Silo
A silo (from Ancient Greek σιρός (sirós) 'pit for holding grain') is a
structure for storing bulk materials.
Silos are commonly used for bulk storage of grain, coal, cement,
carbon black, woodchips, food products and sawdust. Three types
of silos are in widespread use today: tower silos, bunker silos, and
bag silos.
Silos are used in agriculture to store fermented feed known as
silage. Grain bins in Cashton, Wisconsin
Types of silos
Tower silo
Storage silos are cylindrical structures, typically 10 to
90 ft (3 to 27 m) in diameter and 30 to 275 ft (10 to
90 m) in height with the slipform and Jumpform
concrete silos being the larger diameter and taller silos.
They can be made of many materials. Wood staves,
Grain elevators are composed of groups of grain
concrete staves, cast concrete, and steel panels have all
silos, such as these at Port Giles, South Australia.
been used, and have varying cost, durability, and
airtightness tradeoffs.
Silos storing grain,
cement and woodchips
are typically unloaded
with air slides or
augers. Silos can be
unloaded into rail cars,
trucks or conveyors.
Silos in Acatlán, Hidalgo, Mexico
Tower silos containing silage are usually unloaded from the top of the pile,
originally by hand using a silage fork—which has many more tines than the
common pitchfork; 12 vs 4—and in modern times using mechanical
unloaders. Bottom silo unloaders are utilized at times, but have problems
with difficulty of repair.
Concrete stave silo under
construction in 2015
An advantage of tower silos is that the silage tends to pack well due to its own weight, except in the top few
feet. However, this may be a disadvantage for items like chopped wood. The tower silo was invented by
Franklin Hiram King.
In Canada, Australia and the United States, many country towns or the larger farmers in grain-growing
areas have groups of wooden or concrete tower silos, known as grain elevators, to collect grain from the
surrounding towns and store and protect the grain for transport by train, truck or barge to a processor or to
an export port. In bumper crop times, the excess grain is stored in piles without silos or bins, causing
considerable losses.
Concrete stave silos
Concrete stave silos are constructed from small
precast concrete blocks with ridged grooves along
each edge that lock them together into a high
strength shell. Concrete is much stronger in
compression than tension, so the silo is reinforced
with steel hoops encircling the tower and
compressing the staves into a tight ring. The
vertical stacks are held together by intermeshing of High contrast image showing the Small stave silos can
the ends of the staves by a short distance around intermeshed concrete staves, be expanded upward.
the perimeter of each layer, and hoops which are and how the lower hoops are More hoops are
aligned over the stave edges. added to strengthen
tightened directly across the stave edges.
the lower staves.
The static pressure of the material inside the silo
pressing outward on the staves increases towards the bottom of the silo, so the hoops can be spaced wide
apart near the top but become progressively more closely spaced towards the bottom to prevent seams from
opening and the contents leaking out.
Concrete stave silos are built from common components designed for high strength and long life. They have
the flexibility to have their height increased according to the needs of the farm and purchasing power of the
farmer, or to be completely disassembled and reinstalled somewhere else if no longer needed.
Low-oxygen tower silos
Low-oxygen silos are designed to keep the contents in a low-oxygen atmosphere at all times, to keep the
fermented contents in a high quality state, and to prevent mold and decay, as may occur in the top layers of
a stave silo or bunker. Low-oxygen silos are only opened directly to the atmosphere during the initial forage
loading, and even the unloader chute is sealed against air infiltration.
It would be expensive to design such a huge structure that is immune to atmospheric pressure changes over
time. Instead, the silo structure is open to the atmosphere but outside air is separated from internal air by
large impermeable bags sealed to the silo breather openings. In the warmth of the day when the silo is
heated by the sun, the gas trapped inside the silo expands and the bags "breathe out" and collapse. At night
the silo cools, the air inside contracts and the bags "breathe in" and expand again.
