporary usage the bracket usually connects the staves of separate
instruments (e.g., flute and clarinet; two trumpets; etc.) or multiple vocal parts in a
choir or ensemble, whereas the brace connects multiple parts for a single
instrument (e.g., the right-hand and left-hand staves of a piano or harp part).
Brace
Connects two or more lines of music that are played simultaneously in piano,
keyboard, harp, or some pitched percussion music.[1] Depending on the
instruments playing, the brace (occasionally called an accolade in some old
texts) varies in design and style.

Clefs
Clefs define the pitch range, or tessitura, of the staff on which it is placed. A clef is usually the leftmost symbol
on a staff. Additional clefs may appear in the middle of a staff to indicate a change in register for instruments
with a wide range. In early music, clefs could be placed on any of several lines on a staff.

G clef (Treble clef)

The centre of the spiral assigns the second line from the bottom to the pitch G
above middle C.[2] The treble clef is the most commonly encountered clef in
modern notation, and is used for most modern vocal music. Middle C is the first
ledger line below the staff here.

C clef (Alto, and Tenor clefs)

These clefs point to the line representing middle C. As illustrated here, it makes
the center line on the staff middle C, and is referred to as the "alto clef". This clef
is used in modern notation for the viola and some other instruments. While all
clefs can be placed anywhere on the staff to indicate various tessitura, the C clef
is most often considered a "movable" clef: it is frequently seen pointing instead
to the fourth line (counting from the bottom) and called a "tenor clef". This clef is
used very often in music written for bassoon, cello, trombone, and double bass;
it replaces the bass clef when the number of ledger lines above the bass staff
hinders easy reading.
Until the classical era, the C clef was also frequently seen pointing to other lines,
mostly in vocal music, but today this has been supplanted by the universal use
of the treble and bass clefs. Modern editions of music from such periods
generally transpose the original C clef parts to either treble (female voices),
octave treble (tenors), or bass clef (tenors and basses). It can be occasionally
seen in modern music on the third space (between the third and fourth lines), in
which case it has the same function as an octave treble clef. This unusual
practice runs the risk of misreading, however, because the traditional function of
all clefs is to identify staff lines, not spaces.
F clef (Bass clef)
The line between the dots in this clef denotes F below middle C.[2] Positioned
here, it makes the second line from the top of the staff F below middle C, and is
called a "bass clef". This clef appears nearly as often as the treble clef,
especially in choral music, where it represents the bass and baritone voices.
Middle C is the first ledger line above the staff here. In old music, particularly
vocal scores, this clef is sometimes encountered centered on the third staff line,
in which position it is referred to as a baritone clef; this usage has essentially
become obsolete.
Neutral clef
Used for pitchless instruments, such as some of those used for percussion. Each
line can represent a specific percussion instrument within a set, such as in a
drum set. Two different styles of neutral clefs are pictured here. It may also be
drawn with a separate single-line staff for each untuned percussion instrument.
Octave clef
Treble and bass clefs can also be modified by octave numbers. An eight or
fifteen above a clef raises the intended pitch range by one or two octaves
respectively. Similarly, an eight or fifteen below a clef lowers the pitch range by
one or two octaves respectively. A treble clef with an eight below is the most
commonly used, typically used for guitar and similar instruments, as well as for
tenor parts in choral music.
Tablature
For stringed instruments, such as the guitar, it is possible to notate tablature in
place of ordinary notes. In this case, a TAB sign is often written instead of a clef.
The number of lines of the staff is not necessarily five: one line is used for each
string of the instrument (so, for standard 6-stringed guitars, six lines would be
used). Numbers on the lines show which fret to play the string on. This TAB sign,
like the percussion clef, is not a clef in the true sense, but rather a symbol
employed instead of a clef. Similarly, the horizontal lines do not constitute a staff
 in the usual sense, because the spaces between the lines in a tablature are
never used.

Notes and rests

Musical note and rest values are not absolutely defined, but are proportional in duration to all other note and
rest values. The whole note is the reference value, and the other notes are named (in American usage) in
comparison; i.e., a quarter note is a quarter of the length of a whole note.

