Module 2: Quantitative Research

- Designing research questions and

hypotheses
- Selection of appropriate variables
Quantitative research is a systematic
and measures
approach to investigating psychological
- Ethical considerations and
phenomena using numerical data and
participant protection
statistical analysis. This module introduces
you to the foundational concepts of
The Value of Research:
quantitative research in psychology,
highlighting its significance,
- Advancing in scientific knowledge
characteristics, and application in various
in psychology
research contexts.
- Contributing to evidence-based
practices and interventions
What is Quantitative Research?
- Informing policies and
decision-making
- Definition of quantitative research
- Addressing gaps in current
and its purpose
literature
- Comparison with qualitative
research: distinctions and
Research Objectives and Sources of
similarities
Problem:
- Emphasis on empirical
measurement, data collection, and
Identifying research objectives:
statistical analysis
- exploratory, descriptive, explanatory
Sources of research problems:
Key Characteristics and Strengths:
- theory, observation, practical issues
Developing focused and answerable
- Objective and standardized methods
research questions
for data collection
- Large sample sizes to enhance
RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA
generalizability
COLLECTION IN QUANTITATIVE
- Statistical analysis for identifying
RESEARCH
patterns and relationships
- Replicability and control over
- Practical aspects of quantitative
extraneous variables
research in psychology
- Exploration of cause-and-effect
- Outlines the process of designing a
relationships.
research study
- Selecting appropriate research
The Researcher:
designs
 - Collecting data using quantitative CONDUCTING DATA ANALYSIS AND
methods INTERPRETATION

Research Design - How to analyze and interpret the

data collected in your quantitative
- Defining research design and its research study
importance - Critical phase that allows
- Types of research designs: researchers to draw meaningful
experimental, correlational, conclusions from their research
cross-sectional, longitudinal
- Pros and cons of different designs in Data Cleaning and Preparation:
relation to research objectives - Processing data for analysis
- Handling missing data and outliers
Data collection and measurement
Descriptive Statistics:
- Selecting variables and operational
definitions - Measures of central tendency: mean,
- Validity and reliability of median, mode.
measurement tools - Measures of variability: range,
- Methods of data collection: surveys, variance, standard deviation.
experiments, observations
- Strategies for minimizing biases and Inferential Statistics:
errors in data collection - Hypothesis testing and significance
levels.
Sampling Techniques - T-tests, ANOVA, chi-square,
correlation, regression.
- Importance of representative
samples Presenting Findings:
- Probability and non-prabability
sampling methods
- Sample size determination - Creating tables, graphs, and
visualizations.
Data Analysis - Interpreting statistical results in
relation to research questions.
- Introduction to statistical analysis
Drawing Conclusions:
- Descriptive and inferential statistics
- Basic concepts of hypothesis testing - Relating findings to research
objectives.
 - Implications for theory, practice, 2. Steps in Developing a Problem
and future research. Statement.

- Identifying the research area and

This module provided a comprehensive narrowing it down.
introduction to quantitative research in - Reviewing existing literature to
psychology. From understanding the basics identify gaps.
of quantitative research to designing - Identifying variables of interest and
studies, collecting and analyzing data, and their relationships.
interpreting findings, you've gained - Defining the scope and context of
insights into the systematic and rigorous the study.
process of conducting quantitative
research. As you progress, you'll be better 3. Characteristics of an Effective Problem
equipped to engage with and contribute to Statement:
the ever-evolving field of psychological
- Clarity and specificity.
research through quantitative methods.
- Relevance to the field and potential
FORMULATING STATEMENT OF THE contributions.
PROBLEM FOR QUANTITATIVE - Feasibility and researchability.
RESEARCH
4. Common Pitfalls in Problem Statement
Formulating a precise problem statement is Formulation:
the foundation of any research endeavor. In
- Being too broad or too narrow.
this lesson, you'll learn how to craft an
- Stating the problem in a biased or
effective problem statement for your
leading manner.
quantitative research study.
- Ignoring the theoretical and
practical significance of the
1. The Role of the Problem Statement: problem.

- Importance of a well-defined RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

problem statement.
Research hypotheses guide the direction of
- Guiding research objectives and
quantitative research and provide a
hypothesis formulation.
framework for data analysis. This lesson
- Ensuring the research question
focuses on understanding and formulating
addresses a specific gap or issue.
effective research hypotheses.