While the iconic blue Harvestore low-oxygen silos were once very common, the speed of its unloader
mechanism was not able to match the output rates of modern bunker silos, and this type of silo went into
decline. Unloader repair expenses also severely hurt the Harvestore reputation, because the unloader feed
mechanism is located in the bottom of the silo under tons of silage. In the
event of cutter chain breakage, it can cost up to US$10,000 to perform
repairs. The silo may need to be partially or completely emptied by alternate
means, to unbury the broken unloader and retrieve broken components lost
in the silage at the bottom of the structure.
In 2005 the Harvestore company recognized these issues and worked to
develop new unloaders with double the flow rate of previous models to stay
competitive with bunkers, and with far greater unloader chain strength.
They are now also using load sensing soft-start variable frequency drive
motor controllers to reduce the likelihood of mechanism breakage, and to
control the feeder sweep arm movement.
Low-oxygen Harvestore
tower silos
Bunker silos
Bunker silos are trenches, usually
with concrete walls, that are filled and packed using tractors and
loaders. The filled trench is covered with a plastic tarp to make it
airtight. These silos are usually unloaded with a tractor and loader.
They are inexpensive and especially well suited to very large
operations.
Bag silos
Bunker silo being filled and
Bag silos are heavy plastic compacted.
tubes, usually around 8 to
12 ft (2.4 to 3.6 m) in
diameter, and of variable length as required for the amount of
material to be stored. They are packed using a machine made for
the purpose, and sealed on both ends. They are unloaded using a
tractor and loader or skid-steer loader. The bag is discarded in
sections as it is torn off. Bag silos require little capital investment.
8 foot diameter by 150 foot silo bag
They can be used as a temporary measure when growth or harvest
shown just after filling and sealing.
conditions require more space, though some farms use them every
year.
Bins
A bin [1] is typically much shorter than a silo, and is typically used for holding dry matter such as cement or
grain. Grain is often dried in a grain dryer [2] before being stored in the bin. Bins may be round or square,
but round bins tend to empty more easily due to a lack of corners for the stored material to become wedged
and encrusted.
The stored material may be powdered, as seed kernels, or as cob
corn. Due to the dry nature of the stored material, it tends to be
lighter than silage and can be more easily handled by under-floor
grain unloaders. To facilitate drying after harvesting, some grain
bins contain a hollow perforated or screened central shaft to permit
easier air infiltration into the stored grain.
Cement storage silos
This bin contains 27 variations of
There are different types of cement silos such as the low-level stone, sand and gravel, Copenhagen,
mobile silo and the static upright cement silo, which are used to Denmark
hold and discharge cement and other powder materials such as
Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA). The low-level silos are fully mobile
with capacities from 100 to 750 tons. They are simple to transport
and are easy to set up on site. These mobile silos generally come
equipped with an electronic weighing system with digital display
and printer. This allows any quantity of cement or powder
discharged from the silo to be controlled and also provides an
accurate indication of what remains inside the silo. The static
upright silos have capacities from 200 to 800 tons. These are
considered a low-maintenance option for the storage of cement or
Grain bins in Holmen, Wisconsin
other powders. Cement silos can be used in conjunction with bin-
fed batching plants.
Sand and salt silos
Sand and salt for winter road maintenance are stored in conical dome-
shaped (clear truss roof) silos. These are more common in North America,
namely in Canada and the United States. The shaped is based on natural
shape formed when piling solids.[3] The dome is made of prefabricated
wood panels with singles installed on a circular reinforced concrete base.
Open canopy entrance allows for front end loaders to fill and retrieve easily.
These are usually found along major highway or key primary roads.
Plastic Silos
Coal silo under construction
Plastic silos, also known as hopper bottom tanks, are manufactured through using aluminum concrete
various processes such as: injection molding, rotational molding, and blow formwork
molding. They are constructed using a wide variety of polyethylene
plastics. The silos are light weight and make for great small scale storage for
farmers with livestock and grain operations. The light weight design and cost effective materials make
plastic silos a great alternative to traditional steel bins. Unlike fabric silos, which "tend to be prone to grain
rot and pests which have left many farmers frustrated",[5] plastic silos are more safe and secure, keeping
grain fresh and unspoiled. They can be designed to be stationary hopper bottom bins or portable pallet bins.