Note British name / American name Rest

Large (Latin: Maxima) / Octuple whole note[3]

Long / Quadruple whole note[3]

Breve / Double whole note

Semibreve / Whole note

Minim / Half note

Crotchet / Quarter note[4][5]

Quaver / Eighth note

For notes of this length and shorter, the note
has the same number of flags (or hooks) as the rest has
branches.

Semiquaver / Sixteenth note

Demisemiquaver / Thirty-second note

 Hemidemisemiquaver / Sixty-fourth note

Semihemidemisemiquaver / Quasihemidemisemiquaver /
Hundred twenty-eighth note[6][7]

Demisemihemidemisemiquaver / Two hundred fifty-sixth

note[3]

Beamed notes
Beams connect eighth notes (quavers) and notes of shorter value and are
equivalent in value to flags. In metered music, beams reflect the rhythmic
grouping of notes. They may also group short phrases of notes of the same
value, regardless of the meter; this is more common in ametrical passages. In
older printings of vocal music, beams are often only used when several notes
are to be sung on one syllable of the text – melismatic singing; modern notation
encourages the use of beaming in a consistent manner with instrumental
engraving, and the presence of beams or flags no longer informs the singer
about the lyrics. Today, due to the body of music in which traditional metric states
are not always assumed, beaming is at the discretion of composers and
arrangers, who often use irregular beams to emphasize a particular rhythmic
pattern.
Dotted note
Placing a dot to the right of a notehead lengthens the note's duration by one-half.
Additional dots lengthen the previous dot instead of the original note, thus a note
with one dot is one and one half its original value, a note with two dots is one
and three quarters, a note with three dots is one and seven eighths, and so on.
Rests can be dotted in the same manner as notes. In other words, n dots
lengthen the note's or rest's original duration d to d × (2 − 2−n).
Ghost note
A note with a rhythmic value, but no discernible pitch when played. It is
represented by a (saltire) cross (similar to the letter x) for a note head instead of
an oval. Composers will primarily use this notation to represent percussive
pitches. This notation is also used in parts where spoken words are used.
Multi-measure rest
Indicates the number of measures in a resting part without a change in meter to
conserve space and to simplify notation. Also called gathered rest or multi-bar
rest.

Breaks
Breath mark
This symbol tells the performer to take a breath (or make a slight pause for non-
wind instruments). This pause usually does not affect the overall tempo. For
bowed instruments, it indicates to lift the bow and play the next note with a
downward (or upward, if marked) bow.
 Caesura
A pause during which time is not counted.

Accidentals and key signatures

Common accidentals

Accidentals modify the pitch of the notes that follow them on the same staff position within a measure, unless
cancelled by an additional accidental.

Flat
Lowers the pitch of a note by one semitone.

Sharp
Raises the pitch of a note by one semitone.

Natural
Cancels a previous accidental, or modifies the pitch of a sharp or flat as defined
by the prevailing key signature (such as F-sharp in the key of G major, for
example).

Double flat
Lowers the pitch of a note by two chromatic semitones. Usually used when the
note to modify is already flatted by the key signature.[8]

Double sharp
Raises the pitch of a note by two chromatic semitones. Usually used when the
note to modify is already sharpened by the key signature.

Key signatures

Key signatures define the prevailing key of the music that follows, thus avoiding the use of accidentals for
many notes. If no key signature appears, the key is assumed to be C major/A minor, but can also signify a
neutral key, employing individual accidentals as required for each note. The key signature examples shown
here are described as they would appear on a treble staff.

Flat key signature

Lowers by a semitone the pitch of notes on the corresponding line or space, and
all octaves thereof, thus defining the prevailing major or minor key. Different keys
 are defined by the number of flats in the key signature, starting with the leftmost,
i.e., B♭, and proceeding to the right; for example, if only the first two flats are
used, the key is B♭ major/G minor, and all B's and E's are "flatted" (US) or
"flattened" (UK), i.e., lowered to B♭ and E♭.[9]

Sharp key signature

Raises by a semitone the pitch of notes on the corresponding line or space, and
all octaves thereof, thus defining the prevailing major or minor key. Different keys
are defined by the number of sharps in the key signature, also proceeding from
left to right; for example, if only the first four sharps are used, the key is E
major/C♯ minor, and the corresponding pitches are raised.