1. The Role of Research Hypotheses:

 - Defining specific expectations about options and factors to consider when
relationships between variables.- making your choice
- Guiding the data collection process
and statistical analysis. 1. Importance of Research Design:
- Distinguishing between null and
alternative hypotheses. - Direct impact on data collection,
analysis, and conclusions.
- Aligning the research design
with the problem statement and
2. Formulating Research Hypotheses:
hypotheses.
- Null and alternative hypotheses:
concepts and differences. 2. Types of Research Designs:
- Operationalizing variables for
- Experimental, correlational,
testing hypotheses.
- Writing hypotheses in clear and cross-sectional, longitudinal
testable formats. designs.
- Pros and cons of each design
type.

3. Hypothesis Types and Examples:

3. Factors Influencing Research
- Directional (one-tailed) and Design Selection:
non-directional (two-tailed)
- Research objectives and
hypotheses.
questions.
- Examples of hypotheses for
different research scenarios. - Available resources and time
constraints.
4. Testing and Refining Hypotheses: - Nature of variables and
relationships.
- Role of statistical analysis in
hypothesis testing.
4. Validity and Reliability in Research
- Revising hypotheses based on
Design:
empirical findings.
- Ensuring internal and external
RESEARCH DESIGN
validity.
The research design determines the - Addressing threats to validity.
structure of your study and the validity - Strategies to enhance reliability.
of your findings. In this lesson, you'll
explore different research design
This module provided an in-depth
understanding of the critical 2. Scope and Boundaries: Define the scope
components of quantitative research: of your study by specifying the boundaries
within which you'll conduct your research.
formulating a clear problem statement,
This helps avoid ambiguity and keeps your
developing research hypotheses, and
study focused.
selecting an appropriate research
design. Armed with these skills, you'll
3. Relevance and Justification: Explain why
be better prepared to embark on the problem is worth investigating.
quantitative research projects, ensuring Highlight the potential benefits of
methodological rigor and meaningful addressing the problem and how it
contributions to the field of psychology. contributes to the broader field of study.

4. Research Context: Provide background

information to help readers understand the
context in which the problem exists. This
may involve discussing relevant theories,
The statement of the problem is a crucial concepts, or previous research.
aspect of any
research study, as it outlines the specific Example Problem Statement
issue or gap in knowledge that the research
aims to address. It serves as the foundation "The widespread adoption of online
for the entire research process, guiding the learning platforms has raised concerns
selection of research questions, hypotheses, about their effectiveness in promoting
and research design. A well-formulated student engagement and learning
problem statement should be concise, clear, outcomes, particularly in STEM education.
and focused, and it should convey the Despite the growing popularity of these
significance and relevance of the research platforms, there is a lack of empirical
research examining the relationship
KEY ELEMENTS OF A PROBLEM between online learning behaviors and
STATEMENT: academic achievement among
undergraduate STEM students."
1. Description of the Problem: Clearly
state the issue or gap in knowledge that RESEARCH DESIGN
your research intends to explore. This
should be grounded in existing literature The research design outlines the overall
and highlight the significance of the plan for how you will conduct your study,
problem. including data collection, sampling, and
analysis methods. It serves as a roadmap to three universities.
ensure that your research is systematic,
reliable, and valid. Data Collection Methods: Survey using
Likert scale questions to assess online
learning platform usage and self-reported
Key Components of Research Design: academic performance.

1. Research Approach: Choose between

Data Analysis Plan: Descriptive statistics
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods
to summarize platform usage, t-tests to
research. Quantitative research involves
compare academic performance between
collecting and analyzing numerical data to
user groups, and regression analysis to
test hypotheses and quantify relationships.
control for other relevant variables.

2. Sampling Strategy: Define the target

Formulating a statement of the problem,
population and how you will select a
developing research hypotheses, and
representative sample from it. The sample
designing the research are foundational
should be sufficiently large and diverse to
steps in quantitative research. These
generalize results to the broader
elements work together to guide the
population.
research process, ensuring that the study is
well-structured, relevant, and capable of
3. Data Collection Methods: Describe how
providing meaningful insights into the
you will collect data. For quantitative
chosen research topic.
research, this may involve surveys,
experiments, or existing datasets. Ensure
the methods align with your research
questions and hypothesis.