Fabric silos
Fabric silos are constructed of a fabric bag suspended within a rigid,
structural frame. Polyester based fabrics are often used for
fabrication of the bag material, with specific attention given to
fabric pore size. Upper areas of silo fabric are often manufactured
with slightly larger pore size, with the design intent of acting as a
vent filter during silo filling. Some designs include metal thread
within the fabric, providing a static conductive path from the
surface of the fabric to ground. The frame of a fabric silo is
A wide variety of plastic grain bins
typically constructed of steel. Fabric silos are an attractive option
manufactured by Buffer Valley
because of their relative low cost compared to conventional silos.
Industries[4] in Saskatchewan,
However, when fabric silos are used to store granular or particulate Canada.
combustible materials, conventional practices prescribed by
established industry consensus standards[6] addressing combustible
dust hazards can not be applied without a considerable engineering analysis of the system.
Flexible Silo Storage System
Flexible Silos are the most versatile and cost-effective solution for the storage of bulk powder and granules.
Manufactured from trevira tissue, a tough non-toxic fabric, the silos can handle particle size down to 2
microns and can be pneumatically loaded without the need for a dust collector. The 45-degree fabric silo
cone flexes freely when the product discharges, enabling the efficient flow of hard to handle products such
as sugar, flour, calcium carbonate etc., minimally assisted by a small vibrator fitted to the discharge
transition. The trevira tissue is able to breathe, preventing condensation from forming on its internal walls.
This eliminates lumping and caking of the product.
Rigid Silos
With sizes ranging from 2m3 to over 1000m3, Rigid Silos cover an extreme range of applications and they
can be constructed from various materials. Rigid silos can be provided with more than one vertical partition
to compartmentalize it for different grades of product.[7]
History
The 5th millennium BC site of Tel Tsaf in the southern Levant
contain the earliest known silos. Archaeological ruins and ancient
texts show that silos were used in ancient Greece as far back as the
late 8th century BC; the term silo is derived from the Greek σιρός
(siros), "pit for holding grain".[8][9][10]
The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a favorite way of
storing grain from time immemorial in Asia. In Turkey and Persia,
insurance agents bought stores of wheat or barley whilst
comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons of Ancient Greek vases shaped as
dearth. In Malta a relatively large stock of wheat was preserved in grain silos, 700/650 BC, Kerameikos
Archaeological Museum, Athens.
some hundreds of pits (silos) cut in the rock. A single silo stored
from 60 to 80 tons of wheat, which, with proper precautions, kept
in good condition for four years or more.[11]
The first modern silo, a wooden and upright one filled with grain,
was invented and built in 1873 in Spring Grove, Illinois by Fred
Hatch of McHenry County, Illinois, US.[12][13]
Silo 3.5 miles southeast of Blooming
Forage silo usage Grove, Texas, built ca. 1900 by F. B.
Cumpston. Used mainly for corn.
Forage harvesting
Forage silo filling is performed using a forage harvester which may
either be self-propelled with an engine and driver's cab, or towed
behind a tractor that supplies power through a PTO.
The harvester contains a drum-shaped series of cutting knives
which shear the fibrous plant material into small pieces no more
than an inch long, to facilitate mechanized blowing and transport
via augers. The finely chopped plant material is then blown by the
harvester into a forage wagon which contains an automatic
video of a PTO-driven towed New
Holland forage harvester, John Deere unloading system.
4020 tractor, and Gehl forage wagon.
Tower filling
Tower forage filling is typically performed with a silo blower which
is a very large fan with paddle-shaped blades. Material is fed into a
vibrating hopper and is pushed into the blower using a spinning
spiral auger.
There is commonly a water connection on the blower to add
moisture to the plant matter being blown into the silo. The blower
may be driven by an electric motor but it is more common to use a
spare tractor instead.
Short video of the steps involved for
filling a farm tower silo.
A large slow-moving conveyor chain underneath the silage in the
forage wagon moves the pile towards the front, where rows of
rotating teeth break up the pile and drop it onto a high-speed transverse conveyor that pours the silage out
the side of the wagon into the blower hopper.