Quarter tones

There is no universally accepted notation for microtonal music, with varying systems being used depending on
the situation. A common notation for quarter tones involves writing the fraction 1 ⁄4 next to an arrow pointing
up or down. Below are other forms of notation:

Demiflat
Lowers the pitch of a note by one quarter tone. (Another notation for the demiflat
is a flat with a diagonal slash through its stem. In systems where pitches are
divided into intervals smaller than a quarter tone, the slashed flat represents a
lower note than the reversed flat.)

Flat-and-a-half (sesquiflat)
Lowers the pitch of a note by three quarter tones. As with a demiflat, a slashed
double-flat symbol is also used.

Demisharp
Raises the pitch of a note by one quarter tone.

Sharp-and-a-half (sesquisharp)
Raises the pitch of a note by three quarter tones. Occasionally represented with
two vertical and three diagonal bars instead.

A symbol with one vertical and three diagonal bars indicates a sharp with some form of alternate tuning.

In 19 equal temperament, where a whole tone is divided into three steps instead of two, music is typically
notated in a way that flats and sharps are not usually enharmonic (thus a C♯ represents a third of a step lower
than D♭); this has the advantage of not requiring any nonstandard notation.

Time signatures
Time signatures define the meter of the music. Music is "marked off" in uniform sections called bars or
measures, and time signatures establish the number of beats in each. This does not necessarily indicate which
beats to emphasize, however, so a time signature that conveys information about the way the piece actually
sounds is thus chosen. Time signatures tend to suggest prevailing groupings of beats or pulses.

Specific time – simple time signatures

The bottom number represents the note value of the basic pulse of
the music (in this case the 4 represents the crotchet or quarter-note).
The top number indicates how many of these note values appear in
each measure. This example announces that each measure is the
equivalent length of three crotchets (quarter-notes). For example, 34 is
pronounced as "three-four time" or "three-quarter time".
Specific time – compound time signatures
The bottom number represents the note value of the subdivisions of
the basic pulse of the music (in this case the 8 represents the quaver
or eighth-note). The top number indicates how many of these
subdivisions appear in each measure. Usually each beat is
composed of three subdivisions. To derive the unit of the basic pulse
in compound meters, double this value and add a dot, and divide the
top number by 3 to determine how many of these pulses there are
each measure. This example announces that each measure is the
equivalent length of two dotted crotchets (dotted quarter-notes). This
is pronounced as "Six-Eight Time".

Common time
This symbol represents 44 time. It derives from the broken circle that
represented "imperfect" duple meter in fourteenth-century mensural
time signatures.

Alla breve or Cut time

This symbol represents 22 time, indicating two minim (or half-note)
beats per measure. Here, a crotchet (or quarter note) would get half a
beat.

Metronome mark
Written at the start of a score, and at any significant change of tempo,
this symbol precisely defines the tempo of the music by assigning
absolute durations to all note values within the score. In this
particular example, the performer is told that 120 crotchets, or quarter
notes, fit into one minute of time. Many publishers precede the
marking with letters "M.M.", referring to Maelzel's Metronome.

Note relationships
Tie
Indicates that the two (or more) notes joined together are to be played as one
note with the time values added together. To be a tie, the notes must be identical
– that is, they must be on the same line or the same space. Otherwise, it is a slur
(see below).
Slur
Indicates to play two or more notes in one physical stroke, one uninterrupted
breath, or (on instruments with neither breath nor bow) connected into a phrase
 as if played in a single breath. In certain contexts, a slur may only indicate to
play the notes legato. In this case, rearticulation is permitted.
Slurs and ties are similar in appearance. A tie is distinguishable because it
always joins two immediately adjacent notes of the same pitch, whereas a slur
may join any number of notes of varying pitches. In vocal music a slur normally
indicates that notes grouped together by the slur should be sung to a single
syllable.
A phrase mark (or less commonly, ligature) is a mark that is visually identical to a
slur, but connects a passage of music over several measures. A phrase mark
indicates a musical phrase and may not necessarily require that the music be
slurred.
Glissando or Portamento
A continuous, unbroken glide from one note to the next that includes the pitches
between. Some instruments, such as the trombone, timpani, non-fretted string
instruments, electronic instruments, and the human voice can make this glide
continuously (portamento), while other instruments such as the piano or mallet
instruments blur the discrete pitches between the start and end notes to mimic a
continuous slide (glissando).
Tuplet
A number of notes of irregular duration are performed within the duration of a
given number of notes of regular time value; e.g., five notes played in the normal
duration of four notes; seven notes played in the normal duration of two; three
notes played in the normal duration of four. Tuplets are named according to the
number of irregular notes; e.g., duplets, triplets, quadruplets, etc.
Chord
Several notes sounded simultaneously ("solid" or "block"), or in succession
("broken"). Two-note chords are called a dyad or an interval; three-note chords
built from generic third intervals are called triads. A chord may contain any
number of notes.

