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Entertainment Marketing

Natasha Zhang Foutz

University of Virginia, USA
nfoutz@[Link]

Boston — Delft
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Foundations and Trends R in Marketing

Volume 10, Issue 4, 2017
Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief

Jehoshua Eliashberg
University of Pennsylvania
United States

Editors

Bernd Schmitt, Co-Editor Pradeep Chintagunta

Columbia University University of Chicago
Olivier Toubia, Co-Editor Dawn Iacobucci
Columbia University Vanderbilt University
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University of Pennsylvania University of Texas, Austin
Gerrit van Bruggen J. Miguel Villas-Boas
Erasmus University University of California, Berkeley
Amitava Chattopadhyay
INSEAD
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Editorial Scope

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articles in the following topics:

• B2B marketing • Marketing decisions models

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• Competitive marketing • New product diffusion
strategy
• Pricing models
• Conjoint analysis
• Product development
• Customer equity
• Product innovation
• Customer relationship
management • Sales forecasting
• Game theoretic models • Sales force management
• Group choice and negotiation • Sales promotion
• Discrete choice models • Services marketing
• Individual decision making • Stochastic model

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 Full text available at: [Link]

Foundations and Trends R in Marketing

Vol. 10, No. 4 (2017) 215–333
c 2017 N. Z. Foutz
DOI: 10.1561/1700000049

Entertainment Marketing

Natasha Zhang Foutz

University of Virginia, USA
nfoutz@[Link]
 Full text available at: [Link]

Contents

1 An Overview of the Entertainment Industries 2

2 Conceptual Framework and Modeling Framework 10

3 Entertainment Product 24
3.1 New product design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Demand forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 Entertainment Promotion 39
4.1 Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Consumer WOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 Third-party review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5 Entertainment Distribution 47
5.1 Initial release timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.2 Sequential distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3 Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.4 Channel relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.5 Digital distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

6 Entertainment Pricing 55
6.1 Uniform pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

ii
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iii

6.2 Perishable ticket pricing and secondary market pricing . . . 56

6.3 Dynamic pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4 Bundle pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.5 Multi-part tariffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.6 Subscription versus pay-per-use pricing . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.7 Freemium pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

7 Talent Management 64
7.1 Talents’ contribution to entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.2 Celebrity endorsement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.3 Talent’s career and brand management . . . . . . . . . . . 70

8 Two-sided Market 72
8.1 Product placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.2 Sponsorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

9 Consumer Experience 78
9.1 Solo experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9.2 Shared experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.3 Measuring experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

10 Piracy and Other Ethical Topics 84

10.1 Piracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10.2 Other ethical topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

11 Conclusion 90

References 94
 Full text available at: [Link]

Abstract

Generating more than $2 trillion worldwide, entertainment encom-

passes numerous industries, such as the motion picture, publishing,
music, sports, broadcasting, gaming, event, and tourism. It is rapidly
growing and waging an enormous impact on the global economy, cul-
ture, and consumer well-being. It also serves as an essential platform
for advertisers, relaying brand messages to entertainment audiences
via advertising, sponsorship, and other forms of branded entertain-
ment. The distinct properties of entertainment, such as its experiential
nature, short lifecycle, integration with human talents, sequential dis-
tribution, and complementary consumption with technology hardware,
entail unique challenges to executives and academics. This monograph
thus delineates a general framework of entertainment marketing and
synthesizes the relevant studies that address some of these challenges. It
concludes by inviting continued research on the intriguing and rapidly
changing entertainment and media landscape.

N. Z. Foutz. Entertainment Marketing. Foundations and Trends R in Marketing,

vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 215–333, 2017.
Copyright c 2017 N. Z. Foutz.
DOI: 10.1561/1700000049.
 Full text available at: [Link]

1
An Overview of the Entertainment Industries

Entertainment encompasses a large number of global industries and

sub-industries. Examples include broadcasting (television, radio), event
(performing arts, visual arts), gaming (video gaming, online gaming,
mobile gaming, toys), motion picture (theatrical films, home videos),
music (recorded, live, ringtones), publishing (books, magazines,
newspapers), sports (NASCAR, soccer, baseball, basketball, football,
hockey), and tourism (casinos, theme parks, cruises, hospitality). As
consumers garner more disposable income, demand for entertainment
is growing rapidly. Entertainment also offers a vital media platform for
advertisers from both entertainment or non-entertainment industries.
Examples abound: television advertising, sports sponsorship, and film
product placement. Entertainment industries have become one of the
most important forces in the service-driven global economy, growing at
a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.4% in nominal terms,
from $1.72 trillion in 2015 to projected $2.14 trillion in 2020 (PwC’s
Global Entertainment and Media Outlook 2016–2020). In 36 out of the
54 countries covered by the PwC’s research, particularly in the most
populous entertainment markets, such as Brazil, Pakistan, and Nigeria,
entertainment and media spending is growing more rapidly than GDP