Bag filling
Silo bags are filled using a traveling sled driven from the PTO of a tractor left in neutral and which is
gradually pushed forward as the bag is filled. The steering of the tractor controls the direction of bag
placement as it fills, but bags are normally laid in a straight line.
The bag is loaded using the same forage harvesting methods as the tower, but the forage wagon must be
moved progressively forward with the bag loader. The loader uses an array of rotating cam-shaped spiraled
teeth associated with a large comb-shaped tines to push forage into the bag. The forage is pushed in through
a large opening, and as the teeth rotate back out, they pass between the comb tines. The cam-shaped auger
teeth essentially wipe the forage off using the steel tines, keeping the forage in the bag.
Before filling begins, the entire bag is placed onto the loader as a bunched-up tube folded back on itself in
many layers to form a thick pile of plastic. Because the plastic is minimally elastic, the loader mechanism
filling chute is slightly smaller than the final size of the bag, to accommodate this stack of plastic around the
mouth of the loader. The plastic slowly unfurls itself around the edges of the loader as the tube is filled.
The contents of the silo bag are under pressure as it is filled, with the pressure controlled by a large brake
shoe pressure regulator, holding back two large winch drums on either side of the loader. Cables from the
drum extend to the rear of the bag where a large mesh basket holds the rear end of the bag shut.
To prevent molding and to assure an airtight seal during fermentation, the ends of the silo bag tube are
gathered, folded, and tied shut to prevent oxygen from entering the bag. Removal of the bag loader can be
hazardous to bystanders since the pressure must be released and the rear end allowed to collapse onto the
ground.
Tower unloading
A silo unloader specifically refers to a
special cylindrical rotating forage
pickup device used inside a single
tower silo.
The main operating component of the
silo unloader is suspended in the silo
from a steel cable on a pulley that is
View of silo unloader doors, Interior view of silo unloader
mounted in the top-center of the roof of silage drop tube, and paddle conveyor paddles and drive
the silo. The vertical positioning of the conveyor leading into barn. chain.
unloader is controlled by an electric
winch on the exterior of the silo.
For the summer filling of a tower silo,
the unloader is winched as high as
possible to the top of the silo and put
into a parking position. The silo is filled
with a silo blower, which is literally a
very large fan that blows a large volume
View of doors under shroud. Due View of the silo unloader drop
of pressurized air up a 10-inch tube on
to the limited space, the door chute inserted into the very top of
the side of the silo. A small amount of hinge frame is also the ladder. On the silage drop tube 60ft up. The
water is introduced into the air stream the right is the unloader power tube is illuminated by light
during filling to help lubricate the filling cable and yellow silage drop tube entering through fiberglass panels
tube. A small adjustable nozzle at the with removable access doors for every 20ft along the outer steel
top, controlled by a handle at the base insertion of the silage drop spout. shroud.
of the silo directs the silage to fall into
the silo on the near, middle, or far side,
to facilitate evenly layered loading.
Once completely filled, the top of the
exposed silage pile is covered with a
large heavy sheet of silo plastic which
seals out oxygen and permits the entire
pile to begin to ferment in the autumn.
50 amp, 250 volt unloader power
In the winter when animals must be Electric winch for raising and
socket, with shroud to keep out
kept indoors, the silo plastic is removed, lowering silo unloader. debris.
the unloader is lowered down onto the
top of the silage pile, and a hinged door
is opened on the side of the silo to permit the silage to be blown out. There is an array of these access doors
arranged vertically up the side of the silo, with an unloading tube next to the doors that has a series of
removable covers down the side of the tube. The unloader tube and access doors are normally covered with
a large U-shaped shield mounted on the silo, to protect the farmer from wind, snow, and rain while working
on the silo.
The silo unloader mechanism consists of a pair of counter-rotating toothed augers which rip up the surface
of the silage and pull it towards the center of the unloader. The toothed augers rotate in a circle around the
center hub, evenly chewing the silage off the surface of the pile. In the center, a large blower assembly
picks up the silage and blows it out the silo door, where the silage falls by gravity down the unloader tube to
the bottom of the silo, typically into an automated conveyor system.
