Principle of Steel

Design
Lecture 1 - Introduction
Steel Design Philosophies
NSCP 2015

ASD (Allowable Strength Design) LRFD (Load and Resisting Factor

Design)
Working Stress Ultimate Load
(Unfactored Load) (Factored Load)
Principle of Steel
Design
Lecture 2 – Tension Members
Tension Members
- Tension members are structural elements that are subjected to axial tensile
forces. They are used in various types of structures and include truss members,
bracing for buildings and bridges, cables in suspended roof systems, and cables in
suspension and cable stayed bridges.
𝑃
- The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by 𝑓=
𝐴

Where P is the magnitude of the load and A is the cross-sectional area (the area normal to the load).
Introduction
- If the cross-sectional area of a tension member varies along its length, the stress
is a function of the particular section under consideration. The presence of holes in
a member will influence the stress at a cross section through the hole or holes.
Introduction

- The typical design problem is to select a member with sufficient cross-sectional

area to resist the loads. A closely related problem is that of analysis, or review, of
a given member, where in the strength is computed and compared with the load.
In general, analysis is a direct procedure, but design is an iterative process and
may require some trial and error.
Tensile Strength
- A tension member can fail by reaching one of two limit states: excessive
deformation or fracture. To prevent excessive deformation, initiated by
yielding, the load on the gross section must be small enough that the stress on
the gross section is less than the yield stress Fy. To prevent fracture, the stress
on the net section must be less than the tensile strength Fu.
• The nominal strength in yielding is
𝑷𝒏 = 𝑭𝒚𝑨𝒈 (NSCP 2015 504.2-1)
𝑨𝒈 = Gross Area or total cross-sectional area (Section 504.3.1)
• The nominal strength in rupture is
𝑷𝒏 = 𝑭𝒖𝑨𝒆 (NSCP 2015 504.2-2)
where Ae is the effective net area, which may be equal to either the net area or,
in some cases, a smaller area
𝑨𝒆 = 𝑨𝒏𝑼(NSCP 2015 504.3-1)
NET AREAS (AISC)
- The exact amount of area to be deducted from the gross area to account for the presence of
bolt holes depends on the fabrication procedure. The usual practice is to drill or punch
standard holes (i.e., not oversized) with a diameter 1 ⁄16 inch larger than the fastener
diameter. To account for possible roughness around the edges of the hole, Section B4.3 of the
AISC Specification, requires the addition of 1 ⁄16 inch to the actual hole diameter. This
amounts to using an effective hole diameter 1 ⁄8 inch larger than the fastener diameter.
Tensile Strength (LRFD)
- In load and resistance factor design, the factored tensile load is compared to the design
strength. The design strength is the resistance factor times the nominal strength.

𝑷𝒖 = ∅𝑷𝒏

where 𝑃𝑢 is the governing combination of factored loads. The resistance factor ∅ is

smaller for fracture than for yielding, reflecting the more serious nature of fracture.

• For yielding, ∅ = 0.90

• For fracture, ∅ = 0.75

Because there are two limit states, both of the following conditions must be satisfied:

𝑷𝒖 ≤𝟎.𝟗𝑭𝒚𝑨𝒈

𝑷𝒖 ≤𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝑭𝒖𝑨𝒆

The smaller of these is the design strength of the member.

Tensile Strength (ASD)
In allowable strength design, the total service load is compared to the
allowable strength (allowable load).
𝑷𝒏
𝑷𝒂 ≤
Ω

𝑷𝒏
where 𝑷𝒂 is the required strength (applied load), and is the strength.
Ω
𝑷𝒏 𝑭𝒚𝑨𝒈
=
Ω Ω
• For yielding of the gross section, the safety factor Ω is 1.67
• For fracture of the net section, the safety factor Ω is 2.00
Example 1:
A 1⁄2 x 5 plate of A36 steel is used as a tension member. It is connected to a
gusset plate with four 5⁄8-inch-diameter bolts as shown in the figure.
Assume that the effective net area Ae equals the actual net area An
a. What is the design strength for LRFD?
b. What is the allowable strength for ASD?
Example 2:
A single-angle tension member, an L31⁄2 × 31⁄2 × 3⁄8, is connected to a gusset
plate with 7 ⁄8-inch-diameter bolts as shown. A36 steel is used. The service
loads are 35 kips dead load and 15 kips live load. Investigate this member for
compliance with the AISC Specification. Assume that the effective net area is
85% of the computed net area. Area of the section = 2.50 in2
a. Use LRFD.
b. Use ASD.
Example 3:
A double-angle shape is shown. The steel is A36, and the holes are for 1 ⁄2-inch-
diameter bolts. Assume that Ae = 0.75An. Area of angle bar is = 2.41 in2
a. Determine the design tensile strength for LRFD.
b. Determine the allowable strength for ASD.
Shear Lag Factor
- Shear lag occurs when some elements of the cross section are not
connected, as when only one leg of an angle is bolted to a gusset plate.
Example 6:
Determine the effective net area for the tension member shown. x̄= 1.67 in, A= 5.77 in
Example 7:
Determine the effective net area for the tension member shown. x̄= 1.67 in,
A= 5.77 in
Example 8:
Determine the effective area Ae for each case shown in Figure.

x̄ = 1.47 in

Ae = 4.17 in2. Ae = 1.13 in2. Ae = 2.31 in2.