4. Data Analysis Plan: Specify the

statistical techniques you will use to THREE MAIN TYPES OF
analyze the data. This may include QUANTITATIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL
descriptive statistics, inferential tests, RESEARCH
regression analysis, etc. Example Research
Design: Quantitative psychological research
involves the systematic collection, analysis,
Research Approach: Quantitative and interpretation of numerical data to
understand psychological phenomena.
Sampling Strategy: Random sampling of There are three main types of quantitative
500 undergraduate STEM students from research in psychology: descriptive,
correlational, and experimental. Each type
serves a distinct purpose and employs variables to determine if they are
specific methodologies. associated with each other. It quantifies
the strength and direction of these
a. Descriptive Research
relationships, but it does not establish
causality. Correlation coefficients
Descriptive research aims to provide a
indicate the degree of linear
detailed and accurate portrayal of a
relationship between variables.
psychological phenomenon, without
manipulating variables or establishing
cause-and-effect relationships. This type of Characteristics:
research helps researchers gain an initial
understanding of a topic, generate - Measures the degree and direction of
hypotheses, and identify patterns or trends relationships between variables.
within a sample. - Involves collecting data from a sample
and calculating correlation coefficients
Characteristics (e.g., Pearson's r).
- Focuses on describing - Cannot determine cause-and-effect
characteristics, behaviors, relationships, only associations.
attitudes, and beliefs.
- Often involves surveys, Example: Investigating the relationship
questionnaires, observations, or between hours of smartphone usage and
content analysis. levels of self-reported anxiety among
- Utilizes measures of central adolescents.
tendency (mean, median, mode)
and variability (range, standard
deviation).
c. Experimental Research
Example: A study surveying college
students about their study habits and Experimental research involves
time management to understand manipulating one or more independent
common patterns of behavior. variables to observe their effects on a
dependent variable, while controlling
b. Correlational Research for potential confounding variables.
This type of research allows researchers
Correlational research examines the to establish cause-and-effect
relationships between two or more relationships, making it one of the most
powerful methods in psychological experimental research investigates
research. cause-and-effect relationships through
manipulation and control.
Characteristics:
The choice of research type depends on
- Involves manipulation of the research question, objectives, and
independent variables and the level of control required to draw
random assignment of meaningful conclusions.
participants to experimental
conditions.
- Allows researchers to establish
causal relationships. Data collection is a crucial step in
- Requires control over extraneous quantitative research, involving
variables to ensure internal systematically gathering information to
validity. answer research questions and test
hypotheses. The choice of data collection
Example: Conducting an experiment to method depends on the research objectives,
investigate the effect of mindfulness the nature of the variables, and the

meditation on stress levels by randomly available resources.

assigning participants to a mindfulness

Common Methods of Data Collection:
group and a control group.
Common Methods of Data Collection:

SUMMARY
1. Surveys and Questionnaires:
● Surveys involve
In summary, quantitative psychological administering a set of
research comprises three main types: structured questions to
descriptive, correlational, and participants.
experimental. ● Questionnaires are
self-administered forms of
Descriptive research aims to provide a surveys.
comprehensive understanding of a ● Suitable for collecting large