The unloader is typically lowered only a half-inch or so at a time by the operator, and the unloader picks up
only a small amount of material until the winch cable has become taut and the unloader is not picking up
any more material. The operator then lowers the unloader another half-inch or so and the process repeats. If
lowered too far, the unloader can pull up much more material than it can handle, which can overflow and
plug up the blower, outlet spout, and the unloader tube, resulting in a time-wasting process of having to
climb up the silo to clear the blockages.
Once silage has entered the conveyor system, it can be handled by either manual or automatic distribution
systems. The simplest manual distribution system uses a sliding metal platform under the pickup channel.
When slid open, the forage drops through the open hole and down a chute into a wagon, wheelbarrow, or
open pile. When closed, the forage continues past the opening and onward to other parts of the conveyor.
Computer automation and a conveyor running the length of a feeding stall can permit the silage to be
automatically dropped from above to each animal, with the amount dispensed customized for each location.
Safety
Silos are hazardous, and people are killed or injured every year in the process of filling and maintaining
them.[14] The machinery used is dangerous, and workers can fall from a tower silo's ladder or work
platform. Several fires have occurred over the years.
Dangers of loading process
Filling a silo requires parking two tractors very close to each other,
both running at full power and with live PTO shafts, one powering
the silo blower and the other powering a forage wagon unloading
fresh-cut forage into the blower. The farmer must continually move
around in this highly hazardous environment of spinning shafts and
high-speed conveyors to check material flows and adjust speeds,
and to start and stop all the equipment between loads.
Preparation for filling a silo requires winching the unloader to the
Defunct elevator in Merrinee,
top, and any remaining forage at the base that the unloader could
Victoria, Australia.
not pick up must be removed from the floor of the silo. This job
requires that the farmer work directly underneath a machine
weighing several tons suspended fifty feet or more overhead from a
small steel cable. Should the unloader fall, the farmer will likely be
killed instantly.
Dangers of unloading process
Unloading also poses its own special hazards, due to the
requirement that the farmer regularly climb the silo to close an A grain elevator in Nebraska, June
upper door and open a lower door, moving the unloader chute from 2015
door to door in the process. The fermentation of the silage produces
methane gas which over time will outgas and displace the oxygen
in the top of the silo. A farmer directly entering a silo without any other precautions can be asphyxiated by
the methane, knocked unconscious, and silently suffocate to death before anyone else knows what has
happened. It is either necessary to leave the silo blower attached to the silo at all times to use it when
necessary to ventilate the silo with fresh air, or to have a dedicated electric fan system to blow fresh air into
the silo, before anyone attempts to enter it.
In the event that the unloader mechanism becomes plugged, the farmer must climb the silo and directly
stand on the unloader, reaching into the blower spout to dig out the soft silage. After clearing a plug, the
forage needs to be forked out into an even layer around the unloader so that the unloader does not
immediately dig into the pile and plug itself again. All during this process the farmer is standing on or near a
machine that could easily kill them in seconds if it were to accidentally start up. This could happen if
someone in the barn were to unknowingly switch on the unloading mechanism while someone is in the silo
working on the unloader.
Often, when unloading grain from an auger or other opening at the bottom of the silo, another worker will
be atop the grain "walking it down", to ensure an even flow of grain out of the silo. Sometimes unstable
pockets in the grain will collapse beneath the worker doing the walking; this is called grain entrapment as
the worker can be completely sunk into the grain within seconds. Entrapment can also occur in moving
grain, or when workers clear large clumps of grain that have become stuck on the side of the silo. This often
results in death by suffocation.
Dry-material/bin hazards
There have also been many cases of bins and the associated ducts and buildings exploding. If the air inside
becomes laden with finely granulated particles, such as grain dust, a spark can trigger a dust explosion
powerful enough to blow a concrete silo and adjacent buildings apart, usually setting the adjacent grain and
building on fire. Sparks are often caused by (metal) rubbing against metal ducts; or due to static electricity
produced by dust moving along the ducts when extra dry.