Example 9:
For the tension member shown, determine the total service load (DL + LL)
if LL = 4DL use A36 steel.
a. LRFD
b. ASD
Example 10:
A 2C 180 mm × 22 is connected to a gusset plate with 24-mm-diameter bolts as shown in
Figure P3.2-7. The steel is A572 Grade 50. If the member is subjected to dead load and live
load only, what is the total service load capacity if the live-to-dead load ratio is 2? The bolt
is spaced 65 mm on center.
a. LRFD
b. ASD
Example 11:
Determine the nominal tensile strength based on the effective net area.
STAGGERED FASTENERS
- If a tension member connection is made with bolts, the net area will be
maximized if the fasteners are placed in a single line. Sometimes space
limitations, necessitate using more than one line. If so, the reduction in
cross sectional area is minimized if the fasteners are arranged in a
staggered pattern.
COCHRANE METHOD
- Several approximate methods have been proposed to account for the
effects of staggered holes. Cochrane (1922) proposed that when deducting
the area corresponding to a staggered hole, use a reduced diameter, given

𝑠2
𝑤𝑛 = 𝑤𝑔−∑𝑑 +∑
4g
STAGGERED FASTENERS
- When more than one failure pattern is conceivable, all possibilities should
be investigated, and the one corresponding to the smallest load capacity
should be used. Note that this method will not accommodate failure
patterns with lines parallel to the applied load.
Example 1:
Compute the smallest net area for the plate shown in Figure 3.15. The holes are for 1-inch-diameter bolts.
Example 2:
The 200 mm x 150 mm x 12.5 mm angle has one line of 20 mm diameter bolts in each leg. The bolts are 75 mm
on center in each line and are staggered 37.5 mm with respect to each other. Fy = 248 MPa, Fu = 400 MPa.
Standard nominal hole diameter of 20 mm bolt is 21 mm . Area of angular section is equal to 4355 mm2.

a. Compute the net area of the given section.

b. Compute the effective net area.

c. Compute the maximum tensile load that the section could carry using ASD and LRFD.
Example 3:
A miscellaneous channel MC 300 x 67 is bolted as shown on the figure by a 20 mm diameter bolts. A36 steel is
used. Standard nominal hole diameter for 20 mm bolt is 21 mm.

a. Compute the net area of the channel section.

b. Compute the effective net area of the channel section.

c. Compute the tensile strength of the channel section using ASD and LRFD.
Example 4:
A single-angle tension member 175 mm x 100 mm x 18 mm has two gage lines in its long leg and one in the
short leg for 16 mm bolts arranged as shown. Area of the angular section is 4961 mm2 . Use A36 steel. Standard
nominal hole diameter for 16 mm bolt is 17 mm.

a. Compute the net area of the angular section.

b. Compute the tension strength of the angular section based on the gross area using ASD and LRFD.

c. Compute the tension strength of the angular section based on the net area using ASD and LRFD.
Example 5:
From the bolted connection shown, the steel plates which is 275 mm x 12 mm is connected by bolts having
diameter of hole equal to 2 mm greater than the 25 mm diameter bolts. A36 steel is used.

a. Compute the horizontal spacing (pitch) of rivets which will cause the strength of the plates to be equal to the
strength of the plates to be equal to the strength of rivets. Assume Ae = An
BLOCK SHEAR
- For certain connection configurations, a segment or “block” of material at
the end of the member can tear out. For example, the connection of the
single-angle tension member shown. It is susceptible to this phenomenon,
called block shear.
Block shear
- The model used in the AISC Specification assumes that failure occurs by rupture
(fracture) on the shear area and rupture on the tension area. Both surfaces
contribute to the total strength, and the resistance to block shear will be the sum of
the strengths of the two surfaces. The shear rupture stress is taken as 60% of the
tensile ultimate stress, so the nominal strength in shear is 0.6𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑣 and the nominal
strength in tension is 𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑡.

Where:

𝐴𝑛𝑣= net area along the shear surface or surfaces

𝐴𝑛𝑡= net area along the tension surface

Nominal Strength
• Nominal Strength if the tension stress is uniform (angles, plates, and most coped beams) 𝑈𝑏𝑠 = 1.0

𝑅𝑛= 0.6𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑣+𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑡

• Nominal Strength if the tension stress is nonuniform, 𝑈𝑏𝑠 = 0.5

𝑅𝑛= 0.6𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑣+0.5𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑡

• The AISC Specification limits the 0.6𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑣 term to 0.6𝐹y𝐴𝑔𝑣.

𝑅𝑛 = 0.6𝐹y𝐴𝑔𝑣+ 𝑈𝑏𝑠 𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑡

and gives one equation to cover all cases as follows:

𝑅𝑛= 0.6𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑣+𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑡 ≤ 0.6𝐹y𝐴𝑔𝑣+ 𝑈𝑏𝑠 𝐹𝑢𝐴𝑛𝑡

LRFD, ∅=0.75

ASD, Ω= 2.00
 CRITICAL SECTIONS FOR BLOCK SHEAR

A. Bolted Angle B. Bolted Flange of W section C. Bolted Connection

D. Welded Plates E. Welded Connection F. Bolted Connection with staggered rivets

Example 1:
From the figure shown, an angular section 102 mm x 76 mm x 6.4 mm is riveted by a 20 mm diameter rivets
arranged as indicated. Assume A36 steel Fy = 248 MPa. Fu = 400 MPa. Area of the section = 1090mm2

a. Determine the capacity of the section based on yielding of gross area.

b. Determine the capacity of the section based on tensile fracture of the net area.

c. Determine the capacity of the section based on block shear failure.