Arpeggiated chord
A chord with notes played in rapid succession, usually ascending, each note
being sustained as the others are played. It is also called a "broken chord" or
"rolled chord".

Dynamics
Dynamics are indicators of the relative intensity or volume of a musical line.

Pianississimo[D 1]
Extremely soft. Very infrequently does one see softer dynamics than this, which
are specified with additional ps.
Pianissimo
Very soft. Usually the softest indication in a piece of music, though softer
dynamics are often specified with additional ps.
Piano
Soft; louder than pianissimo.
Mezzo piano
Moderately soft; louder than piano.
Mezzo forte
Moderately loud; softer than forte. If no dynamic appears, mezzo-forte is
 assumed to be the prevailing dynamic level.
Forte
Loud. Used as often as piano to indicate contrast.
Fortissimo
Very loud. Usually the loudest indication in a piece, though louder dynamics are
often specified with additional fs (such as fortississimo – seen below).
Fortississimo[D 1]
Extremely loud. Very infrequently does one see louder dynamics than this,
which are specified with additional fs.
Sforzando
Literally "forced", denotes an abrupt, fierce accent on a single sound or chord.
When written out in full, it applies to the sequence of sounds or chords under or
over which it is placed.
Crescendo
A gradual increase in volume.
Can be extended under many notes to indicate that the volume steadily
increases during the passage.
Diminuendo
Also decrescendo
A gradual decrease in volume. Can be extended in the same manner as
crescendo.

1. Dynamics with 3 letters (i.e., ppp and fff) are often referred to by adding an extra "iss"
(pianissimo to pianississimo). This is improper Italian and would translate literally to
"softestest" in English, but acceptable as a musical term; such a dynamic can also be
described as molto pianissimo, piano pianissimo or molto fortissimo and forte fortissimo in
somewhat more proper Italian.

Other commonly used dynamics build upon these values. For example, "pianississimo" (represented as ppp)
means "so softly as to be almost inaudible", and "fortississimo" (fff) means "extremely loud". Dynamics are
relative, and the meaning of each level is at the discretion of the performer or, in the case of ensembles, the
conductor. However, modern legislation to curb high noise levels in the workplace in an effort to prevent
damage to musicians' hearing has posed a challenge to the interpretation of very loud dynamics in some large
orchestral works, as noise levels within the orchestra itself can easily exceed safe levels when all instruments
are playing at full volume.[10]

A small s in front of the dynamic notations means subito (meaning "suddenly" in Italian), and means that the
dynamic is to change to the new notation rapidly. Subito is commonly used with sforzandos, but can appear
with all other dynamic notations, most commonly as sff (subitofortissimo) or spp (subitopianissimo).

Forte-piano
A section of music in which the music should initially be played loudly (forte),
then immediately softly (piano).

Another value that rarely appears is niente or n, which means "nothing". This may be used at the end of a
diminuendo to indicate "fade out to nothing".