The two main problems which will necessitate silo cleaning in bins are 'bridging' and 'rat-holing'. Bridging
occurs when the material interlaces over the unloading mechanism at the base of the bins and blocks the
flow of stored material by gravity into the unloading system. Rat-holing occurs when the material starts to
adhere to the side of the bin. This will reduce the operating capacity of a bin as well as leading to cross-
contamination of newer material with older material. There is a number of ways to clean a bin and many of
these carry their own risks. However, since the early 1990s acoustic cleaners have become available. These
are non-invasive, have minimum risk, and can offer a very cost-effective way to keep a small particle bin
clean.
Notable silos
Henninger Turm, Frankfurt, Germany, before demolition
in 2013, had an observation deck and 2 revolving
restaurants, height: 120 metres
Swissmill Tower, Zürich, Switzerland, height: 118 metres,
the world highest silo in activity.
Schapfen-Mill-Tower, Ulm, Germany, height: 115 metres
Silo Tower Basel, Basel, Switzerland, has an
observation deck, height: 52 metres
Quaker Square, Akron, Ohio, United States, is a former The Swissmill Tower in Zürich
set of tower silos that is now a hotel, restaurants and (Switzerland) is the world highest
shops silo.
Dagon, Haifa, Israel - transformed into a museum of
agriculture, a prominent local feature.
Three types of wheat bins, Delungra, New South Wales.
Silo art
"Silo art" is a recent and distinctly Australian art movement which began in Northam, Western Australia in
2015. Silos are usually decorated with huge mural-type paintings with many themes. The Australian Silo
Art Trail shows 35 examples of silo art as of 2020, with numbers growing.[15] As of 2021 there is an
ongoing legal battle over the use of the term "silo art trail", with the Yarriambiack Shire Council in Victoria
attempting to trademark it in 2017, with GrainCorp, Australia's largest grains handler, opposing the move,
saying that the term should be usable by many councils.[16]
Old water towers have also been decorated in many regional centres.[17][18]
In Melbourne, a huge painting of New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern embracing a Muslim
woman, an iconic image beamed around the world after the 2019 Christchurch mosque attacks, was painted
on the 75-foot (23 m) Tinning Street silo in the suburb of Brunswick, after A$11,000 was raised in a day via
crowdfunding.[19]
The town of Monto in the North Burnett Region of Queensland has been put on the tourism map as the
most northerly silo art installation in Australia. Its "Three Moons" silos depict several stories of the past,
including the era of gold mining, cattle mustering and The Dreaming. It also has a mural on an old water
tower.[20]
Percy Hobson Park Thallon, Queensland, Yelarbon, Coonalpyn, South
water tower, Bourke, Australia (2021). Queensland, Australia Australia, Australia
New South Wales, (2019). (2018).
Australia (2021).
Brim, Victoria, Rosebery, Victoria, Tungamah, Victoria, Kantola Biscuit
Australia (2015). Australia (2018). Australia (2019). Factory, Hämeenlinna,
Finland (2019).
Silo cleaning
Silo cleaning is a process to maximize the efficiency of storage silos that hold bulk powders or granules. In
silos, material is fed through the top and removed from the bottom. Typical silo applications include animal
feed, industrial powders, cement, and pharmaceuticals.
Free movement of stored materials, on a first-in, first-out basis, is essential in maximizing silo efficiency.
The goal of silo efficiency is to ensure that the oldest material is used first and does not contaminate newer,
fresher material. There are two major complications in silo efficiency: rat holing and bridging. Rat holing
occurs when powders adhere to the sides of silos. Bridging occurs when material blocks at the silo base.
Manual cleaning is the simplest way to clean silos. This entails lowering a worker on a rope to free material
inside the silo. Manual cleaning is dangerous due to the release of material and the possible presence of
gases. In cases of bridging, an additional danger exists as the exit hole needs to be rodded from underneath,
exposing the worker to falling powder.
Alternative cleaning methods include:
Air blasters are a well-established cleaning method. Air cannons are expensive, however,
as limited coverage requires purchase of multiple units. Air cannons are also noise intrusive
and require high consumption of compressed air.