Example 2:
Two plates each with thickness t = 16 mm are bolted together with 6 – 22 mm dia. Bolts forming a lap
connection. Bolt spacing are as follows: S1 = 40 mm , S2 = 80 mm, S3 = 100 mm. Effective Bolt hole diameter = 25
mm

a. Determine the allowable strength of the section based on yielding of gross area.

b. Determine the design strength of the section based on tensile fracture of the net area.

c. Determine the capacity of the section based on block shear failure using LRFD and ASD.
Example 3:
A W10x12 (W250x17.9) A36 steel is used as tension member, 6-16 mm diameter bolt is used to connect the
member attached to each flange as shown.

a. Determine its allowable strength based on yielding.

b. Determine its design strength based on rupture.

c. Determine its ultimate strength based on block shear.

 Example 4:
A lapped, bolted tension member is shown. Diameter of bolts are 20 mm ø and the plate
material is A 36 steel Fy = 248 MPa., Fu = 400 MPa. Assume the fasteners are adequate and do
not control the tensile capacity. Diameter of the effective hole is 5mm bigger than the diameter
of bolt. Each plate is 10 mm thick.
a. Determine the allowable strength of the lapped joint based on yielding of gross area.
b. Determine the design strength of the lapped joint based on tensile fracture of the net area.
c. Determine the capacity of the lapped joint based on block shear failure using LRFD and
ASD.
Principle of Steel
Design
Lecture 3 – Compression Members
Compression Members
- Compression members are structural elements that are subjected only to axial com pressive
forces; that is, the loads are applied along a longitudinal axis through the centroid of the
𝑃
member cross section, and the stress can be taken as 𝑓 = , where f is considered to be
𝐴
uniform over the entire cross section. This ideal state is never achieved in reality, however,
because some eccentricity of the load is inevitable. Bending will result, but it usually can be
regarded as secondary. As we shall see, the AISC Specification equations for compression
member strength account for this accidental eccentricity
- The most common type of compression member occurring in buildings and bridges is the
column, a vertical member whose primary function is to support vertical loads. In many
instances, these members are also subjected to bending, and in these cases, the member is a
beam–column.
Modes of Buckling
• Flexural Buckling (Euler Buckling) – It is the primary type of buckling caused by bending,
or flexure, about the axis corresponding to the largest slenderness ratio. This is usually the
minor principal axis – the one with the smallest radius of gyration. Compression members
with any type of cross-sectional configuration can fail in this way.
• Torsional Buckling – This mode of buckling is caused by twisting about the longitudinal
axis of the member. It can occur only with double symmetrical cross sections with very
slender cross-sectional elements. Standard hot-rolled shapes are not susceptible to torsional
buckling, but members built up from thin plate elements may be and should be
investigated. This shape can be fabricated from plates or built up from four angles placed
back-to-back.
• Flexural-torsional Buckling – This mode of buckling may occur in columns that have
certain cross-sectional configurations. This is caused by a combination of flexural buckling
and torsional buckling. The member bends and twists simultaneously. This type of failure
can occur only with unsymmetrical cross-sections, both those with one axis of symmetry –
such as channels, structural tees, double-angle shapes, and equal-leg single angles – and
those with no axis of symmetry, such as unequal-leg single angles.
Euler’s Column Buckling Theory
Consider the long, slender compression member shown in the figure. If the axial load P is slowly
applied, it will ultimately become large enough to cause the member to become unstable and
assume the shape indicated by the dashed line. The member is said to have buckled, and the
corresponding load is called the critical buckling load.
Euler’s Column Buckling Theory
If the member is short, as shown in the figure, a larger load will be required to bring the member
to the point of instability. For extremely stocky members, failure may occur by compressive
𝑃
yielding rather than buckling. Prior to failure, the compressive stress will be uniform over the
𝐴
cross section at any point along the length, whether the failure is by yielding or by buckling.
 Euler’s Column Buckling Theory
For a member to buckle elastically, it will have to be long and slender – that is, the stress just
before buckling is below the proportional limit – the critical buckling load is given by:

π𝟐𝑬𝑰
Pcr =
𝑳𝟐

Where:

E = modulus of elasticity of the material

I = moment of inertia of the cross – sectional area with respect to the minor principal axis

L = length of the member between points of support

 Euler’s Column Buckling Theory
For the Euler’s Buckling Stress:

π𝟐𝑬
Fe =
(𝑲𝑳/𝒓)𝟐

Where:

KL/r = effective slenderness ratio

 NSCP 2015 / AISC REQUIREMENTS
General Provisions (NSCP 2015 section 505.1 / AISC Section E1)
Pn
• The design compressive strength, ϕPn, and the allowable compressive strength, are determined as follows:
𝛺

Pu = ϕPn

Pn
Pa =
𝛺

• The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be lowest value obtained based on the applicable limit stress of flexural
buckling, torsional buckling, and flexural-torsional buckling.