Articulation marks
Articulations (or accents) specify how to perform individual notes within a phrase or passage. They can be
fine-tuned by combining more than one such symbol over or under a note. They may also appear in
conjunction with phrasing marks listed above.
 Staccato
This indicates the musician should play the note shorter than notated, usually
half the value; the rest of the metric value is then silent. Staccato marks may
appear on notes of any value, shortening their performed duration without
speeding the music itself.
Staccatissimo or Spiccato
Indicates a longer silence after the note (as described above), making the note
very short. Usually applied to quarter notes or shorter. (In the past, this marking’s
meaning was more ambiguous: it sometimes was used interchangeably with
staccato, and sometimes indicated an accent and not staccato. These usages
are now almost defunct, but still appear in some scores.) In string instruments
this indicates a bowing technique in which the bow bounces lightly upon the
string.

Accent
Play the note louder, or with a harder attack than surrounding unaccented notes.
May appear on notes of any duration.

Tenuto
This symbol indicates play the note at its full value, or slightly longer. It can also
indicate a degree of emphasis, especially when combined with dynamic
markings to indicate a change in loudness, or combined with a staccato dot to
indicate a slight detachment (portato or mezzo staccato).
Marcato
Play the note somewhat louder or more forcefully than a note with a regular
accent mark (open horizontal wedge). In organ notation, this means play a pedal
note with the toe. Above the note, use the right foot; below the note, use the left
foot.
Fermata (Pause)
A note, chord, or rest sustained longer than its customary value. Usually appears
over all parts at the same metrical location in a piece, to show a halt in tempo. It
can be placed above or below the note. The fermata is held for as long as the
performer or conductor desires, but is often set as twice the original value of the
designated notes.

Ornaments
Ornaments modify the pitch pattern of individual notes.

Trill
A rapid alternation between the specified note and the next higher note
(according to key signature) within its duration, also called a "shake".
When followed by a wavy horizontal line, this symbol indicates an
extended, or running, trill. In modern music the trill begins on the main
note and ends with the lower auxiliary note then the main note, which
requires a triplet immediately before the turn. In music up to the time of
Haydn or Mozart the trill begins on the upper auxiliary note and there is
no triplet.[11] In percussion notation, a trill is sometimes used to indicate
a tremolo. In French baroque notation, the trill, or tremblement, was
notated as a small cross above or beside the note.
 Upper mordent
Rapidly play the principal note, the next higher note (according to key
signature) then return to the principal note for the remaining duration. In
most music, the mordent begins on the auxiliary note, and the
alternation between the two notes may be extended. In handbells, this
symbol is a "shake" and indicates the rapid shaking of the bells for the
duration of the note.
Lower mordent (inverted)
Rapidly play the principal note, the note below it, then return to the
principal note for the remaining duration. In much music, the mordent
begins on the auxiliary note, and the alternation between the two notes
may be extended.
Turn
When placed directly above the note, the turn (also known as a
gruppetto) indicates a sequence of upper auxiliary note, principal note,
lower auxiliary note, and a return to the principal note. When placed to
the right of the note, the principal note is played first, followed by the
above pattern. Placing a vertical line through the turn symbol or
inverting it, it indicates an inverted turn, in which the order of the
auxiliary notes is reversed.

Appoggiatura
The first half of the principal note's duration has the pitch of the grace
note (the first two-thirds if the principal note is a dotted note).

Acciaccatura
The acciaccatura is of very brief duration, as though brushed on the way
to the principal note, which receives virtually all of its notated duration.
In percussion notation, the acciaccatura symbol denotes the flam
rudiment, the miniature note still positioned behind the main note but on
the same line or space of the staff. The flam note is usually played just
before the natural durational subdivision the main note is played on,
with the timing and duration of the main note remaining unchanged.
Also known by the English translation of the Italian term, crushed note,
and in German as Zusammenschlag (simultaneous stroke).

Octave signs
Ottava
8va (pronounced ottava alta) is placed above the staff (as shown) to tell the
musician to play the passage one octave higher.
When this sign (or in recent notation practice, an 8vb – both signs reading ottava
bassa) is placed below the staff, it indicates to play the passage one octave
lower.[12][13]

Quindicesima
The 15ma sign is placed above the staff (as shown) to mean play the passage
two octaves higher. A 15ma sign below the staff indicates play the passage two
octaves lower.
8va and 15ma are sometimes abbreviated further to 8 and 15. When they appear below the staff, the word
bassa is sometimes added.

