Moses mayor madingAnyak, B.Sc Tel:+211926502030/+211954557121 mayormading2013@gmail.

com

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Water is the most indispensable requisite that sustain life for plants and animals, and
as well has marvelous role in human existence (Nwankwoala, Nwagbogwu, 2012). In
spite of its significance, water is the most inadequately managed resource in the world
(akayode, 2005). The existing predisposition of industrialization and urbanization
possibly contribute to a great extent to the pitiable quality of water in the course of
unsystematic disposal of solid waste, industrial effluents and other toxic waste which
are the main environmental issues posturing peril to the survival of human being
(Furtade et al…1998; Chindah et al… 2004; Ugochukwu, 2004; Emongor et al…
2005; Rahman et al….2008).

Solid waste is a foremost problem of cities municipalities in the world. (Alam,

Ahmade 2013). Municipal solid waste is collected and discarded in an assorted form
and an unscientific approach on open waste land or low lying areas even near rivers,
ponds and other ecological sensitive regions, which resulting in the pollution of water
whereby the quality of the water deteriorates (sahu, 2007). However, most of the
challenges to its management are felt mostly in the developing countries (Thomas –
Hope 1998).

One to two thirds of the solid waste generated in south Sudan are not properly
collected (world resource institute 1996). Solid waste is any garbage, sludge or refuse
and other discarded materials that results from industries, commercials, household,
mining and agricultural operation. Solid waste can be classified into different
categories depending on their source; household waste as municipal waste, industrial
waste as hazardous waste and biomedical waste as infectious waste (Ahmade, 2013).
In addition, to this indiscriminate dumping of all types of solid waste practices in the

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cities contaminates surface and groundwater supplies through decomposition of

organic wastes in landfill, and untreated leachate generated from greenhouse gas
pollutes surrounding air and water sources. (Alam, Ahmade, 2013).

In south Sudan as one of the third world countries, the typical problems are low
compilation exposure and irregular assortment services, rudimentary open dumping
and smoldering without air and water pollution control (Loboka, 2013). As a result,
the uncollected waste, which is habitually sundried with human and animal excreta, is
dumped haphazardly along the street and in drains, so contributing to torpid water,
water pollution; proliferation of insects and rodent vectors and spread of diseases likes
cholera. Solid waste leachate is the greatest threat to groundwater which possesses
various chemical and biological contaminants (Bidhendi et al… 2010).

The haphazard dumping of municipal solid waste in water bodies’ sources and low
lying areas without consideration of its effect on the environment is a common
practice in many cities of developing countries. (Medina, 2010; Zurbrugg 2003)

The unrestrained and un-scientific discarding of municipal solid waste has brought
about a rising number of incidents of hazards to human health; contamination of both
surface and ground water which, in turn, results into a serious human health risk.
(cointreau, 1982; UNEP _ IETC,1996; Zurbrugy).

It is a known fact that virtually all water pollutants are hazardous to humans as well
as other flora and fauna species. For example, sodium is known to cause
cardiovascular disease while nitrates are involved in blood disorders. Mercury and
lead are also widely known to cause nervous disorders in humans. Some other
contaminants are carcinogens while others for example; DDT is known to be toxic to
humans and can also alter chromosomes. Others chemicals likes, PCBs cause liver
and nerve damage, skin eruptions, vomiting, fever, diarrhea, and fetal abnormalities.

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However, solid waste management systems wrap all procedures that inquire about to
reduce the depressing impacts on water quality. Developing countries are critically in
front of the allied problems in collection, transportation and disposal of communal
solid waste. In Africa, due to spontaneous communities and developments in major
cities, environmental and sanitary circumstances are becoming very intricate. (Akio,
2002). Due to lack of awareness and low income sources, dwellers are enforced to
reside with injurious and insanitary conditions. Solid waste management encompasses
collection, transportation and disposal of urban waste (Geoffrey, 2003).

Unfortunately, public agents and the urban authorities do not have adequate capacity
to handle the increasing solid waste mainly due to limited public budgets (NEMA,
2000).

The purpose of this research is to embark on a critical center of attention on impact of

solid waste on water quality at the boarder point of view.

1.1 Problem statement

The problems of solid wastes and its consequence on the quality of water is currently
the spotlight of attention all over the world. The increase of waste generation in the
country and in the world in the recent past, without any proper management had been
to a certain extent problematic, hence necessitating or require for such a research in
order to shed some light on its magnitude and the way forward.

In fact, the occurrence of solid waste sprinkled all over cities and town and even in
our institutions of higher learning is a hazard to health and awkwardness to the
pleasant standard expected of the areas (Loboka, Leju 2013). The widespread put into
practice for domestic refuse disposal in rural areas is to deposit solid wastes openly in
an open space, water channels and at the backyard of the house probably due to the

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inadequate solid waste management equipments or the long distances to the sanitary
site.

In south Sudan and rest of the third world countries, people also leave their wastes in
heaps for days before they finally get to the sanitary site for disposal. Such
unsystematic disposal is an environmental exposure and can intimidate human
physical condition and safety (Firdaus and Ahmad, 2010; Senkoro, 2003).

Solid waste that is reprehensively disposed of can result in a numeral of evils. It can
generate a breeding ground for pathogenic microorganisms and vectors of disease, and
cause a public annoyance due to unpleasantness and awful smell. It can cause
contagion of contiguous soil, groundwater and surface water (Bartone, 2000). It can
also craft fire hazards, physical hazards and have poisoning effects (Devkota et al.
2003). The habitual come within reach of where municipal authorities’ monopolies
waste management, ignoring further stakeholders, by means of command-and-rule
strategies, and ill-adapted imported technology which is common in urban cities.

The instantaneous health possessions from hazardous wastes vary from dire smells
and straightforward irritation of eyes, skin, throat and breathing, to sober health
circumstances that have an effect on the nervous system and could cause paralysis of
the serviceable body parts. Various hazardous from solid wastes have teratogenic and
carcinogenic effects (Ngwulaka et al. 2009).

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study

1. Assessing the municipal solid waste problems in south Sudan and the world.
2. To review the extent of pollution of water sources due to solid waste disposal.
3. To assess the quantities and types of solid wastes generated the efficacy of the
present disposal method and to propose suitable methods of disposal.

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4. To elucidate the community problems and challenges coupled with the present
state of solid waste disposal in south Sudan and world.
5. To advocate and appraise community initiatives of solving the waste problem
in South Sudan and the world.
6. Explore whether the closeness of a waste dump to a river or water bodies will
significantly affect their water quality.

1.3 significance of the study

The eminence of environment preserve is articulated in provisions of the air, food,

water, and the house we reside as well as the non-contamination of our stunning
environment in the course of sustainable living. No hesitation, the converse of this is
the unpleasant dumping of unsorted and untreated waste stuff into landfills and open
spaces on the land. Landfills are hypothetical to be sited away from dwelling for the
reason that the intrinsic environmental irritation and poor artistic value allied with its
operation. But in south Sudan and the rest of the third world countries, landfills are
almost sharing fences with residential houses. As of numerous toxic materials or
pollutants on the rampage by leachates into the groundwater which are not
enthusiastically removable by the conventional water treatment process. It is
necessary to carry out an intensive study at monitory the nature and extent of such
pollution in surface and groundwater quality.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Water infectivity due to leachate occurring from solid waste dumping has turn out to
be a solemn concern as it affects the environment, health of populace and social
comfort. A methodical investigation needs to embark at a sustainable and reasonable
elucidation for extenuating the water pollution due to solid waste disposal. This
incorporates methods of waste disposal, categorization of leachate and water quality,
lithology variation, groundwater flow and contaminant transport form, health and
communal issues of the community depending on the contaminated water.
Literature pertaining to the above has been reviewed as listed below.