phenomenon, amounts of data from a

diverse sample.
● Example: Surveying
correlational research examines
employees about their job
relationships between variables, and
 satisfaction levels using a ● Requires data verification
Likert scale. and understanding of data
sources.
2. Observations:
● Example: Analyzing crime
● Researchers systematically
statistics from police
observe and record behaviors
records to identify trends
in their natural setting.
over the past decade.
● Useful for studying behavior
in context.
● Requires careful training to 5. Self-Report Inventories:
ensure consistency in ● Standardized
observations. questionnaires designed to
● Example: Observing measure specific
parent-child interactions in a psychological constructs.
playground to study ● Participants respond to
communication patterns
items, rating their
3. Experiments:
agreement or frequency on
● Researchers manipulate
a scale.
independent variables to
● Efficient for measuring
observe their effects on
dependent variables. internal states not directly
● Provides strong causal observable.
evidence. ● Example: Administering a
● Requires control over self-report inventory to
extraneous variables. assess levels of depression
● Example: Experimentally among adolescents.
testing the impact of a 6. Survey Method:
new teaching method on ● Systematically collecting
student test scores. information from
individuals through
4. Archival and Existing Data: structured questions.
● Researchers analyze ● Can be administered in
existing datasets, various formats:
documents, or records. face-to-face, online,
● Useful for historical phone, etc.
analysis or studying
large-scale trends.
 ● Efficient for collecting ● Ethical guidelines for data
large amounts of data collection include informed
from diverse samples. consent, confidentiality,
● Example: Conducting a voluntary participation, and
national survey to appropriate debriefing. These
understand public principles apply to all methods,
opinions about climate ensuring the rights and
change policies. well-being of participants are
upheld.
Advantages and Limitations:
● Advantages: Each method has its Conclusion:
strengths. Surveys offer Selecting an appropriate data
standardized data, observations collection method is crucial for
provide context,experiments obtaining reliable and valid
establish causality, and existing results in quantitative research.
data save time and resources. Each method has its strengths
Self-report inventories and the and limitations, and researchers
survey method offer efficient must consider the research
ways to collect specific data from question,variables, available
participants. resources, and ethical
● Limitations: Surveys can be considerations when making
affected by response bias, their choice.
observations might influence
behavior, experiments may lack
ecological validity, and existing
data might have missing or
Experimental research is a systematic
inaccurate information.
approach used to investigate
Self-report inventories may be
cause-and-effect relationships
subject to participants' bias in
betweenvariables. This method involves
responding, and surveys might
manipulating one or more independent
encounter non-response bias in
variables to observe their effects on
certain groups.
adependent variable, while controlling
for potential confounding variables.
Ethical Consideration:
Experimental research aims to
provideinsights into causal
relationships by establishing control ● Experimental designs
over the research environment. allow researchers to
establish causal
Common Methods of Data Collection: relationships between
Key Concepts of Experimental variables by manipulating
Research: the independent variable.
2. Control
1. Independent Variable (IV): ● Researchers have greater
● The variable that is control over extraneous
manipulated by the variables, minimizing the
researcher to observe its impact of confounding
effects on the dependent factors.
variable. 3. Replicability
● Experimental designs can
2. Dependent Variable (DV) be replicated to validate
● : The variable that is findings and ensure their
measured to assess the reliability.
outcome of the
manipulation of the Limitations of Experimental Research:
independent variable.
1. Artificiality
3. Control Group ● The controlled
● : The group that does not environment of
receive the experimental experiments may not fully
treatment, providing a represent real-world
baseline for comparison. situations,limiting
external validity.
4. Experimental Group
● The group that receives 2. Ethical Constraints
the experimental ● Some experiments may
treatment or involve ethical concerns,
manipulation. such as exposing
Advantages of Experimental Research: participants to potentially
harmful conditions.
1. Causality
 3. Demand Characteristics
● Participants might alter 3. Factorial Design
their behavior due to their ● Investigates the effects of
awareness of being in an multiple independent
experiment. variables on the
dependent variable.
Common Experimental Design: ● Allows researchers to
examine interactions
1. Pretest-Posttest Design between variables.
● Involves measuring the ● Requires larger sample
dependent variable before sizes and can be complex.
and after applying the
experimental treatment 4. Within-Subjects Design
● Involves measuring the ● Involves testing the same
dependent variable before participants under
and after applying the different conditions.
experimental treatment. ● Reduces individual
● Helps assess the change in differences as participants
the dependent variable serve as their own control.
due to the treatment. ● Can be susceptible to
● Can control individual order effects.
differences.
5. Solomon Four-Group Design
2. Posttest-Only Control Group
Design The Solomon Four-Group Design
● Participants are randomly combines elements of the
assigned to either the pretest-posttest design and the
experimental group or the posttest-only control group design to
control group. address potential testing effects. This
● The dependent variable is design includes two experimental
measured after the groups and two control groups: one set
experimental treatment. receives a pretest, and the other set does
● Any differences between not. This helps researchers assess
groups can be attributed whether the pretest itself has an impact
to the treatment.
on participants' responses to the performance by matching participants
experimental treatment. in terms of age, gender, and baseline
memory scores.
Advantages: Controls for potential
pretest sensitization effects. 7. Repeated Measures Design:
In a repeated measures design (also
Limitations: Requires larger sample known as a within-subjects design),
sizes and more resources. each participant is exposed to all levels
of the independent variable. This design
Example: Investigating the effects of a minimizes individual differences, as
new teaching method on student participants serve as their own control.
achievement using two experimental However, it is important to
groups (with and without pretest) and counterbalance the order of conditions
two control groups. to control for order effects.

