18 SURVEY OF JOINING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES

automatic stud loading to the gun with manual gun the total power requirement is relatively low in resis-
manipulation. Alternatively, the studs can be loaded tance welding, instantaneous power demand is very
manually into the gun. A limitation of the process high. The electrical conductors must therefore be
involves the use of a brittle base metal, such as gray cast designed to carry the maximum kilovolt ampere (kVA)
iron, in which weld metal shrinkage cannot be tolerated demand for the machine.
and heat-affected zone cracking occurs. Good electrode tip shape and condition are impor-
tant factors with respect to consistent weld quality.
Thus, for production operations, schedules are nor-
RESISTANCE WELDING mally established to provide for the cleaning and the
Resistance welding (RW) encompasses a group of remachining of electrode configurations to their original
processes that effect the joining of faying surfaces with design.
the heat obtained from the workpiece’s resistance to the Other important resistance processes include flash
flow of welding current and with the application of welding, upset welding, and high-frequency upset seam
pressure. Shielding gases are not needed because air is welding. Instead of welding lapped surfaces as in the
squeezed out of the faying surfaces by the force inherent previously described resistance welding processes, the
to the processes. The vehicle manufacturing industry, flash, upset, and high-frequency upset seam processes
among others, employs the resistance processes exten- weld together the edges of two workpieces or the edges
sively in applications in which the product design speci- of a rolled pipe seam. High-amperage alternating cur-
fies gauge thicknesses that are lapped. Access to both rent and low voltage are normally used.
sides of the weld is also required for the electrodes to
apply force. Fully automatic and robotic systems are
used for many of these applications. Spot Welding
Commonly implemented resistance welding pro-
cesses are resistance spot welding (RSW), resistance Resistance spot welding (RSW) involves the applica-
seam welding (RSEW), resistance projection welding tion of the welding current through electrodes that con-
(RPW), and resistance stud welding. The main process centrate the current and pressure in the area of the
variables associated with these resistance welding pro- weld. A nugget of weld metal is produced at the loca-
cesses are welding current, welding time, electrode tion where the electrodes are positioned. Figure 1.17
force, electrode material, and tip configuration. Once illustrates this concept.
the parameters for these variables are properly
The electrodes used in spot welding not only conduct
adjusted, very little skill is required to operate the
equipment. the welding current to the workpiece but also transmit
These four processes are used extensively in the join- a force and dissipate heat from the weld zone. Typically
ing of metals up to 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) thick that can be made of copper alloy, they have a straight shank and a
upset by the electrode force. In these processes, copper conical or domed tip. It takes less than one second to
electrodes apply force to the lapped workpieces to be make a single weld with industrial-duty equipment. For
joined. The force on the faying surfaces at the joint example, the joining of steel sheets 1/16 in. (1.6 mm)
interface squeezes out the air, and the base metal is thick with the application of an alternating current of
rapidly heated. A short circuit practically exists when approximately 12,000 A and 4 V requires a weld time
the high-current, low-voltage power is applied. How- of 15 cycles or 0.25 s.
ever, most heating occurs at the location in the circuit The basic equipment used in resistance spot welding
where the electrical resistance is the greatest. It is essen- consists of an electrical circuit, control equipment, and
tial that the metals to be joined have higher electrical a system to apply force. This process is performed using
resistance than the electrode. In other words, the electrical a variety of equipment, ranging from utility spot weld-
resistance must be greater between the two metals to be ers to sophisticated systems that make hundreds of spot
joined than between the electrode and base metal. welds automatically within a few seconds.
A great deal of resistance welding is performed with
single-phase ac current. Unfortunately, the very high Vehicle body panels require over 1000 spot welds
welding current on a single phase yields a poor power using robotic systems to join them together in a few sec-
factor. Another resistance welding variation uses very onds. Sheet metal shops use less sophisticated systems
high three-phase dc output current for short durations. to join many other thin-gauge products using spot
This variation supplies an excellent power factor as the welding. The minimal welding time and operator skill
current load is balanced on all three phases. Yet another required are the main advantages of this process. The
resistance welding approach utilizes the capacitor dis- principal disadvantage is the need to have accessibility
charge method, which provides dc pulses as the capaci- to both sides of the workpiece as opposed to being able
tors discharge their store of electrical power. Although to make welds from one side only.
 SURVEY OF JOINING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES 19

Source: Adapted from Linnert, G. E., 1994, Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., Miami: American Source: Adapted from Linnert, G. E., 1994, Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., Miami: American
Welding Society, Figure 6.26(A). Welding Society, Figure 6.26(B).