Φ = 0.90 (LFRD) 𝛺 = 1.67 (ASD)

 NSCP 2015 / AISC REQUIREMENTS
Slenderness Limitations and effective length (NSCP 2015 section 505.2 / AISC Section E2)
• The effective length factor, K, for calculation of member slenderness, KL/r, shall be determined using AISC table C-A-7.1

Where:

L = laterally unbraced length of the member, in. (mm)

r = radius of gyration, in. (mm)

User note: For members designed on the basis of compression, the effective slenderness ratio, KL/r preferably should not
exceed 200.
 NSCP 2015 / AISC REQUIREMENTS
Classification of sections for local buckling (NSCP 2015 section 502.4 / AISC Section B4.1)
• For compression, sections are classified as non-slender element or slender-element sections. For a non-slender element
section, the width-to-thickness ratios of its compression elements shall not exceed λr from AISC Table B4.1a. If the
width-to-thickness ration of any compression element exceeds λr, the section is a slender-element section.

For Wide-flange element:

Flange element:

𝐸 𝑏𝑓
λr = 0.56 > (not slender flange)
𝐹𝑦 2𝑡𝑓

𝐸 𝑏𝑓
λr = 0.56 < (slender flange)
𝐹𝑦 2𝑡𝑓

Web element:

𝐸 ℎ
λr = 1.49 > (not slender flange)
𝐹𝑦 𝑡𝑤

𝐸 ℎ
λr = 1.49 < (slender flange)
𝐹𝑦 𝑡𝑤
 NSCP 2015 / AISC REQUIREMENTS
• Unstiffened elements (NSCP 2015 Section 502.4.1 / AISC Section B4.1a)

For unstiffened elements supported along only one edge parallel to the direction of the compression force, the width shall
be taken as follows:

(a) For flange of I-shaped members and tees, the width b is one-half the full-flange width bf.

(b) For legs of angles and flange of channels and zees, the width b is the full nominal dimension.

(c) For plates, width b is the distance from the free edge to the first row of fasteners or line of welds.

(d) For stems of tees, b is taken as the full nominal depth of the section.

• Stiffened elements (NSCP 2015 Section 502.4.2 / AISC Section B4.1b)

Stiffened elements on some typical steel sections and the measurement of the element width h and thickness t. Note that a
W-shape and channel sections have one stiffened element and a square or rectangular HSS has four stiffened elements in
its cross section.
Compressive strength for flexural buckling of members without
slender elements (NSCP 2015 Section 505.3 / AISC Section E3
• This section applies to non slender element compression members as defined in AISC Section B4.1 for elements in
uniform compression.
• The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined based on the limit state of flexural buckling elements in
uniform compression.
Pn = FcrAg (AISC Equation E3-1)
• The critical stress, Fcr, is determined as follows:
𝐸 𝐹𝑦
(a) When KL/r ≤ 4.71 (or ≤ 2.25)
𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑒
𝐹𝑦

Fcr = [0.658 𝐹𝑒 ] Fy (ASIC Equation E3-2)

𝐸 𝐹𝑦
(b) When KL/r > 4.71 (or > 2.25)
𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑒

Fcr = 0.877Fe (ASIC Equation E3-3)

Where:
Fe = elastic buckling stress
π𝟐𝑬
Fe = (ASIC Equation E3-4)
(𝑲𝑳/𝒓)𝟐
Compressive strength for flexural buckling of members with
slender elements (NSCP 2015 Section 505.3 / AISC Section E3
• This section applies to slender element compression members as defined in AISC Section B4.1 for elements in uniform
compression.
• The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined based on the limit state of flexural buckling elements in
uniform compression.
Pn = FcrAg
The critical stress, Fcr, is determined as follows:
𝐸 𝑄𝐹𝑦
(a) When KL/r ≤ 4.71 (or ≤ 2.25)
𝑄𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑒
𝑄𝐹𝑦

Fcr = Q[0.658 𝐹𝑒 ] Fy
𝐸 𝑄𝐹𝑦
(b) When KL/r > 4.71 (or > 2.25)
𝑄𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑒

Fcr = 0.877Fe

Where:
Q = net reduction factor accounting for all slender compression elements
Q = QsQa for members with slender-element section
User note:
• For cross sections composed of only unstiffened slender elements, Q = Qs
• For cross sections composed of only stiffened slender elements, Q = Qa
• For cross sections composed of both stiffened and unstiffened slender elements, Q = QsQa
• For cross sections composed of multiple unstiffened slender elements, it is conservative to use smaller Q s from the more
slender element in determining the member strength for pure compression.

• Slender Unstiffened Elements, Qs

(a) For flanges, angles and plates projecting from rolled columns or other compression members:
𝑏 𝐸
(i) When ≤ 0.56
𝑡 𝐹𝑦

Qs = 1
𝐸 𝑏 𝐸
(ii) When 0.56 < ≤ 1.03
𝐹𝑦 𝑡 𝐹𝑦

𝑏 𝐹𝑦
Qs = 1.415 – 0.74 ( )
𝑡 𝐸

𝑏 𝐸
(iii) When ≥ 1.03
𝑡 𝐹𝑦
0.69𝐸
Qs = 𝑏
𝐹𝑦 ( 𝑡 ) 2
(b) For flanges, angles and plates projecting from built I-shaped columns or other compression members:

𝑏 𝐸𝑘𝑐
(i) When 𝑡 ≤ 0.64 𝐹𝑦

Qs = 1

𝐸𝑘𝑐 𝑏 𝐸𝑘𝑐
(ii) When 0.64 𝐹𝑦
< 𝑡
≤ 1.17 𝐹𝑦

𝑏 𝐹𝑦𝑘𝑐
Qs = 1.415 – 0.65 ( 𝑡 ) 𝐸

𝑏 𝐸𝑘𝑐
(iii) When 𝑡
> 1.17 𝐹𝑦

0.90𝐸𝑘𝑐
Qs = 𝑏
𝐹𝑦 ( ) 2
𝑡

Where:

b = width of unstiffened compression element, as defined in AISC Section B3.1a, in. (mm)
4
kc = and shall not be taken less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes
ℎ/𝑡𝑤

t = thickness of element, in. (mm)

(c) For single angles:

𝑏 𝐸
(i) When ≤ 0.45
𝑡 𝐹𝑦

Qs = 1

𝐸 𝑏 𝐸
(ii) When 0.45 < ≤ 0.91
𝐹𝑦 𝑡 𝐹𝑦

𝑏 𝐹𝑦
Qs = 1.34 – 0.76 ( 𝑡 ) 𝐸

𝑏 𝐸
(iii) When 𝑡
> 0.91 𝐹𝑦

0.53𝐸
Qs = 𝑏
𝐹𝑦 ( ) 2
𝑡
(d) For stems of tees:

𝑑 𝐸
(i) When ≤ 0.75
𝑡 𝐹𝑦

Qs = 1

𝐸 𝑑 𝐸
(ii) When 0.75 < ≤ 1.03
𝐹𝑦 𝑡 𝐹𝑦

𝑑 𝐹𝑦
Qs = 1.908 – 1.22 ( 𝑡 ) 𝐸

𝑑 𝐸
(iii) When 𝑡
> 1.03 𝐹𝑦

0.69𝐸
Qs = 𝑑
𝐹𝑦 ( ) 2
𝑡

Where:

d = full nominal depth of tee, in. (mm)

• Slender stiffened Elements, Qa
The reduction factor, Qa, for slender stiffened element is defined as shown:
𝑨
Qa = 𝑨 𝒆
𝒈

Where:

𝑨𝒈 = gross cross-sectional area of member, in2 (mm2)

𝑨𝒆 = summation of the effective areas of the cross section based on the reduced effective width b e, in2 (mm2)

The reduced effective width be is determined as follows:

𝑏 𝐸
(a) For uniformly compressed slender elements, with ≥ 1.49 , except flanges of square and rectangular sections of uniform
𝑡 𝑓
thickness:

𝐸 0.34 𝐸
be = 1.92t [1- 𝑏 ]≤b
𝑓 ( ) 𝑓
𝑡

Where:

f is taken as Fcr calculated based on Q = 1.0

 𝑏 𝐸
(b) For flanges of square and rectangular slender-element sections of uniform thickness with ≥ 1.40
𝑡 𝑓

𝐸 0.38 𝐸
be = 1.92t [1- 𝑏 ]≤b
𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑓

Where:

f = Pn/Ae

User note: in lieu of calculating f = Pn/Ae, which requires iteration, f may be taken equal to Fy. This will result in a
slightly conservative estimate of column available strength.

(c) For axially loaded circular sections:

𝐸 𝐷 𝐸
When: 0.11 𝐹 < < 0.45 𝐹
𝑦
𝑡 𝑦

0.038𝐸 2
Q = Qa = 𝐷 +
𝐹𝑦 ( 𝑡 ) 3

Where:

D = outside diameter of round HSS, in, (mm)

t = thickness of wall, in. (mm)

Example 1:
A W12x50 is used as a main member 20 ft. long to carry an axial compression load. Assume the member is hinged at the
top and fixed at the bottom for buckling in either principal direction. Use A992 steel (Fy = 50 ksi)

a. Determine the slenderness ratio

b. Determine the Euler’s Buckling stress

c. Determine the allowable and design axial compressive strength (ASD & LRFD)

Properties of W12 x 50:

A = 14.6 in2 bf/2tf = 6.31

d = 12.2 in h/tw = 26.8

bf = 8.08 in

tf = 0.640 in

tw = 0.370 in

rx = 5.18 in

ry = 1.96 in
Example 2:
A W18x46 is used as a column having a length of 9m long. Assume the member is hinged at the top and fixed at the
bottom for buckling in either principal direction. The column is braced at a point 5.4m above the bottom support with
respect to its weak axis. Using A36 steel

a. Determine the allowable and design axial compressive strength (ASD & LRFD)

Properties of W18 x 46:

A = 8710 mm2 bf/2tf = 5.01

d = 460 mm h/tw = 44.6

bf = 154 mm

tf = 15.4 mm

tw = 9.14 mm

rx = 184 mm

ry = 32.8 mm
Example 3:
A built-up member is used as a column having a length of 18ft. Assume the member is hinged at the top and at the
bottom for buckling in either principal direction. Using A992 steel

a. Determine the allowable and design axial compressive strength (ASD & LRFD)

Properties of W8 x 31:

A = 9.31 in2 bf/2tf = 5.01

d = 8.00 in h/tw = 44.6

bf = 8.00 in

tf = 0.435 in.

tw = 0.285 in

Ix = 110 in4

Iy = 37.1 in4
Compressive strength for torsional and flexural-torsional of members
without slender elements (NSCP 2015 Section 505.4 / AISC Section E4
NSCP 2015 Section 505.4 / AISC Section E4 applies to singly symmetric and unsymmetric members and certain doubly
symmetric members, such as cruciform or built-up columns without slender elements, as defined in Section B4.1 for
elements in uniform compression. These provisions are required for single angles with b/t > 20