2.1 Discarding of Metropolitan Solid Waste

Water contamination whichever it maybe natural or anthropogenic is the main

predicament of water particularly in developing countries. Once contaminated, water,
mainly groundwater may linger polluted without remedy. Water in its liquid
appearance is the substance that makes life achievable on Earth. Every part of living
organisms is composed of cells that contained at least 60% of water (Jackson, 1985).
It is the source of life and so the improvement of water resources is an imperative
constituent in the incorporated development of any locale.

Groundwater chemistry, in turn depends on a number of factors such as general

geology, degree of chemical weathering of various rocks types, quality of recharge

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water and inputs from sources other than rock interaction in a complex water quality
interaction. (Aghazadeh and Mogaddam).

The speedy urbanization has make use of profound stress on land and water resources
in cities resulting in sober environmental and communal tribulations (Leao et al
2001). In the last two century, world population has increased six times with the urban
population increasing 100 times (Radzicki 1995). Population growth and
industrialization donate to massive amount of solid waste generation in the urban
environment.

2.2 Leachate from Open Dumping and Landfill Site Description

Leachate is the liquid leaking from landfills. Municipal Solid Waste redundant into
improperly controlled landfills endures decay and oxidation. (Bocanegra et al 2001,
Singh et al 2008, Mohan and Gandhimathi, 2009, Khitoliyal et al 2009, Jhamnani and
Singh, 2009). Furthermore, the waste dumped in landfills produced leachate, which
traveled from the landfill and links the hydrological system, by this means
contaminating the surface water and groundwater (Fatta et al 1999, Banar et al 2006,
Esakku et al 2007, Vasanthi et al 2008). Leachate cohort depends on the quantity of
liquid initially controlled in the waste and the amount of precipitation that penetrate
the landfill via the cover, which draw closer in direct contact with the waste. (Esakku
et al 2007, Kale et al 2010).

Dissimilar factors that influence leachate generation are: climate, topography, landfill
cover, vegetation, type of waste, dumpsite distinctiveness and solid waste
management performs. Diverse controlling factors for the leachate infectivity are
rainfall, leachate transportation method, landscape, redox reins, influence of unlined

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irrigation canal, age of MSW dumping site, provokes fracturing, surface and sub-
surface flow dynamics (Esakku et al 2007, Kale et al 2010).

Adedibu (1985) grouped solid wastes into eight classes, namely domestic, municipal,
industrial, agricultural, pesticides, residential and hazardous wastes.

However, solid waste can be classified as biodegradable or non-biodegradable,

soluble or insoluble, organic or inorganic, liquid or solid, toxic or nontoxic (Kostova,
2006).

Tatsi and Zouboulis (2002) observed the quantity and quality of leachate from a
Thessaloniki landfill in Greece. The leachate is counted with the aid of hydrological
information such as rainfall, infiltration and evaporation using water balance
technique. The strength of physico-chemical parameters of the leachate usually
dwindled in winter season (Banar et al 2006).
Chuangcham et al (2008) deliberated the spatial allocation of heavy metal. The
distribution normally follows drainage patterns inside the region and locations of
unrestrained scavenging activities.
In addition to affecting plant and animal health, trace elements contained in MSW
composts may be leached from the soil and enter either ground or surface water. As
with plant uptake, soil pH, organic matter content, and other soil characteristics affect
the amount of leaching.
While other data on leaching from MSW composts is scarce, the evidence from long-
term applications of sewage sludge suggests that the rate of leaching is low. Leaching
of metals into groundwater is only likely to occur with heavy, repeated applications of
MSW composts over many years in areas with sandy soils or other conditions that
limit the opportunity for adsorption of metals by soil (Sinha et al., 1973).
The parameters such as EC, pH, TDS, sodium, potassium, calcium, Magnesium,
chloride, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, bicarbonate, COD, BOD and total organic

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carbon were studied for the leachate and groundwater around the dumpsite. (Ikem et
al 2002, Vadilto et al 2005, Kashman 2007, Srivastava and Ramanathan 2008).
Moreover, heavy metals like cadmium, chromium, lead, zinc, copper, nickel and iron
were found in and around the dumpsites (Barry et al 1995, Henry 2000, Martinez and
Motto 2000, Mor et al 2006).
In the acid stage the pH of the leachate will be 5 or lesser for the reason of the
existence of organic acids and the eminent concentrations of carbon dioxide within the
landfill. The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD) and the conductivity of the leachate will enhance extensively due to the
suspension of the organic acids in the leachate. in addition, as of the low pH values in
the leachate, a numeral of inorganic elements, mainly heavy metals, will be
solubilized. In methane fermentation stage the pH will be in the range of 6.5 to 7.5
and BOD, Total Organic Carbon and COD will be lower, concentration of heavy
metals will be lower, for the reason that the majority metals are less soluble at neutral
pH values.

Mohan and Gandhimathi (2009) carried out a study on the categorization of the solid
waste and the effect of the leachate from the Perungudi dumping site. Chemical
examination of both the leachate and water samples signified high concentration of
heavy metals, particularly lead. This would harmfully affect aquatic life and
eventually enter into the food chain, the utilization of which can cause adverse health
effects.
The principal clusters contained in leachate are in norganic macro components:
Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium, Iron, Manganese, Chloride,
Sulphate and Bicarbonate (Christensen et al 1994)
Heavy metals: Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Lead, Nickel and Zinc in sketch
amounts were also reported in the leachate ((Esakku 2006, Vasanthi et al
2008, Mohan and Gandhimathi 2009).

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Dissolved organic matter uttered as COD, total organic carbon as well as methane and
volatile fatty acids were further reported (Singh et al., (1994).
Anthropogenic organic compounds derivatives are from household and industrial
wastes, including aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalate esters were found in excess
concentration in the leachate (Manzoor (1993)).
The leachate that materializes out from the dumpsite with higher concentration of
TDS and heavy metals enters the aquifer and makes the groundwater flabby for
domestic purpose (Allen et al., 1980).

2.3 Water Quality

Solitary of the harsh problems linked to the open dumps is infiltration of leachate into
the contiguous environment, and consequent contamination of the land and water
(Walker 1969, Chian and DeWalle 1976, Kelley 1976, Masters 1998 and Kumar et al
2002). The studies on leachate and groundwater categorization illustrate a serious
menace to the local aquifer (Fatta et al 1999, Mor et al 2006, Jaskelevicius and
Lynikiene 2009, Sabahi et al 2009). It is crucial to protect ground and surface waters
and soil from Contamination due to leachate percolation in and around the dumpsites
(Esakku et al 2007).
Singh et al (2008) examined samples of solid waste-leachate and groundwater and
declared that groundwater pollution due to leachate is dominant more than natural
processes in the surrounding area of the landfill site.
High concentration of Total Dissolved Solids, electrical conductivity, hardness,
nitrate, chloride, and sulphate were found in groundwater in the vicinity of landfill in
Tamil Nadu, India (Vasanthi et al 2008). High EC and TDS nature of groundwater
does specify the impact of landfill, although it may be furthermore due to geology of
the study area as very narrow divergences of these values were pragmatic (Singh et al
2008).

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Jorstd et al (2004) affirmed that EC and HCO had a tremendous correspondence and
that both can be used to exemplify the relative quantity of leachate impact to regional
groundwater.