Figure 1.17—Schematic Representation Figure 1.18—Schematic Illustration

of Resistance Spot Welding of Resistance Seam Welding

Seam Welding to another part (e.g., sheet metal), projection welding

(RPW) is a resistance welding process that produces
Typically used to produce leak-tight joints in sheet welds at predetermined points, indicated by projections
assemblies such as automotive gasoline tanks, resistance made on the parts during their manufacture. The elec-
seam welding (RSEW) utilizes the fundamentals of trodes used in this process are similar to those described
resistance welding to produce a seam along the length for resistance spot welding. The specially prepared elec-
of the joint. The seam is created with copper wheel-type trode tips precisely locate the projections on workpieces
electrodes that make a continuous weld by generating to be joined. Figure 1.19 illustrates this concept, which
overlapping spot welds, as shown in Figure 1.18, or one is used to produce projection welds in various carbon
continuous weld (see below). and alloy steels and some nickel alloys.
Because the overlapping of welds causes a shunting In this process, one of the two workpieces to be
effect (that is, decreased electrical resistance due to weld joined is designed to have one or more protrusions or
overlap), the current and duty cycle required for resis- projections. These projections become weld nuggets
tance seam welding are somewhat higher than those when the welding current and electrode force are
used in resistance spot welding. applied. When more than one projection is formed on
Resistance seam welding machines designed to weld the part, the height of every projection must be even to
at high speeds apply a continuous flow of current to the permit it to be in contact with the second member. This
workpieces. This flow forms a continuously fused weld allows each joining member to be heated properly when
(as opposed to overlapping welds) between the lapped the current and force are applied. When the thicknesses
faying surfaces. Another type of resistance spot welding of the workpieces are unequal, the projection should be
utilizes current interruptions that are long enough to located on the thicker piece. This ensures that the heat-
form a series of separate spot welds. This type of opera- ing of both members is balanced, which is conducive to
tion is known as roll spot welding. the production of strong welds.
An advantage offered by resistance projection weld-
Projection Welding ing is its short weld time cycle, which leads to high pro-
ductivity. The ability to produce numerous welds
Used primarily to join one stamped, forged, or simultaneously with a single set of electrodes is highly
machined part (e.g., a fastener such as a nut or a bolt) desirable compared to processes that are limited to
20 SURVEY OF JOINING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES

Studs for resistance stud welds are available in

carbon steel and some alloy steels. The welding time is
typically 10 cycles (0.17 second), fewer than that
required for arc stud welding, which typically requires
20 cycles (0.33 second) for a 3/8 in. (10 mm) stud due
to the extremely high currents used for resistance stud
welding. However, the variety of studs is considerably
more limited than that indicated for arc and capacitor-
discharge stud welding (see Figure 1.16).

Flash Welding
Flash welding (FW), illustrated in Figure 1.21, uti-
lizes both a flashing action (i.e., the rapid melting of the
metal at the points of contact due to the high current
density at the points) and the application of pressure to
generate welds at the faying surfaces of butt joints.
Source: Adapted from Linnert, G. E., 1994, Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., Miami: American When the faying surfaces are heated to welding tem-
Welding Society, Figure 6.26(D).
perature, force is applied immediately to generate the
Figure 1.19—Schematic Representation weld. Molten metal is expelled, the hot metal is upset,
of Resistance Projection Welding and a flash is formed. Filler metal is not added during
welding.
In this process, the workpieces are held firmly in
copper-alloy jaws or clamps. Typically, one member is
held stationary while the other is moved toward it.
producing one weld at a time. It is important to note, When contact is made, arc flashes occur between the
however, that precise control of all projection dimen- edges. The applied force causes the molten metal to be
sions is imperative when multiple welds are made expelled from the joint in a shower of sparks, and the
simultaneously. Another advantage offered by this pro- metal close to the joint is deformed in a phenomenon
cess is that provisions are made to concentrate the heat known as upset. The irregularities and surface impuri-
at the weld locations by the projections themselves, ties are squeezed out into the upset portion, also termed
which simplifies the backing side of the circuit. flash, yielding a high-quality weld zone. This flash can
be trimmed off for a smooth joint without stress raisers
Resistance Stud Welding. Resistance stud welding (i.e., changes in the section or surface that cause a con-
is a variation of the resistance projection process. Figure centration of stress, such as at the joint interface around
1.20 illustrates threaded studs with the projections the periphery of a spot weld).
clearly visible. The dimensions of the projections must Flash welding, usually an automated process, is
be controlled precisely, and equal pressure is required widely implemented in the automotive, electrical, and
on all projections simultaneously. The pressure applied petroleum industries. Applications range from the weld-
axially by the electrodes must be accurately aligned to ing of a variety of material sections such as wires, rods,
produce welds of consistently high quality. and shafts to the joining of rolled wheel rim ends.