The nominal compressive strength, Pn, shall be determined based on the limit state of torsional and flexural-torsional
buckling, as follows

Pn = FcrAg

The critical stress Fcr, is determined as follows:

(a) For double angle and Tee-shaped compression members:

Fcry+Fcrz 4FcryFcrz𝐻
Fcr = ( )(1− 1− )
2H Fcry+Fcrz 2

Where:

Fcry is taken as Fcr from equation E3-2 or E3-3 for flexural buckling about the y-axis of symmetry;

KL/r = KyL/ry for Tee-shaped compression members;

KL/r = (KL/r)m from section E6 for double angle compression members

 GJ
Fcrz = ( A ȓ 2)
g 𝑜

(b) For all other cases Fcr shall be determined according to AISC Equation E3-2 or E3-3 using the torsional or
flexural-torsional elastic buckling stress, Fe, determined as follows:

(i) For doubly symmetric members:

π𝟐𝐄Cw 1
Fe = [ 2 +GJ] ( )
(KzL) Ix +Iy

(ii) For singly symmetric members where y is the axis of symmetry:

F +F 4F F 𝐻
Fe = ( ey e𝑧) ( 1 − 1 − ey ez 2 )
2H Fey+Fez

(iii) For unsymmetric members, Fe is the lowest root of the cubic equation:
𝑋 𝑋
(Fe - Fex) (Fe - Fey) (Fe - Fez) – Fe2 (Fe - Fey) ( ȓ 𝑜)2 - Fe2 (Fe - Fex)( ȓ 𝑜)2 = 0
𝑜 𝑜
Where:

Ag = gross cross-sectional area of member, in2 (mm2)

Cw = warping constant

G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel = 112000 ksi (77200 MPa)

Ix, Iy = moment of inertia about principal axes, in4 (mm4)

J = torsional constant, in4 (mm4)

Kx = effective length factor for flexural buckling about x-axis

Ky = effective length factor for flexural buckling about y-axis

Kz = effective length factor for torsional buckling

ȓo = polar radius of gyration about the shear center, in. (mm)

rx = radius of gyration about x – axis, in. (mm)

ry = radius of gyration about y – axis, in. (mm)

xo, yo = coordinated of the shear center with respect to the centroid, in. (mm)
 π𝟐𝑬
Fex =
(𝑲𝒙𝑳/𝒓𝒙)𝟐

π𝟐𝑬
Fey =
(𝑲𝒚𝑳/𝒓𝒚)𝟐

π𝟐𝐄Cw 1
Fez = [ 2 +GJ] ( )
(KzL) Agȓ𝑜2

x o 2 + yo 2
H=1-
ȓo2
Ix+Iy
ȓo2 = xo2 + yo2 + A
g

User note:

• For doubly symmetric I-shaped sections, Cw may be taken as:

Iyho2
Cw =
4

Where ho is the distance between flange centroids, in lieu of a more precise analysis.

• For Tees and Double Angles, omit the term with Cw when computing Fez and take Xo = 0

• For cross-sections, the following equation may be used:

Where:
𝑏𝑡3 b = length of each cross-sectional element, in. (mm)
J= ∑( )
3 t = thickness of each cross-sectional element, in. (mm)
Example 1:
A WT10.5x91 is used as column having a length of 18ft long. Assume the member is hinged at the top and at the bottom
for buckling in either principal direction. Using A992 steel

a. Determine the allowable and design axial compressive strength (ASD & LRFD)

Properties of WT 10.5 x 91:

A = 26.8 in2 bf/2tf = 4.22

d = 11.4 in h/tw = 13.7

bf = 12.5 in ȳ = 2.48 in

tf = 1.48 in Ix = 253 in4

tw = 0.830 in Iy = 241 in4

rx = 3.07 in J = 15.3 in4

ry = 3.00 in G = 11200 ksi

Example 2:
Compute the compressive strength of a C381 x 75 of A36 steel. The effective lengths with respect to the x, y, and z axes
are 4m.
Group Quiz:
A 10 ft. long L5x3x1/4 of A36 steel with simple end connections is used in a planar truss to carry an axial compression
load. The other web members meeting at the end of this member are connected on the same side of the gusset plate.

1. Determine the axial compressive strength with respect to flexural buckling. (ASD and LRFD).

Properties of L5x3x1/4:

A = 1.94 in2

rx = 1.62 in

ry = 0.853 in

rz = 0.652 in
Group Quiz:
A 10 ft. long L8x8x1/2 of A36 steel with simple end connections is used in a planar truss to carry an axial compression
load. The other web members meeting at the end of this member are connected on the same side of the gusset plate.