2
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by a factor of more than 50%. Table 1.1 displays an overview of the

market statistics of various entertainment industries.
Although many entertainment firms operate in the market place,
only a small number of global conglomerates control the majority of
the worldwide entertainment productions and distributions. Examples
of these conglomerates include Comcast (parent of Universal Pictures,
Universal Parks and Resorts, NBC, CNBC, the Weather Channel,
to name a few), Walt Disney (Walt Disney Parks & Resorts, Pixar,
ABC, ESPN, Walt Disney Studios), Time Warner Inc. (Warner Bros,
Turner Broadcasting System, HBO), News Corp (20th Century Fox,
Fox Broadcasting Company, Dow Jones & Company, Vogue), Viacom
(MTV, BET, Nickelodeon, Paramount Pictures), German media giant
Bertelsmann (RTL Group, Gruner + Jahr, Random House), Gannett
(USA Today, Detroit Free Press, The Indianapolis Star, local television
stations, [Link], Career Builder), and British Sky Broadcasting
Group.
Here I will use the motion picture industry, and then more concisely
the sports industry, as two examples to illustrate the organizational
structure and business model of a typical major entertainment industry.
The motion picture industry consists of several key channel
members, such as the film studios that are often in charge of content
productions and distributions, theaters/exhibitors, retailers such as
Walmart, rental services such as Redbox, and increasingly important
digital distributors such as Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon. On the
production side, Edison’s Black Maria established in 1893 is often
considered as the world’s first film production studio. It was completed
on the ground of Thomas Edison’s laboratories in West Orange,
New Jersey, for the purpose of making film strips for kinetoscopes.
A kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device designed
for films to be viewed by one person at a time through a peephole
viewer window at the top of the device. Since then, a number of film
studios were established: Universal (1912), Columbia (1920), Warner
Brothers (1923), Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (1924), Paramount (1927),
20th Century Fox (1935). By the 1930s, films’ popularity surged,
with memorable classics such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
(1937), Gone with the Wind (1939), and The Wizard of Oz (1939).
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4 An Overview of the Entertainment Industries

Table 1.1: Entertainment and media industrial statistics.

Amount Unit Date Source

Total US communications & media 1.455 Tril. US$ 2016 VSS
spending
US advertising revenues (estimate) 179 Bil. US$ 2016 Magna
Global media suppliers advertising 480.9 Bil. US$ 2016 Magna
revenue (estimate)

Print Media
US magazine advertising revenues 8.3 Bil. US$ 2016 Magna
Total daily newspapers, US 1,100 2016 PRE
Total daily newspaper circulation, US 33.5 Mil. 2016 PRE
US newspaper advertising revenues 12.5 Bil. US$ 2016 Magna
Net revenues of US book publishers 27.8 Bil. US$ 2015 AAP
E-books as a percent of trade book sales, 17 % 2015 AAP
US
Television
Licensed TV stations, US (including 1,788 Dec-16 FCC
digital & Class A)
Cable, satellite and Telco TV subscribers, 98.4 Mil. Q2-16 SNL
US
Radio & Music
Full service FM radio stations, including 10,923 Dec-16 FCC
Educational, US
Licensed AM radio stations, US 8,310 Dec-16 FCC
(daytime/unlimited)
Album sales, US∗ 100.3 Mil. Units Q2-16 Nielsen
Digital album as a percent of all US 43.7 % Q2-16 Nielsen
album sales
Global recorded music revenues 15.0 Bil. US$ 2015 IFPI
Digital music as a percent of global music 45 % 2015 IFPI
sales
Satellite radio subscribers, US 31.0 Mil. 2016 Sirius XM
Film
US/Canada box office revenues 11.2 Bil. US$ 2016 MPAA
Global box office revenues 38.3 Bil. US$ 2015 MPAA
Number of cinema locations, US 5,821 May-16 NATO
(including indoor & drive-in)
Number of movie screens, US (including 40,759 May-16 NATO
indoor & drive-in)
Blu-ray, DVD, & digital media revenue, 18.0 Bil. US$ 2015 DEG
US

Electronic Games
Global computer & video game sales 99.8 Bil. US$ 2016 Newzoo
Computer & video game sales, US 23.5 Bil. US$ 2016 Newzoo

(Continued)
 Full text available at: [Link]

Table 1.1: (Continued)

Amount Unit Date Source

Casinos
Casino hotel and casino resorts revenues, 65.4 Bil. US$ 2016 PRE
US
Casino (except for casino hotels) 21.2 Bil. US$ 2015 PRE
revenues, US