The high chloride ion typically provides early sign of the presence of leachate in the
groundwater (Bouwer 1978, Hai-jian XIE et al 2009). Chloride was preferred to
represent the inorganic contaminants in the leachate for the cause that it is not
effortlessly absorbed by soil, intricate to decompose and easy to measure (Chen and
Wang 1997).
Heavy metals such as Pb, Cu, Mn, Cd, Cr and Zn were leached out from the dumpsite
and contaminate the aquifer (Esakku 2006, Vasanthi et al 2008, Mohan and
Gandhimathi 2009). Existence of very high concentration of lead may be due to
automobile products, paints and other metallic industry waste (Khitoliyal et al 2009).
The metal ions released in water become dispersed into the surrounding areas by
lateral and vertical movements in the ground (Agamuthu 2001).
Jorstd et al (2004) acknowledged that reduce in concentration as moving away from
the landfill is mainly due to distribution, dilution and sorption process.
Padmavathi (2008) opined that the Perungudi dumping yard is one of the foremost
hazards for the local inhabitants. Small scale examination at trace levels of water and
soil for a variety of chemical constituents has been carried out (Padmavathi, 2008).
It is noticed that within three years span the contamination level amplified three folds.
Kale et al (2010) revised a dumpsite in the hard rock terrains of a basaltic aquifer and
declared that the flow is slow and unbalanced due to constricted passages. But a
unenthusiastic consequence of mechanism is that the pollutants retain a constant stage
of contamination and their toxicities (Kale et al (2010)).
The reviewed literature indicates that unlined, non- engineered dumpsite are common
in the developing countries. This leads to environmental degradation. Dumpsite

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selection and method of dumping needs to be critically reviewed and protective

measures are to be taken to prevent the groundwater contamination.

2.4 Sustainable Water Development and management

The earth’s water sequence links the planet’s fresh water and oceans. About 70% of
human body and 60-70% of plant cell is made up of water and a propos (Smith and
Edger, 2006).

Water in its liquid appearance is the substance that makes life achievable on Earth.
Every part of living organisms is composed of cells that contained at least 60% of
water (Jackson, 1985). It is the source of life and so the improvement of water
resources is an imperative constituent in the incorporated development of any locale.
Water is essential to our existence and is bizarre compound in nature. It is the most
vital resource of any country and indeed the public as not life is possible without
water ((Jackson, 1985). It has sole position among other natural resources, since a
country can continue to exist in the dearth of any other resource, expect water (Grag,
2009). 97% of the earth’s water is in the deep water bodies and these waters bodies
supplies approximately all the water that falls on land as rain and snow. Of the
undersized segment that is freshwater, about a third is groundwater and a meager
0.3% in reachable surface waters (Gleick, 1996).

Water is serious to our existence and is a bizarre compound in nature. It is the most
vital resource of a country, and indeed the public, as no life is apt without water. It has
sole position among other natural resources, since a country can continue to exist in
the dearth of any other resources, apart from water (Garg, 2009).

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According to the National Water Policy (2002), in the arrangement and procedure of
systems, water distribution and use is generally divided as follows: drinking,
irrigation, hydropower, ecology, agro-industries and non-agricultural industries,
navigation and other applies.

Water transpires naturally in diverse site and forms in the earth-atmosphere system, in
liquid, solid as well as gaseous form. It occurs in the atmosphere typically as vapour
(gaseous), and as gas, solid or liquid on and underneath the earth surface.

Therefore, the main sources of water are surface water (oceans, rivers, streams, seas
and brooks), groundwater, snow and ice, and lake. Over use of both surface and
groundwater has been the consequence of hasty urbanization, population growth and
development. Urban areas within south Sudan are characterized by similarity water
sources with the most common source being bore-holes and wells. Over 75% of
houses within Bor have a well as their main source of water. Stage of economic
development influences the expenditure rate of water in several societies. That is
region with a higher level of economic development would oblige more water for
uses.

A sustainable water supply system covers all the activities connected to the
stipulation of potable water. Sustainable development is of mounting significance for
the water supply to urban areas as water shortages are predictable in the near future.
To attain sustainable water supply, raise awareness on the concern of environmental
pollution as well as the demand to develop new sources of water. Nevertheless,
various water management strategies have been adopted in developed even in
developing and developed countries.

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2.5 factors distressing water quality

Hydro chemical assessment of groundwater structure is usually based on availability

of a large amount of information concerning groundwater chemistry. The quality of
groundwater is as important as its quality owing to the suitability of water for various
purposes. Groundwater chemistry, in turn, depends on a number of factors such as
general geology, degree of chemical weathering of various rock types, quality of
recharge water and inputs from sources other than rock interaction. Such factors and
their interaction result in a complex water quality (Aghazadeh & Mogaddam, 2010).
Groundwater quality is determined by natural and anthropogenic factors. Factors
affecting groundwater are nature of bedrock geology, depth from surface soil,
vegetation, climatic variation, permeability of sediments, and topography, while
anthropogenic are nature of human activities, urbanization, industrialization and waste
management disposal, amongst others. Contaminants are completely attenuated
(Christensen et al., 1994; Robinson et al 1999). Concentrations of both reactive and
conservative contaminants decrease with the distance along the groundwater flow path
therefore, leachate migration is in line with the distance decay principle (Taylor,
1983). It should be noted that the concentration of a pollutant at any point removed
from its source may vary throughout the year due to seasonal influences on recharge
and release of the contamination, or reaction times governed by variations in factors
such as temperature (Taylor & Allen, 2006). Hence, seasonal variation differentiates
the concentration of leachate in groundwater. Water is the world’s most abundant
natural solvent. Therefore, as it moves through the ground it dissolves minerals. These
minerals are known as the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) present in the water. In a
shallow aquifer the water has a shorter distance to travel through the ground, and
therefore tends to have a lower level of mineralization. Conversely, deeper aquifers
tend to be more susceptible to contamination from local land use activities, and can be
vulnerable to nitrate and microbial contamination (McLeod et al., 2005).

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Irrespective of the classification of solid wastes, most of the urban wastes are
degradable which aid the rate of leachate formation and migration compared to non-
biodegraded wastes that can last for many years without any sign of decomposition.
Therefore, there is possibility of leachate generation, plume extension and migration
at the base of urban landfill due to the composition of discarded materials and
frequent surface water ingression from urban precipitation.

2.6 Evaluations of implications of the physico-chemical parameters on health

The existence of chemicals in domestic water is an important factor in determining the

risk posed by dump sites. However, it does not tell us the effect, if any; the
consumption of contaminated water has on human health. There are studies of
negative health implications of drinking contaminated water resulting in reduced
capacity and/or life expectancy (Twadddle, 1996).Open dumps generate various
environmental and health hazards. The decomposition of materials produces methane,
which can cause fire and explosions and produce strong leachate, which pollute
surface and groundwater (Oyelola et al., 2009). Elliot and Taylor (1996) and Oyelola
et al., (2009) stated that a lag period of ten years is generally assumed for cancers to
develop as a result of cancer-inducing agent exposure, and 5 years for lymphatic and
hematopoietic cancers. Incessant outbreak of fire in open dumps especially during the
dry season immensely contributes to air pollution. There is also the practice of
reducing the quantity of waste in the dump site through burning. Dump managers in
some cities intentionally set ablaze waste to extend the life span of the dumpsite.
Landfill fires may be caused deliberately through arson, or accidentally through
spontaneous combustion, the deposition of hot wastes or even the rays of the sun.
These fires, however, cause or have the potential to cause major environmental
upheavals. Emissions from these fires are also known to cause respiration problems in

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humans and animals. Lead has been implicated in various diseases such as anemia,
brain damage, anorexia, mental deficiency, vomiting and even death in humans
(Maddock & Taylor, 1977; Bulut & Baysal, 2006; Ogundiran & Afolabi, 2008).
Cadmium also has been reported to cause agonistic and antagonistic effects on
hormones and enzymes leading to a lot of malformations like kidney and liver
damage, bone loss or decrease in bone strength and lung cancer (Lewis, 1991;
Donalson, 1980; Ogundiran & Afolabi, 2008). High nitrate concentration has
detrimental effects on infants less than three to six months of age. (Longe & Balogun,
2010).