1. Determine the axial compressive strength with respect to flexural buckling. (ASD and LRFD).

Properties of L8x8x1/2:

A = 7.84 in2

rx = 2.49 in

ry = 2.49 in

rz = 1.59 in
Principle of Steel
Design
Lecture 4 – Analysis of Members
for Flexure
INTRODUCTION
Beams are structural members that support transverse loads and are therefore subjected
primarily to flexure or bending. They are usually of as being used in horizontal position and
subjected to vertical loads, but that is not necessarily the case. If a structural member is
loaded in a way that results in bending, then it is considered as a beam.
W, M and S shapes are cross-sectional shapes commonly used. Channel shapes are
sometimes used, as are built-up I-shaped or box-shaped beams. Doubly symmetric shapes
such as the standard rolled W, M and S shapes are the most efficient. The W shapes will
normally prove to be the most economical beam section and they have largely replaced
channels and S sections for beam usage. Channels are sometimes used for beams subjected to
light loads, such as purlins, and in places where clearances available require narrow flanges.
INTRODUCTION
For flexure, the required and available strengths are moments.
• For LRFD, the basic requirements is:
Mu ≤ ϕbMn
Where:

Mu = required moment strength = maximum moment caused by the governing load combination

Φb= resistance factor for bending (flexure) = 0.9

Mn = nominal moment strength

ϕbMn = Design Moment

INTRODUCTION
For flexure, the required and available strengths are moments.
• For ASD, the basic requirements is:
𝑀𝑛
Ma ≤
Ω𝑏

Where:

Ma = required moment strength = maximum moment caused by the governing load combination

Ωb= safety factor for bending (flexure) = 1.67

Mn = nominal moment strength

Mn /Ωb = Allowable Moment

BENDING STRESS
To be able to determine the nominal moment strength Mn, we must first examine the behavior of
beams throughout the full range of loading, from very small loads to the point of collapse.
If the beam is subjected to some transverse loads, the stress at any point can be found from usual
flexure formula:
𝑀𝑦
fb =
𝐼𝑥
The maximum stress will occur at the extreme fiber where y is maximum. For maximum bending
stress:
𝑀𝑐 𝑀 𝑀
fbmax = = =
𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑥/𝑐 𝑠𝑥
Where:

M = bending moment at the cross section under consideration

y = perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to the point of interest

Ix = moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to the neutral axis (axis of bending)

S = elastic section modulus of the cross section

General provisions (NSCP 2015 Section 506.1 / AISC Section F1)
𝑀𝑛
(1) The design flexural strength, ϕbMn, and the allowable flexural strength, , are determined as follows:
Ω𝑏

Mu = ϕbMn
𝑀𝑛
Ma =
𝛺𝑏

ϕb = 0.9 (LRFD) 𝛺𝑏 = 1.67 (ASD)

(2) The provisions in this chapter are based on the assumption that points of support for beams and girder are
restrained against rotation about their longitudinal axis.

(3) For singly symmetric member in single curvature and all doubly symmetric members:
For cantilevers or overhangs where the free end is unbraced, Cb = 1.0

User note:

❖ For doubly symmetric members with no transverse loading between braced points, Cb = 1.0
for the case of equal end moments of opposite sign (uniform moment)
❖ Cb = 2.27 for the case of equal end moments of the same sign
❖ Cb = 1.67 when one end moment equals zero

(4) In singly symmetric members subject to reverse curvature bending, the lateral-torsional
buckling strength shall be checked for both flanges. The available flexural strength shall be
greater than or equal to the maximum required moment causing compression within the flange
under consideration.
Classification of sections for Local Buckling (NSCP 2015 Section 502.4 / AISC
Section B4
For flexure, sections are classified as compact, noncompact or slender-element section. The limiting width-to-thickness
ratios are given in AISC Table B4.1a & B4.1b.

If λ ≤ λp and the flange is continuously connected to the web, the shape is compact

If λp< λ ≤ λr, the shape is noncompact; and

If λ > λr, the shape is slender

Where:

λ = width-to-thickness ratio

λp = upper limit for compact category

λr = upper limit for noncompact category

Double Symmetric Compact I-Shaped members and channels bent about
their major axis (NSCP 2015 Section 506.2 / AISC Section F2)
This section applies to doubly symmetric I-shaped members and channels bent about their major axis, having
compact webs and compact flanges as illustrated in AISC Table B4.1a & B4.1b.

The nominal flexural moment Mn of members bent about their major axis shall be the lower value obtained
according to the limit states of yielding (plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling.

1. Yielding

Mn = Mp = FyZx
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling

(a) When Lb ≤ Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply

(b) When Lp < Lb ≤ Lr

𝑳𝒃−𝑳𝒑
Mn = Cb [ Mp – ( Mp - 0.7FySx)( )] ≤ Mp
𝑳𝒓−𝑳𝒑

(c) When Lb > Lr

Mn = FcrSx ≤ Mp

Cb𝝅𝟐𝑬 𝑱𝒄 Lb 𝟐
Fcr = 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟖
Lb 𝟐 Sx𝒉𝒐 𝒓𝒕𝒔
𝒓𝒕𝒔
Where:

Lb = length between points that are either braced against lateral displacement

of the compression flange or braced against twist of the cross section, in (mm)

E = modulus of elasticity of steel, 29000ksi (200000MPa)

J = torsional constant, in4 (mm4)

Sx = elastic section modulus taken about the x-axis, in3 (mm3)

𝒉𝒐 = distance between the flange centroids, in (mm)

The limiting lengths Lp and Lr are determined as follows:

Where:

And the coefficient c is determined as follows:

(a) For doubly symmetric I-shapes: c = 1

𝒉 𝑰𝒚
(b) For channels: c = 2𝒐 𝑪𝒘
Double Symmetric I-Shaped members with compact webs and non-compact or slender
flanges bent about their major axis (NSCP 2015 Section 506.3 / AISC Section F3)
This section applies to doubly symmetric I-shaped members bent about their major axis having a compact webs and non-compact or
slender flanges as illustrated in AISC Table B4.1a & B4.1b.