Theme Parks
Amusement parks, amateur sports, and 121.5 Bil. US$ 2015 PRE
gambling establishments (excluding
casino hotels and race tracks), US

Sports
Estimated size of the entire sports 472 Bil. US$ 2015 PRE
industry, US
Estimated size of the global sports 1.5 Tril. US$ 2015 PRE
industry
Annual company spending for sports 34.9 Bil. US$ 2015 PRE
advertising, US
Other
Number of wireless connections, US 377.9 Mil. Dec-15 CITIA
Wireless penetration, US 116.0 % Dec-15 CITIA
Number of smartphones sold, worldwide 1.5 Bil. Units 2016 Gartner
(estimate)
Number of tablets sold, worldwide 259 Mil. 2016 Gartner
(estimate)
Mobile cellular subscriptions, worldwide 7.4 Bil. 2016 ITU
(estimate)
Internet users, worldwide (estimate) 3.5 Bil. 2016 ITU
Commercial casino revenues, US (not 40.2 Bil. US$ 2015 AGA
incl. Indian casinos)
High speed internet subscribers, US fixed, 106.0 Mil. Dec-16 PRE
home & business
High speed internet subscribers, US, 284.0 Mil. Dec-16 PRE
mobile

Notes: PRE, Plunkett Research Estimate; VSS, Veronis Suhler Stevenson; Magna, Magna
Global (an Interpublic Group company); AAP, Association of American Publishers; FCC,
Federal Communications Commission; IFPI, International Federation of the Phonographic
Industry; MPAA, Motion Picture Association of America; NATO, National Association of
Theatre Owners; DEG, Digital Entertainment Group; CTIA, CTIA, The Wireless Asso-
ciation; ICI, IC Insights; ITU, International Telecommunication Union; AGA, American
Gaming Association.
Source: Plunkett Research, Ltd. Copyright 2017. All Rights Reserved.
∗ Includes CDs, cassettes, LPs, digital albums.
 Full text available at: [Link]

6 An Overview of the Entertainment Industries

The 1948 case of the United States versus Paramount Pictures ruled
that the vertically integrated structure of the motion picture industry
constituted an illegal monopoly, marking the end of the Hollywood’s
“Golden Age” and the beginning of the separation of film exhibition
from production/distribution. Today, the “Big Six” studios dominate
film productions and distributions: Sony Columbia, Warner Brothers,
20th Century Fox, Walt Disney, Paramount, and Universal. Other
smaller companies operate as independents or “indies”. A few leading
indies, such as Lionsgate Films, Weinstein Company, MGM, and
DreamWorks SKG, are often known as the “mini-majors.”
A number of revenue sources contribute to a typical film studio.
The primary ones are the global theatrical markets and video mar-
kets including video rentals, streaming, and purchases. Another source
comes from distributing films to television, such as cable and syndica-
tion. Extra income may also arise from the ancillary markets, such as
novelties, toys, games, clothing, and other spin-offs. On the cost side,
four main categories constitute a film’s production budget: above-the-
line costs to acquire production rights and creative talents including
producers, directors, screenwriters, actors, and actresses, below-the-
line costs to cover direct production costs, including production staff,
sets, costumes, and equipment rentals, postproduction costs for editing,
music, sound, visual effects, and titles, and other costs including mar-
keting expenses, legal, accounting, insurance, overhead, and completion
bonds to guarantee a timely and within-budget delivery of the film.
Another major, albeit declining, player in the motion picture
industry is the exhibitors, or theater owners. For example, in the
United States, the top theater chains include the AMC Entertain-
ment Inc., Regal Entertainment Group, and Cinemark Theaters. After
deducting the “house nuts” to cover the operational costs, such as of
the facilities and staff, an exhibitor shares a film’s box office revenues
with the film studio using a “sliding scale,” accruing increasingly higher
percentages of the box office revenues in the later weeks during the
film’s theatrical run. They also derive revenues from the concessions
sold on property. The prevalence of digital distributions, such as video
streaming, is compelling theater owners to seek alternative, innovative
strategies to stay profitable.
 Full text available at: [Link]