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Chapter three

Methodology

3.1 Research Design

The study concerns two dissimilar phrases;

First phrase involves a systematic analysis of documents and records linked to
impact of solid waste on water quality in south Sudan and indeed to the rest of
the world. The aspiration is to obtain milieu information to grow a deep
sympathetic of the impact of solid waste on water quality.

The second phrase involves visiting the dumping sites along the water bodies
like river banks in vicinity of Bor town, and observes the impact of solid waste
on water quality, as dumping sites may be homes to a good number of people
who may also be running some good water- based activities. Few expedient
individuals among them will be interviewed specifically on issues concerning
their general perception of life in such places. Local residents and private
WASH companies’ drivers may also be interviewed.
The observation design will consist of the select participants making careful
observation of their environment and contributing to the participatory
discussion and analysis of impact of solid waste on water quality in their
community.

3.2 Sampling Process and Method

The two dissimilar phrases; analysis of documents and records; and the visit to some
dumping sites around Bor to closely observe how improper solid waste disposal may
negatively affect water quality, were done systematically as the scientific method of
research requires.

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3.3 Data collection Process and Methods used

The study deployed as mentioned above, a review and analysis of documents such as
books, journals, some reliable websites and magazines related to solid waste dumping
and its impact on water quality. It also exploited observations and interviews with
locals on how solid waste is improperly disposed locally in Bor town of the Jonglei
State. Both phases were carried out in order to measure the scale of the problem and
the available methods of managing the solid waste. Observations in particular
revealed the scale of the solid waste dumping along the water bodies and drainages,
leading to contamination of the water sources used elsewhere for different human
purposes.

Further, the analysis and observations brought into light types of wastes generated and
disposed, institutional structures at grass roots, in the state, the nation and the world
wide.

Chapter four

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Solid waste management

Solid waste referred to materials generated from combined residential, industrial and
commercial activities in a given area (UNEP, 2003). It may be categorized according
to its source (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or institutional); or
contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper) and hazard potential (toxic,
non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious) (UNEP, 2003).
Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates unsympathetic impacts on the
environment and human health and supports economic development and improved
quality of life. A number of processes are involved in effectively managing waste for
a municipality (Barbados, 2000).
These include monitoring, collection, transport, processing, recycling and disposal.

4.1 Reduce, reuse, and recycle of solid waste

Techniques of solid waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the favored
options when managing any waste (furedy, 1992). There are many environmental
benefits that can be derived from the use of these methods. They reduce or prevent
green house gas emissions, reduce the release of pollutants, conserve resources, save
energy and reduce the demand for waste treatment technology and landfill space.
Therefore it is advisable that these methods be adopted and incorporated as part of the
waste management plan (furedy, 1992).

4.2 Waste reduction and reuse

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Waste reduction and reuse of products are both methods of waste avoidance. They
purge the production of waste at the source of usual generation and reduce the
demands for huge level of treatment and disposal facilities.
Methods of waste reduction comprise manufacturing products with less packaging,
encouraging customers to bring their own reusable bags for packaging, encouraging
the public to choose reusable products such as cloth napkins and reusable plastic and
glass containers, backyard composting and sharing and donating any unwanted items
rather than discarding them.( Zerbock, 2003).
All of the methods of waste prevention mentioned require public participation. In
order to get the public onboard, training and educational programs need to be
undertaken to educate the public about their role in the process. Also the government
may need to regulate the types and amount of packaging used by manufacturers and
make the reuse of shopping bags mandatory.

4.3 Recycling of solid waste

Recycling refers to the elimination of items from the waste stream to be used as raw
materials in the manufacture of new products (UNEP, 1996). Thus from this definition
recycling occurs in three phases: first the waste is sorted and recyclables collected, the
recyclables are used to create raw materials. These raw materials are then used in the
production of new products.
The sorting of recyclables may be done at the source (i.e. within the household or
office) for selective collection by the municipality or to be dropped off by the waste
producer at a recycling centers (U.S. EPA, 2001).
The pre-sorting at the source requires public participation which may not be
forthcoming if there are no benefits to be derived. Also a system of selective
collection by the government can be costly. It would require more frequent circulation

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of trucks within a neighborhood or the importation of more vehicles to facilitate the

collection. (Devkota et al. 2003).
Another option is to mix the recyclables with the general waste stream for collection
and then sorting and recovery of the recyclable materials can be performed by the
municipality at a suitable site. The sorting by the municipality has the advantage of
eliminating the dependence on the public and ensuring that the recycling does occur
(UNEP, 1996).
The drawback however, is that the value of the recyclable materials is reduced since
being mixed in and compacted with other garbage can have adverse effects on the
quality of the recyclable material.

4.4 Waste Collection

Solid waste from homes is generally collected by local authorities through regular
waste collection, or by special collections for recycling. Within hot climates such as
that of the South Sudan and Caribbean the waste should be collected at least twice a
week to control fly breeding, and the harboring of other pests in the community. Other
factors to consider when deciding on frequency of collection are the odors caused by
decomposition and the accumulated quantities. (Benneh, et al 1993).

4.5 Management and disposal of solid waste

Waste management techniques seek to transform the waste into a form that is more
manageable, reduce the volume or reduce the toxicity of the waste, thus making the
waste easier to dispose off. Management methods are selected based on the
composition, quantity, and form of the waste material. Some waste management
methods being used today include subjecting the waste to extremely high
temperatures, dumping on land or land filling and use of biological processes to
luxury the waste (Zurbrugg, 2000). It should be noted that management and disposal

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options are chosen as a last resort to the previously mentioned management strategies
reducing, reusing and recycling of waste.

4.1 The figure below shows the hierarchy of solid waste management.

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Figure 1 Solid waste management hierarchy (source

http://www.sustainabilityed.org/pages/example2-2.htm)

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4.6 Thermal treatment of solid waste

This refers to processes that involve the use of heat to manage waste. Listed below are
descriptions of some commonly utilized thermal management processes of waste.

4.6.1 Incineration
Incineration is the most common thermal management process. This is the combustion
of waste in the presence of oxygen. After incineration, the wastes are converted to
carbon dioxide, water vapor and ash. This method may be used as a means of
recovering energy to be used in heating or the supply of electricity in developed
nation. (Rand, et al 2000). In addition to supplying energy, incineration technologies
have the advantage of reducing the volume of the waste, rendering it harmless,
reducing transportation costs and reducing the production of the green house gas
methane. (Rand et al 2000 and UNEP, 1996).
4.6.2 Open burning
Open burning is the burning of unwanted materials in a manner that causes smoke and
other emissions to be released directly into the air without passing through a chimney
or stack. This includes the burning of outdoor piles, burning in a burn barrel and the
use of incinerators which have no pollution control devices and as such release the
gaseous by-products directly into the atmosphere (Department of environmental
quality, 2006). Open burning has been practiced by a number of urban centers because
it reduces the volume of refuse received at the dump and therefore extends the life of
their dumpsite.
Garbage may be burnt because of the ease, cheapness and convenience of the method.
In countries where house holders are required to pay for garbage disposal, burning of
waste in the backyard allows the householder to avoid paying the costs associated
with collecting, hauling and dumping the waste. Open burning has many negative
effects on both human health and the environment. This uncontrolled burning of

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garbage releases many pollutants into the atmosphere which poses serious risks to
human health. These include the dioxins which produce a multitude of health
problems. These can have adverse effects on reproduction, development, disrupt the
hormonal systems or even cause cancer. For instance, the polycyclic aromatic
compounds and the hexachlorobenzene are considered to be carcinogenic. Further, the
resulted particulate matter can be harmful to persons with respiratory problems such
as asthma or bronchitis and carbon monoxide can cause neurological symptoms. The
harmful effects of open burning are also felt by the environment.
This process also releases acidic gases such as the halo-hydrides as well as releasing
the oxides of nitrogen and carbon. Nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain, ozone
depletion, smog and global warming. In addition to being a green house gas carbon
monoxide reacts with sunlight to produce ozone which can be harmful. The
particulate matter creates smoke and haze which contribute to air pollution.