Repetition and codas

Tremolo
A rapidly repeated note. If the tremolo is between two notes, then they are
played in rapid alternation. The number of slashes through the stem (or number
of diagonal bars between two notes) indicates the frequency to repeat (or
alternate) the note. As shown here, the note is to be repeated at a
demisemiquaver (thirty-second note) rate, but it is a common convention for
three slashes to be interpreted as "as fast as possible", or at any rate at a speed
to be left to the player's judgment.
In percussion notation, tremolos indicate rolls, diddles, and drags. Typically, a
single tremolo line on a sufficiently short note (such as a sixteenth) is played as
a drag, and a combination of three stem and tremolo lines indicates a double-
stroke roll (or a single-stroke roll, in the case of timpani, mallet percussion and
some untuned percussion instruments such as triangle and bass drum) for a
period equivalent to the duration of the note. In other cases, the interpretation of
tremolos is highly variable, and should be examined by the director and
performers.
The tremolo symbol also represents flutter-tonguing.
Repeat signs
Enclose a passage that is to be played more than once. If there is no left repeat
sign, the right repeat sign sends the performer back to the start of the piece or
the nearest double bar.
Simile marks
Denote that preceding groups of beats or measures are to be repeated. In the
examples here, the first usually means to repeat the previous measure, and the
second usually means to repeat the previous two measures.

Volta brackets (1st and 2nd endings, or 1st- and 2nd-time bars)
A repeated passage is to be played with different endings on different playings;
it is possible to have more than two endings (1st, 2nd, 3rd ...).

Da capo
(lit. "From top") Tells the performer to repeat playing of the music from its
beginning. This is usually followed by al fine (lit. "to the end"), which means to
repeat to the word fine and stop, or al coda (lit. "to the coda (sign)"), which
means repeat to the coda sign and then jump forward.
Dal segno
(lit. "From the sign") Tells the performer to repeat playing of the music starting at
the nearest segno. This is followed by al fine or al coda just as with da capo.

Segno
Mark used with dal segno.

Coda
Indicates a forward jump in the music to its ending passage, marked with the
same sign. Only used after playing through a D.S. al coda (Dal segno al coda) or
D.C. al coda (Da capo al coda).
Instrument-specific notation

Bowed string instruments

Left-hand pizzicato or Stopped note
A note on a stringed instrument where the string is plucked with the left hand
(the hand that usually stops the strings) rather than bowed. On the horn, this
accent indicates a "stopped note" (a note played with the stopping hand shoved
further into the bell of the horn). In percussion this notation denotes, among
many other specific uses, to close the hi-hat by pressing the pedal, or that an
instrument is to be "choked" (muted with the hand).

Snap pizzicato
On a stringed instrument, a note played by stretching a string away from the
frame of the instrument and letting it go, making it "snap" against the frame. Also
known as a Bartók pizzicato.

Natural harmonic or Open note

On a stringed instrument, this means to play a natural harmonic (also called
flageolet). Sometimes, it also denotes that the note to be played is an open
string. On a valved brass instrument, it means to play the note "open" (without
lowering any valve, or without mute). In organ notation, this means to play a
pedal note with the heel (above the note, use the right foot; below the note, use
the left foot). In percussion notation this denotes, among many other specific
uses, to open the hi-hat by releasing the pedal, or allow an instrument to ring.

Up bow or Sull'arco
On a bowed string instrument, the note is played while drawing the bow upward.
On a plucked string instrument played with a plectrum or pick (such as a guitar
played pickstyle or a mandolin), the note is played with an upstroke.

Down bow or Giù arco

In contrast to the up bow, here the bow is drawn downward to create sound. On
a plucked string instrument played with a plectrum or pick (such as a guitar
played pickstyle or a mandolin), the note is played with a downstroke.

Guitar

The guitar has a fingerpicking notation system derived from the names of the fingers in Spanish or Latin. They
are written above, below, or beside the note to which they are attached. They read as follows:

Symbol Spanish Italian Latin English French

p pulgar pollice pollex thumb pouce
i índice indice index index index
m medio medio media middle majeur ou médius
a anular anulare anularis ring annulaire
c, x, e, q meñique mignolo minimus little auriculaire