Eddie-Making Resistance

1. We assumed that the friction resistance coefficient

of a ship (or a model) is the same as that of a smooth
flat plate with the same length (Re) & wetted surface
area;
2. Usually, the friction resistance of a curved surface
object is greater than that of a flat plate with same
length & wetted surface.
3. Their difference is called the form resistance or form
drag.
The form drag consists of 3 parts.
Eddy-making Resistance
1. Curvature causes the pressure change along the ship.
2. Due to viscosity, the pressure change will cause the flow
separation from the surface, & generate eddies.
3. Energy is fed into eddies, and the resulting resistance is called
eddy-making resistance.
4. Main contribution to the form resistance is made by eddy-
making resistance.
5. For a low speed ship, avoiding abrupt changes of the hull in
minimizes the eddy-making resistance.
1. The curvature of a ship (or a model) will change the local
velocity along the ship.
2. Path of a streamline from bow to stern is longer on a
shaped body than on a flat plate, the average velocity along
a ship > V. Thus RFS  RF , Plate .
3. Interaction between viscous & wave-making resistances,
which is very complicated.
4. The increase or decrease of resistance due to the
interaction are classified into form drag. Sometimes,
some items may be directly classified into wave-making
resistance.
 Air or Wind Resistance
Majority of the wind resistance is due to eddie-making
therefore it varies roughly with VR2 (VR is the relative velo. of air to a ship)
AL sin2   AT cos2 
F  k   VR 
2
(Hughes formula)
cos    
k - an empirical constant = 0.6, (0.5~0.65), F - wind resistance (lb)
 - density of air, 0.00238 (slug/ft 3 ), VR - wind velocity relative to a ship (ft/s)
 - angle of wind direction relative to the longitudinal center line of a
ship measure from the bow.
 - direction of the resultant force relative to the center line.
  
VR Vw Vs
AL - Longitudinal projected area.
AT - Transverse projected area.
 Appendage Resistance

1. Model resistance test gives the resistance of the “naked”

hull (without appendages).
2. Appendages, such as bilge keels, rudder and bossings (open
shafts and struts), will result in appendage resistance.
3. Added to the “naked” hull resistance, about 10 – 15% of the
latter
4. Appendage resistance of a multiple-screw (propeller) ship is
larger that that of a single-screw ship.
5. The upper limit for V/(L0.5)= 0.7 seems to be higher.
Ship type Speed/length ratio
0.70 1.0 1.6
Large fast quadruple-screw 10-16% 10-16%
Small fast twin-screw ships 20-30% 17-15% 10-15%
Small medium V twin-screw 12-30% 10-23%
Large medium V twin-screw 8-14% 8-14%
All single-screw ships 2-5% 2-5%
Methods of Presenting Model Resistance Results

It is desirable that there is a standard method of presenting

model resistance data. However, so far it has not been reached.
1. Users want the original data. (speed, resistance, water
temperature, method of turbulence stimulation, cross sectional
area)
2. The user can convert them to any desired form.
3. The data in the past were not presented in non-dimensional
form.
Introduced the following are a few methods commonly used in
presenting Model Resistance data.
1. CT ~ Re or CT ~ Fr
RT V V
2.  ~ or
gL L
3. circle K & circle C system, C ~ K they are non-dimensional
 1

V  4  V 2
RT 1000
K    1 , C  
  
1 2
g 2

1
6  g   6
K
4

R elation to C T & Fr.

1
V V 4 L  L  2

K    Fr  4  1 
 
1 1
gL   3 
1
g

2 6 6
4
1
RT 1000 g RT 1000 S 1000 S
C   3
  C
4  SV 2 8  3 8  3
T
 V 2 2 2
1
2
 1.825
At a low speed, RT ~ R f ~ V ~ V, 2

C is almost independent of K .

With increase in speed, Rw  V 3or V ,4 C increases with K

 Relation between Hull Form & Resistance
Choice of Ship Dimensions – Owner deaddweight and speed
Designer estimates the probable displacement and principle dimensions.
Displacement = cargo weight + self weight
Length – Cost, scantling, manning, docking, navigations.
longer L reduces wave-making resistance at high speed.
Draft – increase draft will decrease resistance, reduces scantling, but is
restricted by the water depth of harbor or channel & stability.
Breadth – important to have adequate stability.
Increase in B may decrease L (smaller Fr, smaller wetted surface) thus
reduces the cost but results in the increase in wave-making resistance.
Also is limited by the width of canals.
Choice of Form Coefficients
Block coeff., or Prismatic coeff - most important
Larger CB, results in larger wave-making & form resistance.
Block or prismatic coeff. should be reduced as the speed of a ship
increases so that in designing a ship there is a limit of fullness to be
observed for a given speed.
A formula of the type, called the ‘economical’ block coefficient has
often been used.
 V 
CB  A  B   where A & B are constant.
 L
Alexander formula (similar to the above)
V
 2 1.08  CB  , V is trial speed
LPP
V
 2 1.06  CB  , V is service speed
LPP
 Troast formula
Vsus
 1.85  CP , Vsus is the sustained sea speed.
LPP

Definition of trial, service, & sustained speed

Before an owner receives a newly built or renovated ship, there is a
trial sail for the ship.
•Trial speed is the required speed when the newly built ship takes a
trial sail.
•Service speed is the required speed for the ship is service.
Usually a service speed is smaller than the trial speed. V  1.06VS
T
•Sustained speed lies very close to that at which the resistance
coeff. curve begins to rise steeply; i.e., to the speed at which the
power begins to increase rapidly than V3.
 B B
Breadth/ draught ratio, , R  & , R 
T T
Longitudinal distribution of displacement: longitudunal
position of C.B, (L.C.B), usually it is slightly positive for
a slow ship & about 10% behind the midship for a speedy ship.
Length of parallel middle body: easy for manufacture &
longer for a fat ship, but does not present for a slim ship.
Shape of section (Loaded.W.L., sectional-area curve)
Bulbous bows: decrease the wave-making resistance &
decrease the form resistance. But only effective for
a limited range of speed
 Series Experiments & Model Resistance Data Sheets

Series Experiments
A series of models is a set of models in which the principal
characteristics are changed in a systematic manner.
The purposes of having resistance test of a series of models are:
1. A series of tests can be made to ascertain the best form of the
ship to give minimum resistance & this would involve tests
run with various alterations to some basic form.
2. The data from the tests of series models can be used to
estimate the resistance & EHP of a ship
Well-known series models:

1. Taylor’s Standard Series: starting from a single “parent

ship” L
 2.0
V

L
2. Series 64. For naval ship.  2.0
V
3. Series 60.
Five parent models cover, CB , from 0.60 ~ 0.80.
L B 
& , , & LCB also change.
B T  L100  3

LPP  400 ' & LwL  406.7 '

c. Single screw ships. No bulb at bows.
Lm = 20 ft.
Turbulence stimulators were fitted on the model.
d. Obtain the optimum location of L.C .B.
e. Resistance data of model tests are presented in two ways
R
i.) RR , in pounds, R in pounds per ton as a function of

L B V
CB , , & .
B T LWL
We will study how to use this diagram to estimate RT .
L B
ii.) C 400 ft as a function of CB , , & K.
B T
C 400 ft includes the model-ship correlation
allowance (CF  0.0004) using 1947 ATTC line.