4.7 Dumps and Landfills

4.7.1 Sanitary landfills
Sanitary landfills are designed to greatly reduce or eliminate the risks that waste
disposal may pose to the public health and environmental quality. They are usually
placed in areas where land features act as natural buffers between the landfill and the
environment. For example the area may be comprised of clay soil which is fairly
impermeable due to its tightly packed particles, or the area may be characterized by a
low water table and an absence of surface water bodies thus preventing the threat of
water contamination. In addition to the strategic placement of the landfill other
protective measures are incorporated into its design. The bottom and sides of landfills
are lined with layers of clay or plastic to keep the leachate from escaping into the soil.
The leachate is collected and pumped to the surface for treatment. Boreholes or
monitoring wells are dug in the vicinity of the landfill to monitor groundwater quality
(Ali, et al.,1999).

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A landfill is divided into a series of individual cells and only a few cells of the site are
filled with trash at any one time. This minimizes exposure to wind and rain. The daily
waste is spread and compacted to reduce the volume, a cover is then applied to reduce
odors and keep out pests. When the landfill has reached its capacity it is capped with
an impermeable seal which is typically composed of clay soil.(Medecins Sans
Frontieres, 1994).
Some sanitary landfills are used to recover energy. The natural anaerobic
decomposition of the waste in the landfill produces landfill gases which include
carbon dioxide, methane and traces of other gases. Methane can be used as an energy
source to produce heat or electricity. Thus some landfills are fitted with landfill gas
collection (LFG) systems to capitalize on the methane being produced. The process of
generating gas is very slow, for the energy recovery system to be successful there
needs to be large volumes of wastes. (Reed, R and P.T. Dean P.T. 1994).
These landfills present the least environmental and health risk and the records kept
can be a good source of information for future use in waste management, however, the
cost of establishing these sanitary landfills are high when compared to the other land
disposal methods.
4.7.2 Controlled dumps
Controlled dumps are disposal sites which comply with most of the requirements for a
sanitary landfill but usually have one deficiency. They may have a planned capacity
but no cell planning. There may be partial leachate management, partial or no gas
management, regular cover, compaction in some cases, basic record keeping and they
are fenced or enclosed. These dumps have a reduced risk of environmental
contamination, the initial costs are low and the operational costs are moderate. While
there is controlled access and use, they are still accessible by scavengers and so there
is some recovery of materials through this practice.

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4.8 Biological waste management

4.8.1 Composting
Composting is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter by the action of
micro organisms and small invertebrates (Golueke et al., 1955; Golueke, 1972; Diaz
et al., 1993). There are a number of composting techniques being used today. These
include: in vessel composting, windrow composting, vermicomposting and static pile
composting. The process is controlled by making the environmental conditions
optimum for the waste decomposers to thrive. The rate of compost formation is
controlled by the composition and constituents of the materials that is their
Carbon/Nitrogen ratio, the temperature, the moisture content and the amount of air are
considered in the process (UNEP, 1996).
The Carbon/Nitrogen ratio is very important for the process to be efficient. The micro
organisms require carbon as an energy source and nitrogen for the synthesis of some
proteins. If the correct Carbon/Nitrogen ratio is not achieved, then application of the
compost with either a high or low Carbon/Nitrogen ratio can have adverse effects on
both the soil and the plants. A high Carbon/Nitrogen ratio can be corrected by
dehydrated mud and a low ratio corrected by adding cellulose. Moisture content
greatly influences the composting process. The microbes need the moisture to perform
their metabolic functions. If the waste becomes too dry the composting is not favored.
If however there is too much moisture then it is possible that it may displace the air in
the compost heap depriving the organisms of oxygen and drowning them. (Hoornweg,
et al 1999). A high temperature is desirable for the elimination of pathogenic
organisms. However, if temperatures are too high, above 75 0c then the organisms
necessary to complete the composting process are destroyed. Optimum temperatures
for the process are in the range of 50-60oC with the ideal being 60oC (Cointreau, 1982).
Aeration is a very important and the quantity of air needs to be properly controlled
when composting. If there is insufficient oxygen the aerobes will begin to die and will
be replaced by anaerobes. The anaerobes are undesirable since they will slow the

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process, produce odors and also produce the highly flammable methane gas. Air can
be incorporated by churning the compost (Cointreau and Levine, 1996).

4.8.2 Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion like composting uses biological processes to decompose organic
waste. However, where composting can use a variety of microbes and must have air,
anaerobic digestion uses bacteria and an oxygen free environment to decompose the
waste. (Golueke et al., 1955).
Aerobic respiration, typical of composting, results in the formation of carbon dioxide
and water. While the anaerobic respiration results in the formation of carbon dioxide
and methane. In addition to generating the humus which is used as a soil enhancer,
anaerobic digestion is also used as a method of producing biogas which can be used to
generate electricity.
Optimal conditions for the process require nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous
and potassium, it requires that the pH be maintained around 7 and the alkalinity be
appropriate to buffer H changes, temperature should also be controlled. (Levine and
Cointreau, 1996).

4.9 Integrated Solid Waste Management

Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) takes an overall approach to creating
sustainable systems that are economically affordable, socially acceptable and
environmentally effective (EPA, 2002). An integrated solid waste management
system involves the use of a range of different management methods, and key to the
functioning of such a system is the collection and sorting of the waste. (Senkoro,
2003).
It is important to note that no one single treatment method can manage all the waste
materials in an environmentally effective way. Thus all of the available management
and disposal options must be evaluated equally and the best combination of the

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available options suited to the particular community chosen. Effective management

schemes therefore need to operate in ways which best meet current social, economic,
and environmental conditions of the municipality. (Schubeler de Klundert et al 2001).

Figure 4.2 Elements of Integrated Solid Waste Management (source

http://viso.ei.jrc.it/iwmlca/)

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Chapter Five

Sustainable Development Goals and their relationship to water resources and

solid waste management

5.1 water resource and sustainable development goals

The Sustainable Development Goals, agreed upon in September 2015,

included assurance to provide a universal access to sanitation and drinking water
services by 2030. Targets 6.1 and 6.2 on drinking water and sanitation will measure
safely managed services, which include closing the sanitation loop to include
treatment and reuse, and making safe drinking water available when needed (General
Assembly, 2015.). This is a significant policy change that will increase the level of
ambition beyond the basic access previously measured in the Millennium
Development Goals, agreed upon between the years 2000 and 2015.
In the international development arena, sustainability of water and sanitation and
hygiene (WASH) services refers to the durability of services over time. In other
words, sustainability is understood as the continued provision of a service with certain
agreed characteristics over time (Lockwood, H.; Smits, 2012).
The focus on sustainability is a very welcome response to the growing recognition
that was newly delivered by WASH services, though too often fails to provide
continuing benefits to their users. Data from 20 countries, for example, show that 35–
40 percent of hand pumps in Sub-Saharan Africa are not functional (Hand Pump Data
2009). Analysis of large-scale Water Point Mapping Data in seven Sub-Saharan
countries showed between 16 percent and 43 percent of non-functionality; in four
countries where data was depicted over time, data shows that at least after only one
year, functionality of a hand-pumped well has dropped to 75 percent (Tincani, L.;
Ross, I.; Zaman, R.; Burr, P.; Mujica, A.; Evans, B. 2015). These rates of failure