A third, and fast rising, player in the motion picture industry is

the digital distributors. Consider the example of the video streaming
services. According to the market research firm, Strategy Analytics,
the United States video streaming market is worth $6.62 billion in
2016, with a 22% annual growth rate. A total of 85% of the broadband
households in the United States boast at least one subscription, on par
with the traditional cable. Netflix leads the market with 53% of the
subscriptions, compared with 25% for Amazon Prime Video and 13%
for Hulu. Nearly 40% of the surveyed households subscribe to at least
two services. As for the global market, according to the leading global
research firm, Markets and Markets, the global video streaming market
is also growing from $30.29 billion in 2016 to $70.05 billion by 2021 at
a CAGR of 18.3% during this period.
This industry is experiencing an interesting and important shift
in the market structure, primarily driven by the growth of the Asian
markets. For example, according to the Motion Pictures Association
of America (MPAA) 2016 report, the United States/Canada theatrical
revenues stand at $11.4 billion, while the remaining international mar-
ket $27.2 billion, among which Asia Pacific $14.9 billion (representing
a 44% growth rate from 2012), Europe, Middle East, and Africa $9.5
billion (–11% change from 2012), and Latin America $2.8 billion (2%
growth from 2012). The top international box office markets in 2016
are led by China ($6.6 billion), Japan ($2 billion), and India ($1.9 bil-
lion). As a result, Hollywood is also adapting its production strategy to
cater to the taste of the international market. For instance, Walls and
McKenzie [2012] analyze nearly 2,000 films exhibited from 1997 to 2007
in the United States/Canada, Australia, France, Germany, Mexico,
Spain, and the United Kingdom, which collectively account for over
75% of the worldwide theatrical revenues. The authors find that the
supply of the Hollywood films has accommodated the global demand
as the relative size of the United States/Canada market has decreased.
There is no evidence that box office success in the United States creates
a contagion that spreads to other film exhibition markets; however, box
office success in international markets becomes less uncertain for those
films that have been successful in their United States releases.
 Full text available at: [Link]

8 An Overview of the Entertainment Industries

Besides the Hollywood productions, Bollywood, the Hindi-language

part of the Indian film industry, represents $2.89 billion in 2016,
according to Deloitte and The Associated Chambers of Commerce and
Industry of India [Variety, 2016]. The global reach of African films is
also taking off, led by video on demand (VOD) platforms and produc-
tions of Nigeria, the continent’s largest economy and most populous
nation. Nigeria’s “Nollywood” had surpassed Hollywood in 2009 as the
world’s second largest movie industry by volume, right behind India’s
Bollywood. Nollywood has also started to reach exclusive distribution
arrangements with Netflix [Fortune, 2015].
On the exhibition front, Chinese companies have recently acquired
a number of leading movie chains in the United States. For instance,
in 2012, China’s Dalian Wanda bought for $2.6 billion the then-second
largest movie chain in the United States, the AMC Entertain-
ment Holdings, who further acquired the Carmike Cinemas Inc.
for $1.1 billion in 2016 [WSJ, 2016]. This deal has made AMC
Entertainment Holdings Inc. officially the largest movie theater chain
in the United States, unseating the Regal Entertainment Group.
In 2016, Dailian Wanda also bought for $3.5 billion the Legendary
Entertainment Group that has cofinanced major movies such as
Jurassic Park and produced movies that have done well in China such
as Godzilla and Pacific Rim. This is the largest China-Hollywood deal
to date [Fortune, 2016].
Next, let us briefly look at the sports industry. The United States
dominates the global sports industry with the largest revenue-earning
leagues, particularly the National Football League (NFL) that con-
stitutes 20% of the global sports market (Figure 1.1). The North
American sports market is growing at a 3.5% CAGR, from $63.9 billion
in 2015 to projected $75.7 billion in 2020 (PwC’s Sports Outlook,
2016). The revenues are typically split across four major sources: the
gate revenues (i.e., ticket sales from live events, $18.3 billion, 29%),
media rights ($16.3 billion, 25%), sponsorship ($15.5 billion, 24%),
and merchandise ($13.8 billion, 22%).
Since NFL is the industry’s revenue leader, let us examine its
business model. The costs to each NFL team stem from the player
salaries, administrative overheads, marketing expenses, and game
 Full text available at: [Link]

Figure 1.1: Top global professional sports leagues by revenue.

Source: [Link]

related expenses. Each team accrues its revenues from the gate
tickets, VIP boxes, parking, concessions, local broadcasting rights,
sponsorships, merchandising and licensing deals. Similar to other
sports leagues’, NFL’s business model is grounded on the revenue
sharing between the league and individual teams. That is, while each
team contributes a share of its local revenues to the league, the league
redistributes the pooled team contributions, as well as the nationally
generated revenues, including the national broadcasting, sponsorship,
merchandising and licensing revenues, back to the teams evenly, to
ensure a long-term parity across teams and the health of the sport.
For instance, in 2014 the league redistributed $7.2 billion and each
team received $226.4 million.
In the remainder of this monograph, I will describe a general
framework of entertainment marketing. Then the unique properties of
entertainment and the resulting marketing challenges facing the enter-
tainment industries, as well as the related research on each key mar-
keting component within the framework, such as product, promotion,
distribution, pricing, and talent, will be discussed. Finally, I will draw
conclusions with directions for future research.
 Full text available at: [Link]

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