Vibrators are easy to fit into empty silos, but can cause structural damage and contribute to
powder compaction.
Low friction linings are quiet, but expensive to install and prone to erosion which can then
contaminate the environment or product.
Inflatable pads and liners are easy to install in empty silos and can help side-wall buildup
but have no effect on bridging. Inflatable pads and liners are also hard to maintain and can
cause compaction.
Fluidisation through a one-way membrane can help compacted material, but are
expensive and difficult to install and maintain. These systems can also contribute to
mechanical interlocking and bridging.
Acoustic cleaners are the latest and possibly safest way to clean silos as these systems
are non-invasive and do not require silos to be emptied. Acoustic cleaning is also a
preventative solution.
Pneumatic or hydraulic whip machines are portable machines used to "cut" build up on
the walls of silos while being remotely operated from outside of the vessel.
Silo cleaning companies provide turn key silo cleaning services using several different
kinds of methods (depending on the company).
See also
Granary
Grain bin
Grain elevator
Silos & Smokestacks National Heritage Area
References
1. "GRAIN SYSTEMS INC. | Farm Grain Storage Bins" ([Link]
224420/[Link]
[Link]. Archived from the original ([Link]
e/[Link]) on 2011-12-01.
2. "What is a Grain Dryer? (With pictures)" ([Link]
m). 25 June 2023.
3. "Storage Domes | Barrel Buildings | Dome Corporation of North America" ([Link]
[Link]/buildings/bulk-storage-domes-and-barrel-buildings/).
4. [Link] ([Link]
5. "Buffer Valley Industries | Grain Bins | Farm Storage" ([Link] Retrieved
2022-02-07.
6. NFPA 654
7. [Link]
8. Dwayne R. Buxton, Silage science and technology, American Society of Agronomy, Inc.,
2003, p.1
9. William Shurtleff, Akiko Aoyagi, History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Canada (1831–2010)
([Link]
A36), Soyinfo Center, 2010, p.36
10. σιρός ([Link]
3Aentry%3Dsiro%2Fs), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on
Perseus
11. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
public domain: Zimmer, George Frederick (1911). "Granaries". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 336.
12. Eric Sloane's An age of barns ([Link]
+Hatch+and+farm+silo&pg=PA62). MBI Publishing Company. 1967. ISBN 9780896585652.
13. Lost Farms of McHenry County ([Link]
ed+Hatch+and+farm+silo&pg=PA7). Arcadia Publishing. 2010. ISBN 9780738577982.
14. Graham, Judith (2011-03-08). "Drowned in corn: Grain bin deaths hit record" ([Link]
[Link]/2011-03-08/news/ct-met-grain-bins-20110309_1_grain-bin-grain-handlin
g-illinois-grain). Chicago Tribune.
15. "Australia's Ultimate Road Trip" ([Link] Australian Silo Art
Trail. 29 January 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
16. Fuller, Kelly (8 February 2021). " 'Silo art trail' trademark battle over who owns the right to
use phrase" ([Link]
ail/13130398). ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
17. Schneider, Grace (3 May 2018). "The Ultimate Guide To South Australia's Regional Silo Art
(& More!)" ([Link]
art-more/). Glam Adelaide. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
18. "Australian Water Tower Art" ([Link]
Australian Silo Art Trail. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
19. Noonan, Andie (23 April 2019). " 'Beacon of tolerance': Jacinda Ardern mural set for silo in
Melbourne suburb" ([Link]
ourne-brunswick-silo-christchurch/11038584). ABC News. Australian Broadcasting
Corporation. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
20. Marie, Johanna (14 July 2020). "Queensland town of Monto using silo art to draw tourists
and tell stories about its heritage" ([Link]
ost-northern-on-trail/12451612). ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved
16 July 2020.
External links
International Silo Association ([Link]
What To Do In Case Of Grain Bin Entrapment ([Link]
[Link]), from the U.S. National Agricultural Safety Database
Beedle, Peggy Lee. "Silos: an agricultural success story" ([Link]
ets/pdfs/[Link]), University of Wisconsin-Extension: 2001, G3660-4.
Retrieved from "[Link]