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concur with other findings made in the same region by (Jiménez, A.; Pérez-Foguet, A.
2010 and Mackintosh, G.; Colvin, C. 2003), but also globally by (Katz, T.; Sara, J.J.
2015). In the field of sanitation and hygiene, most of the currently used approaches
based on triggering a collective response to achieve total sanitation at community
level face two challenges; first, a high proportion of triggered communities do not
achieve to eliminate the Open Defecation Status (Jiménez, A.; Mtango, F.; Cairncross,
S. 2014); and, secondly, for those that do, the issue of slippage (when communities
revert to defecating in the open), remains a high risk in some interventions (Tyndale-
Biscoe, P.; Bond, M.; Kidd, R. 2013).
In parallel with the growing evidence on low sustainability, there has been a growing
body of research on the main factors affecting sustainability of rural water supply and
sanitation in the past decade (Harvey, P.; Reed, 2004). Even if significant progress has
been made in better understanding the importance of factors such as revenue
collection (Haysom, A. 2016), community demand (Montgomery, M.; Bartram, J.;
Elimelech, M. 2009), community participation (Narayan, D.2015) and gender
considerations (Gross, B.; Van Wik, C.; Mukherjee, N. 2001) in keeping services
flowing, there is no general agreement on which factors are more important for
sustainability and how they relate to each other. Elements commonly seen as
beneficial to the long-term sustainability of WASH service, such as community
management (Harvey, P.; Reed, B. 2007), or community financing (Harvey, P. 2007),
may not prove essential, or even positive, for lasting services in some cases.
In addition, complexity is being acknowledged. Some authors identify as many as 25
factors affecting sustainability of rural water supply (Carter, R. 2015). However, there
is little systematic evidence of whether the demand-driven community-based
approach is fully effective (Whittington, D.; Davis, J.; Prokopy, L.; Komives, K.;
Thorsten, R.; Lukacs, H. 2009).
Two elements come out clearly from these discussions: (i) since sustainability is a
complex issue that plays out differently in different settings, the context is key:

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strategies adopted in one place might not be appropriate in another setting; (ii) soft
governance issues dealing with institutions, roles and regulations, and the capacity to
implement agreed rules remain essential for continuous delivery of services, as shown
in multi country studies for different services (Luxembourg, 2012. and Calow, R.;
Ludi, E.; Tucker, J., Eds.; 2015).
Against this background, international organizations active in the area of WASH have
developed
their own frameworks (e.g., (Water Aid. 2012) and numerous assessment tools for this
purpose; a recent review found 25 clearly defined and usable tools targeted at
sustainability assessments, and over 200 more in circulation (Schweitzer, R.C.;
Grayson, H.; Lockwood, H. 2014). Platforms have been put in place to enable WASH
actors to share knowledge (Sustainable WASH, 2015), and WASH Sustainability
Charter has been developed.

5.2 Expressed relationships between the Solid Waste Management and SDGs

If it functions properly, solid waste management (SWM) is a key utility service that
generally goes by unnoticed. However, if it does not function well, SWM keeps
drawing public, political, and media attention in the country (The Guardian (Nigeria).
12 January 2017, Obi, L.; Muiruri, B. Stink, 2016 and Nonor, D. Shame, 2014 ). If
the SWM completely stops functioning, the situation amounts to a crisis and reaches
the headlines locally and internationally. The relatively recent case in point is that of
Campania, Italy, which filled the media around the world with distressing pictures of
streets clogged with piles of uncollected waste, drainage channels along country roads
that had become ad hoc dumping grounds, and lorries standing still in long queues,
unable to unload waste anywhere (D’Alisa, G.; Burgalassi, H.; Healy, H.; Walyer, M.
2010 and D’Amato, A.; Zoli, M. 2012).
As such, SWM is a crosscutting issue that affects and impacts various areas of

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sustainable Development in each of the three sustainability domains: ecology,

economy, and society. The affected areas include living conditions, sanitation, public
health, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, access to decent jobs, as well as the
sustainable use of natural resources. Accordingly, out of 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the 193
UN Member States in September 2015 (UN, Sustainable Development Goals, 2016),
at least 12 SDGs and their pertinent targets have a direct link to SWM. Not being a
high-level SDG in its own right could potentially threaten to reduce the ‘visibility’ of
SWM as a political priority; however, United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP)’s recent Global Waste Management Outlook (GWMO) (Wilson, D.C., Ed.;
feb 2017) developed the contrary argument, that the crosscutting nature of SWM and
its impact on the SDGs is not only on one but on 12 SDGs should only emphasize the
importance and increase the political priority of the SWM,

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Table 1. Relationship between Sustainable Development Goals and Solid Waste

Management

Sustainable Development Solid Waste

Management (SWM)

Sustainable Specific Target SWM Related ‘Virtual

Development Goal SDG’ II
(SDG)
SDG 11: Sustainable cities 11.1 Ensure access for all Goal 1. Ensure access
to adequate, safe, and for all to adequate, safe,
affordable basic services; and affordable solid
upgrading slums waste collection services.
Uncollected waste is often
11.6 Reduce the adverse dumped in waterways or
environmental impact of burned in the open air,
cities; special attention to thus directly causing
waste management pollution and
contamination. Waste also
clogs the drains, which
exacerbates floods,
keeping stagnant water
and contributing to water-
borne diseases and
malaria. Children are
among the most
vulnerable, so they are

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affected the most.

SDG 3: Good health and 3.2 End preventable deaths
well-being of children under 5 years
3.3 End malaria and
combat water-borne
diseases
3.9 Reduce illnesses from
hazardous chemicals and
air, water and soil
pollution, and
contamination
SDG 12: Responsible 12.4 Environmentally Goal 2. Eliminate
consumption and sound management of uncontrolled dumping
production chemicals and all wastes in and open burning, as the
order to minimize their first stepping-stone to
adverse impacts on human achieving
health and the environment environmentally sound
SWM practices
SDG 6: Clean water and 6.3 Improve water quality Goal 3. Achieve
Sanitation by reducing pollution, environmentally sound
eliminating dumping and management of all
minimizing release of wastes, particularly
hazardous materials hazardous wastes (either
chemical or biological
hazardous wastes).
SDG 15: Life on land 15.1 Ensure the
conservation of terrestrial
and inland freshwater

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ecosystems and their

services
SDG 7: Affordable and 7.2 Increase the share of Goal 3. SWM
clean energy renewable energy in the technologies can derive
global energy mix renewable energy from
(organic) waste
SDG 13: Climate action SDG 13: Take urgent Goal 3. Adequate
action to combat climate SWM practices can prevent
change and its impacts emissions of large amounts
of greenhouse gases.
SDG 14: Life below 14.1 Prevent marine Goal 1 and Goal 2.
Water pollution of all kinds, in Extending waste collection
particular from land-based to all and eliminating
activities, including marine uncontrolled dumping will
debris prevent waste (particularly
plastics) ending up in the
oceans.
SDG 12: Responsible 12.5 Reduce waste through Goal 4. Substantially
consumption and prevention, reduction, reduce waste generation
production recycling, and reuse through prevention and
12.3 Halve global food the 3Rs (reduce, reuse,
waste and reduce food recycle) and thereby
losses along production create ‘green’ jobs
and supply chains This Waste prevention is the
SDG also contributes to highest-ranking option in
SDG 2: Zero hunger—End the waste management
hunger, achieve food hierarchy. It is followed by
security and improved

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nutrition, reuse of products or

and promote sustainable their parts, and then by
agriculture recycling of component
materials.
Goal 5. Halve per
capita global food waste
at the retail and
consumer levels and
reduce food losses in the
supply chain
SDG 1: No poverty 1.4 Ensure that all men and Goal 4
women, in particular the Reuse and recycling have a
poor and the vulnerable, significant potential for
have equal rights to creation of jobs.
economic resources and
financial services,
including microfinance
SDG 8: Decent work and SDG 8: Promote inclusive Goal 1 and Goal 4
economic growth and sustainable economic In developing countries,
growth, employment and SWM services are often
decent work for all provided by individuals
and small and
microenterprises. Any
measures applied to
support them will improve
livelihoods and directly
contribute to SDGs 1 and

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8.