6. Matched-Subjects Design: Advantages: Reduces individual

In the matched-subjects design, differences, requires fewer participants.
participants are carefully matched
based on specific characteristics before Limitations: Prone to order effects,
being randomly assigned to different potential carryover effects.
groups. This design aims to control for
individual differences that could Example: Investigating the effects of
influence the dependent variable, such caffeine on reaction times by measuring
as age, gender, or IQ. participants' performance under
different caffeine doses in a repeated
Advantages: Reduces the impact of manner.
individual differences on the dependent
variable. 8. Field Experiment:
A field experiment takes place in a
Limitations: Matching participants can real-world setting, providing high
be time-consuming and challenging. external validity. Researchers
manipulate independent variables while
Example: Examining the effects of a still maintaining some control over the
memory-enhancing technique on environment. This design helps bridge
elderly individuals' cognitive
the gap between controlled laboratory research process. It serves as a map for
settings and real-life contexts. researchers, helping them develop a
clear understanding of their study's
Advantages: High external validity, focus, variables, relationships, and
results are applicable to real-world underlying theories. A well-constructed
situations. research framework provides a solid
foundation for research design, data
Limitations: Less control over collection, analysis, and interpretation.
extraneous variables compared to
laboratory experiments. Common Methods of Data Collection:
Example: Studying the impact of Components of a Research
workplace lighting on employee Framework:
productivity by manipulating lighting
conditions in an actual office 1. Conceptual Definitions
environment. ● Clearly define the key
concepts and variables
Experimental research is a powerful involved in the study. This
method that allows researchers to ensures common
establish causal relationships between understanding and precise
variables. Different experimental communication.
designs offer flexibility in addressing
research questions and minimizing 2. Theoretical Foundations
confounding factors. Researchers must ● Integrate existing theories
carefully design their experiments, or models that provide a
consider ethical considerations, and basis for your research.
ensure that their findings contribute to This establishes the
the broader understanding of theoretical context for
psychological phenomena. your study.

3. Hypotheses or Research
Questions
● Formulate hypotheses or
A research framework, also known as a
research questions based
conceptual framework or theoretical
on the relationships or
framework, is a structured and
organized outline that guides the entire
 patterns identified in the
framework. 1. Clarity
● A well-defined framework
clarifies the research focus
4. Variables and Relationships and direction, minimizing
● Specify the relationships ambiguity.
between variables,
including the 2. Organization
dependent,independent, ● It helps organize complex
moderating, and ideas, variables, and
mediating variables. relationships.

Types of Researcj Frameworks 3. Guidance

● A framework guides the
1. Deductive Framework selection of research
● In this approach, methods, data collection,
researchers start with an and analysis techniques.
existing theory and deduce
specific hypotheses to test. How to Develop a Research Framework:
The research aims to
confirm, modify, or extend 1. Literature Review
the existing theory. ● Conduct an extensive
review of relevant
2. Inductive Framework literature to identify
● Here, researchers begin existing theories and
with observations and models.
data, and then develop a
framework to explain the 2. Conceptual Mapping
observed patterns. This ● Map out the relationships
approach can lead to the between variables and
formulation of new identify gaps in the
theories. current understanding.

Advantages of Using a Research 3. Theoretical Integration

Framework:
 ● Incorporate relevant - Dependent Variable: Job
theories to provide a Satisfaction
theoretical foundation for - Independent Variable: Work-Life
your study. Balance
- Mediating Variable: Psychological
4. Variable Operationalization Well-being
● Define how each variable
will be measured or
assessed.

Example Research Framework:

Conceptual Definitions
- Job Satisfaction,"
"Work-Life Balance,"
"Employee Performance."

Theoretical Foundations
- Integration of Herzberg's
Two-Factor Theory and
Spillover-Crossover Model.

Hypotheses/Research Questions
- Hypothesis 1: There is a
positive relationship
between work-life balance
and job satisfaction.
- Research Question 1: How
does work-life balance
impact job satisfaction
and subsequently
employee performance?

Variables and Relationships