The nominal flexural moment Mn of members bent about their major axis shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states
of lateral-torsional buckling and compression flange local buckling.

1. Lateral-Torsional Buckling

For lateral-torsional buckling, the provisions of AISC Section F2.2 shall apply

2. Compression Flange Local Buckling

(a) For sections with noncompact flanges

λ − λ𝑝
Mn = Mp – ( Mp – 0.7FySx) ( )
λ𝑟 −λ𝑝
(b) For sections with slender flanges
0.9𝐸𝑘𝑐𝑆𝑥 4
Mn = λ2
, 𝑘𝑐 = ℎ
𝑡𝑤

where:

𝐸
λ = bf / 2tf λr = 1.0 (is the limiting slenderness for a noncompact flange)
𝐹𝑦

𝐸
λ𝑝 = 0.38 (limiting slenderness for a compact flange)
𝐹𝑦
Example 1:
For built-up shape shown in the figure, the steel is A572 Grade 50 and the bending is about the x-axis. Determine

a. The Elastic section modulus Sx and the yield moment My

b. The plastic section modulus Zx and the plastic moment Mp

c. The shape Factor of the section

Flange: PL 300mm x 22mm

Web: PL 250mm x 20mm
Example 2:
Determine Cb for the W-shape beam subjected to uniformly distributed load of 5kips/ft with lateral support at its end
only. The beam is simply supported on a span of 10ft.
Example 3:
Determine Cb for the W-shape beam subjected to uniformly distributed load of 5 kN/m. The beam is simply supported
on a span of 12m and braced at the ends and midpoint.
Example 4:
Compute the plastic moment Mp, for a W10x60 of A992 steel. (Fy=50 ksi)

Properties of W10x60: Properties of WT5x30:

A = 17.7 in2 A = 8.84 in2

d = 10.20 in d = 5.11 in

bf = 10.1 in bf = 10.1 in
tf = 0.680 in tf = 0.680 in
tw = 0.420 in
tw = 0.420 in

ȳ = 0.884 in
Example 5:
An A50 Steel (Fy = 345Mpa) built up I-section beam consist of plates 400 mm x 15mm as flange and 600mm x 20mm as
web is used as simple beam with a span of 4 meters and loaded uniformly distributed. Assume Cb=1.0

1. Determine the nominal flexural strength in kN-m

2. If the live load is 1.5 of dead load, what would be the maximum total service live load in kN/m.
Principle of Steel
Design
Lecture 5 – Eccentrically Loaded
Connections
Introduction
An eccentric connection is one in which the resultant of the applied loads does not pass
through the center of gravity of the fasteners or welds. If the connection has a plane of
symmetry, the centroid of the shear area of the fasteners or welds can be used as a
reference point, and the eccentricity is the perpendicular distance from the load’s line of
action to the centroid. Although most connections are most likely eccentrically loaded, the
eccentricity is often small and may be neglected.
Eccentrically Loaded Bolted Connections
Example 1:
An eccentrically loaded bolted connection with 6 – 20 mm diameter bolts as shown. The applied force is 45 kN

1. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the group of bolts.

2. Determine the shearing force in the most stressed bolt

3. Determine the shearing stress in the most stressed bolt.

Example 2:
A bracket is bolted with 5 – 20mm diameter bolts as shown. It carries an eccentric load of 45 kN. Allowable shearing
stress is 103 Mpa.

1. Determine the force in bolt B

2. Determine the force in bolt D

3. Determine the force in bolt E

4. Determine the stress in the most stressed bolt.

5. Determine the factor of safety of the connection

Seatwork:
A bracket supporting a crane runway is bolted with 10 – 25mm diameter bolts to a supporting column as shown.

1. Compute the shearing stress at bolt A (ans. FvA = 162. 431 MPa)

2. Compute the shearing stress at bolt B (ans. FvB = 162. 596 MPa)

3. Compute the shearing stress at bolt C (ans. FvC = 21.364 MPa)

Eccentrically Loaded Welded Connections
Example 1:
A bracket is welded to a column flange by an E70XX electrodes fillet weld with FEXX = 485 Mpa it carries an eccentric
load of 90 kN as shown.

1. Compute the polar moment of the group of welds

2. Determine the maximum force to be resisted by the fillet welds

3. Compute the size of the fillet welds

Example 2:
A welded bracket shown is required to resist a load of 90 kN. The steel is A36 and the welding is to be performed by
using E70XX electrodes fillet weld with FEXX = 485 Mpa.

1. Compute the polar moment of the group of welds

2. Determine the maximum force to be resisted by the fillet welds

3. Compute the size of the fillet welds

Seatwork:
A welded bracket connection shown is subjected to an eccentric load of 40 kN. The steel is A36, and the welding is to be
performed by using E70XX electrodes fillet weld with FEXX = 485 Mpa.

1. Compute the maximum torsional moment to be resisted by the fillet welds (ans. M = 6.6 kN-m)

2. Compute the maximum force to be resisted by the fillet welds (ans. RB = 708.545 N/mm)

3. Compute the size of the fillet weld needed to support the given load (ans. tw = 6.888 mm)