In essence, the SDGs have the same driving forces as those that have been driving
development of SWM activities over time, namely: public health, environmental
concerns, and resource value, with relatively recent additions of climate change and
inclusivity (Wilson, D.C. 2007). Protection of public health was the main driving
force behind the early attempts to introduce some form of solid waste collection in
cities around the world hundreds of years ago (Barles, S. 2007). While in the past
most cities and towns have been able to organize some level of services to their
citizens, in recent decades many of them have been struggling to keep up with the
amounts of waste generated, particularly in developing countries, (The Guardian
(Nigeria). 12 January 2017, Obi, L.; Muiruri, B. Stink, 2016 and Nonor, D. Shame,
2014). Such an increase in waste amounts is a result of an ever-increasing urban
population, largely due to unprecedented rates of rural-urban migration, and of
economic development accompanied by changes in consumption patterns and changes
in waste material composition. As a consequence, more than 2 billion people still do
not have access to basic waste collection services (Wilson, D.C., Ed.; 20150).
In developing countries, while people leave their villages for prospects of employment
and generally ‘a better life’ for themselves and their families in the cities, they usually
start their urban life in slums or similar informal settlements, under very challenging
living conditions, lacking basic infrastructure and services. Their specific needs are
addressed by Target 11.1: “By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and
affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums”.
Solid waste collection therefore, is one of the basic services, which, together with
sanitation, would make a considerable difference to the lives of billions of people

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worldwide, probably those who need development the most. The uncollected waste is
usually just dumped in watercourses or vacant land or burned in the open air near the
residences. Such practices pose health risks to the residents, with children being
especially affected. Dumped waste also clogs drains, which exacerbates floods and the
damage that floods cause to public health and property (Lamond, J.; Bhattacharya, N.;
Bloch, R. 2012 and Wilson, D.C.; Velis, C.A.; Rodic, L. 2013). However, even in
places where waste is collected, it may still end up being dumped in low-lying areas
or just anywhere outside the city. This means that open dumping will affect local
water sources and adversely affect the environment. More than 3 billion people lack
access to controlled disposal for their waste (Wilson, D.C., Ed.; 2015). In recognition
of this global problem, SDG Target 11.6 states: “By 2030, reduce the adverse per
capita environmental impact of cities, including paying a special attention to air
quality and municipal and other waste management”. Also, SDG 6 on water and
sanitation explicitly addresses the problem of waste dumping in its Target 6.3: “By
2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and
minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of
untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally”.
Consequently, tackling this global waste crisis, by ensuring access to adequate, safe,
and affordable solid waste collection services for all and by eliminating uncontrolled
dumping and open burning, would constitute a major contribution to sustainable
development exactly as defined by the UN SDGs.
In addition to that, the elimination of open dumping is the necessary stepping stone
toward environmentally sound waste disposal, which is explicitly addressed by Target
12.4: “By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all
wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international
frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to
minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment”.
When the modernization process of waste management started in developed countries

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in the 1970s, ‘it was largely defined in engineering terms—a technical problem with a
technical solution. Accordingly, there is a considerable body of scientific and
professional literature on technologies necessary for waste collection and waste
disposal (Coffey, M.; Coad, A. 2010, Coffey, M.; Coad, A. 1996, McBean, E.A.;
Rovers, F.A.; Farquhar, G.J. 1995 and Rushbrook, P.; Pugh, M. 1999 ). Gradually,
however, as many city authorities would confirm from their own experience, the
world community learnt that no technology could on its own solve the problems
related to economic and social sustainability of waste management activities. In other
words, the governance aspects of the necessary actions in solid waste management
were needed to be duly considered. In comparison to technical aspects, governance
aspects however, have been less systematically examined, particularly in relation to
SDGs.

CHAPTER SIX

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General discussions related to South Sudan’s position on solid waste management

The study has highlighted that solid waste management system in south Sudan is
seriously defective. Thus, a closer look at the solid waste management system’s
functional elements (waste generation, waste handling and separation, storage and
processing, collection and final disposal), exposes challenges which put the position
of south Sudan in regard to waste management in a dire situation as discussed below.
6.1 Solid waste production and its composition
The municipal solid waste stream in South Sudan is dominated by plastic which
constitute the highest amount of all the other types of municipal solid waste being
generated. This is generally due to the prevailing poor sanitary conditions whereby
most people tend to drink distilled bottled water as a way of minimizing bacterial
infections. This to say the type of the municipal solid waste in south Sudan is different
to some extent from the type found in other developing countries whereby food waste
is the dominant. For example, in Nigeria the food waste reported comprises 52-65%
of the total solid waste generated (Imam et al., 2008); in India, food waste represent
about 40-60% (Sharholy et al.,2008) and in Jordan it was 54-78% (Abu, 2007). Here,
the standard of living could have been a major factor; in South Sudan, the living
standard is very low for most of the population, thus, food waste is almost the lowest,
a clear indication that food processing is not in abundance.

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Moses mayor madingAnyak, B.Sc Tel:+211926502030/+211954557121 [email protected]

Figure 1 shows how dominant plastic wastes and how people try to get rid of it by
burning.

Photo taken near James Hotel (Hai Cinema in Juba)

6.2 Solid waste compilation in south Sudan

Collection of the solid waste in south Sudan is a joint endeavor between the city
council authorities and private companies, where a door-to-door collection system is
applied. In the system waste the city council authorities and private pickers collect
garbage from shops and streets and load it either onto a truck, lorry, or wellbores as
there are still no waste compactors trucks available.
Unfortunately, the pickers lack all the necessary appropriate equipment except having
only rakes, spades and non-waste specified bags. Their working conditions are
generally unhygienic; implying that there is high health risk. The famous and the only
company involved with semblance hygienic conditions is the Southern Express

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Moses mayor madingAnyak, B.Sc Tel:+211926502030/+211954557121 [email protected]

Company. However, this company is only responsible for the collection of solid waste
of Juba, whereas the rest of the states and cities are in the responsibility of the state
council without any relevant companies. Nonetheless, one big problem with this
company is that, it is very selective in providing the services. For example, the areas
that it regularly serves are mostly the upper class citizen dwelling in places like
Riverside (where most of the hotels are located), Hai Malakal, and some other areas
where the NGOs, UN agencies and Ministries are located. Surprisingly, all the
aforementioned areas represent a very low number of the entire Juba population. The
Juba town council is trying its best to render services to all its citizens but lacks the
capacity to carter for the huge and ever increasing population. In an interview
conducted with some few citizens, a common complaint found out was that the waste
collecting vehicles delay for several weeks, hence, making the waste to get rotten and
produces bad odor. As a counteraction, the truck drivers also complain of poor access
into the residential areas.

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Figure 2 shows the municipal solid wastes compilation process in Juba.

Photo near Juba university

6.3 Municipal solid waste disposal in South Sudan:

In many cities of the developing countries and especially the most underdeveloped,
one to two thirds of the municipal solid wastes generated are not collected (Firdaus
and Ahmad, 2010). As a result, the uncollected wastes, which are often also mixed
with human and animal excreta, are dumped indiscriminately in the streets and in
drains, so contributing to stagnant water, breeding of insect and rodent vectors and the
spreading of diseases (Cointreau, 1982; Zurbrügg, 2002). It is very unfortunate that in

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Moses mayor madingAnyak, B.Sc Tel:+211926502030/+211954557121 [email protected]

the developing countries most wastes are disposed of in open dumps, deposited on
vacant land, or burned by residents in their backyards (Medina, 2010; Visvanathan
and Glawe, 2006).
Insufficient collection and inadequate disposal generate significant pollution problems
and risks to human health and the environment (Medina, 2010). The situation in South
Sudan totally and practically is in accordance with those authors’ findings. There is no
sanitary landfills available for municipal solid waste disposal: South Sudan’s solid
wastes and Bor town’s for that matter are being dumped indiscriminately on the land
and partially outside of the town at the designated open dumping site about 15 km
away from the town, but completely none in some town. Most governments in the
developing countries are however, aware of the seriousness of the municipal solid
waste pollution problem, but the rapid population growth and lack of trained
personnel hinder their capacity to provide this most deserved service to the citizens
(Asnani, 2006). This is the case in South Sudan, where the government is unable to
render such services to all its citizens. Thus, there is that tendency to direct the
services to the high profile residential areas. Hence, it becomes obvious that the low-
income residential areas are neglected. Therefore, left with no any other option,
residents tend either to dump their garbage at the nearest vacant land, public space,
river/streambeds, or simply burn it in their backyards. Uncollected waste can
accumulate on the streets and clog drains which might cause water stagnation.
When it rains, waste can also be carried away by the runoff water to streams and
rivers and this has a negative effect on the water sources in and around the towns. Still
one of the worst practice of all the above mentioned with regards to municipal solid
waste disposal in South Sudan is the illegal dumping in Streambeds.

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6.4 The direct impact of illegal dumping in streambeds:

As mentioned above, majority of the local inhabitants of South Sudan and Bor town
for that matter do not have any garbage service. As a result, many use the dry stream
beds that traverse the nation as dumping areas. Once the rain comes, these masses of
wastes are washed into the adjacent River Nile or its tributaries. Regrettably, most
residents of the country still depend on these surface water bodies for water supply
and especially for drinking and bathing. This explains in part the high incidence of
persistent typhoid, diarrhea and cholera at certain wet times of the year. This is a clear
indication that there exists a strong link between rainy season, municipal solid waste
pollution and some water born diseases. However, a more detailed scientific research
needs to be done so that this can be proved further.

6.5 The impact of the municipal solid waste pollution on the human health
Municipal solid waste pollution is believed to be a major source of surface water
pollution. Thus, couple with the poor sanitation poses a direct effect on the water
quality. Poor water quality and sanitation can be directly reflected in the high rate
incidence of waterborne diseases, which is currently a serious health problem in south
Sudan. The incidence of these diseases is highly seasonal. The greatest problems
usually occur at the start of the rainy season as the rains and run-off washes the wastes
and fecal matter that have accumulated during the dry season into the streams and the
River Nile. Waterborne illnesses such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery, diarrhea,
hepatitis A and a number of tropical diseases including malaria become a real threat to
the public health at such a time. For example, in 2005 and 2006, Southern Sudan
experienced a major cholera outbreak in several towns including Yei, Juba, Bor and
Malakal (UNEP, 2007). The total number of people reported affected was over
16,000, with over 470 deaths (WHO, 2006). Cholera as known is a waterborne disease
linked to fecal pollution of drinking water. The logical connection here is that

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municipal solid waste pollution provides favorable breeding sites for such diseases
vectors and especially during the rainy season.
Also Pielou (1998) pointed out human and animal fecal waste contains disease-
carrying organisms such as the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) and pathogens that
cause cholera, typhoid and cryptosporidiosis. Also, according to Todar (2007),
virulent strains of E. coli can cause gastroenteritis, urinary tract infection and neonatal
meningitis. In rare cases, virulent strains are also responsible for heamolytic-uremic
syndrome, peritonitis, mastitis, septicaemia and Gramnegative pneumonia. Someone
who has E. coli infection may have the symptoms of bad stomach cramps and belly
pain, vomiting, and diarrhea, which is sometimes bloody. All these symptoms are very
commonly observed in south Sudan.

6.6 Factors that cheer the municipal solid waste pollution in South Sudan:
The major factor is the financial constraints. This is of course a typical characteristic
of most of the developing countries and specifically the most underdeveloped. Some
of the other factors are as below:
I. Rapid population growth: The rapid population growth in some town like
Juba makes it so difficult if not impossible for the government to provide even
the most basic services adequately to all.
II. Negligence of municipal solid waste management by the policy makers:
Municipal solid waste management in developing countries has received less
attention from policy makers and academics than that paid to other urban
environmental problems (Medina, 2010). This is the situation in South Sudan,
where the responsible authorities pay much attention to other matters other than
municipal solid waste management
III. Lack of awareness: This is obvious to happen because the authorities are even
unconcerned about the social well-fare of the citizens

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IV. Lack of access to waste collection: This is a real big problem due to a number
of factors:
 Most residential areas are unplanned
 Poor infrastructure: No good access routes to most residents
 Inadequacy of the authorities to render services to all
V The “nobody cares” or “it’s none of my business” attitude: This is the most
serious factor behind the entire municipal solid waste pollution problem in South
Sudan and Bor town. It starts right from the top government officials till to the street
boys/girls: everybody is apathy of what is happening in his/her surrounding. In Juba,
it is not a surprise to see an empty plastic water bottle being thrown out of the latest
Land Cruiser model (V8) being driven by very important people. Also in Suk Custom
and Konyokonyo market in Juba, one will not be surprised to find people running
their businesses normally besides what can be termed as “nobody cares’ hill” (a very
huge garbage in the market).
VI What of that system: most residents throw solid waste any how due to the
fact that somebody else has thrown down his/her just like that; saying why is the one
to care for the waste.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 CONCLUSION
The research has reviewed the municipal solid waste management as is an insidious
and serious problem in South Sudan as well as in the developing countries that
requires a very imperative solution. The ensued insinuation of the pollution from the
improper disposal of the solid waste is a peril to both the human health and the
environment. Municipal solid waste management practices is so laughable that it
becomes limited only to organized compilation for the more well off residential areas
and for the rest its dumping is just in the open land within or near the towns. In the
majority of cases, garbage of all types accumulates close to its point of origin and is
periodically burnt so as to reduce the volume. The most deplorable thing is that
happening is that, there is no any small scale somehow to manage waste, even as its
separation at source. All kinds of waste including medical wastes, human and animal
excretes can be seen within the usual waste stream. Waste is also commonly dumped
directly into seasonal watercourses or streams, thereby contributing to water pollution
and waterborne diseases. Open air burning seems to be the only and most common
method of waste disposal for the majority of the residents.
The study also found out that the municipal solid waste composition in south Sudan is
contrary to other developing countries, in the sense that is dominated by plastic waste
while in other developing countries it is dominated by organic and food waste.
For South Sudan to tackle the pollution problems of the unbridled municipal solid
waste, it must develop and execute good municipal solid waste management strategies
as soon as possible. But firstly and foremost, it has to invest heavily in urban planning
and capacity building for all its states. This will involve a process of importing a
know-how technology and ‘learning by doing’ through improved master planning for
each state capital. Secondly, South Sudan Government has to amplify investment in
environmental health-related infrastructures and services. And finally, it must also

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devote in training its human resources in issues pertaining to environmental

management.

7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
I. In case of the South Sudan, the national and state ministries of environmental
affairs, the town council authorities and the NGOs (especially UN agencies like
UNEP and WHO) should board on public awareness programs pertaining to
municipal solid waste management through conducting training workshops for
their personnel and the citizens.
II. Construction of sanitary landfills must be one of the pinnacle priorities of the
government’s programs so as to improve the situation.
III. The waste sector should be given priority it deserves in the government
(political) agenda.
IV. Waste management legal frameworks (policy, law and regulation) should be
developed at all levels of government in the country.
V. There must be an adequate annual government budgetary allocation to the
waste management sector at all levels.
VI. More studies are needed be carried out by the young scholars in South Sudan.
For example, studies that look at the correlations between the municipal solid
waste, water pollution and some of the water borne diseases are much needed
in the country so that the right strategies and regulations for solid waste
management are developed and put into practice so as to sustainably protect the
environment.

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