Photograph courtesy of the Ohio Nut & Bolt Company

Figure 1.20—Threaded Fasteners (Studs) Manufactured

with Projections for Use in Resistance Stud Welding
 SURVEY OF JOINING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES 21

Source: Adapted from Linnert, G. E., 1994, Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., Miami: American
Welding Society, Figure 6.26(E).

Figure 1.22—Schematic Illustration

of Upset Welding

Source: Adapted from Linnert, G. E., 1994, Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., Miami: American
Welding Society, Figure 6.33.

Figure 1.21—Schematic Illustration

of Flash Welding

Upset Welding
Illustrated in Figure 1.22, upset welding (UW) pro-
duces welds by means of the resistance to the flow of
the welding current through the area in which the sur-
faces are in contact and the application of pressure.
Unlike flash welding, upset welding requires both work-
pieces to be held together and kept in contact under
pressure before current is introduced. The completed Source: Adapted from Linnert, G. E., 1994, Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., Miami: American
weld zone is similar to that produced with flash weld- Welding Society, Figure 6.29.
ing. This process is used in wire mill applications and in
the fabrication of products made of wire. Figure 1.23—Schematic Illustration of
A process variation of upset welding, termed electric High-Frequency Upset Seam Welding
resistance welding (ERW), is used for the creation of lon-
gitudinal tubular seams. Although much of the welding
current flows around the rolled section, the wheel-type
electrodes are close enough to each other to produce suf-
ficient current flow on the edges of the seam members resistance welding. Employed primarily in the joining
for upset welding heat to develop. Squeeze rolls on either of piping and tubular sections, this process involves the
side of the tubular section force the edges together. This application of high-frequency current through the
concept is similar to that used in high-frequency upset electrodes.
welding, except for the manner in which the welding Initially, a metal strip goes through forming rolls to
current is introduced, as explained below. configure it into a pipe or tube. As the rolled section
approaches the welding station, the V-opening of the
High-Frequency Upset Welding edges is kept separated at an angle of 4° to 7° to the
V-closure (the point of welding). This opening enables
High-frequency upset seam welding (UW-HF), illus- the maximum heating of the edges by the high-
trated in Figure 1.23, is a process variation of electric frequency current applied to the electrodes. The
22 SURVEY OF JOINING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES

impeder also enhances the behavior of the current flow below the melting point of the base and filler metals.
to achieve maximum edge heating. The squeeze rolls Certain solid-state processes weld at approximately
push the heated edges together to produce the welded room temperature.
seam. The excess metal that has been squeezed out cre- The solid-state processes have the capability to join
ates flash, which is subsequently trimmed off to create a dissimilar metals that cannot be successfully joined with
smooth surface at the welded area. processes involving molten metal. For example, the
Sliding electrodes are preferred over the wheel-type welding of aluminum to steel is readily accomplished by
electrodes since only light pressure is needed for this several solid-state processes inasmuch as the two mate-
high-frequency, high-current application. When the rials are not melted and mixed. When iron and alumi-
frequency is increased from 60 hertz (Hz) to 400 kilo- num are melted and mixed together, a brittle
hertz (kHz), the heating effect is not as deep but is more intermetallic compound results; however, if iron and
concentrated, thus resulting in increased welding speeds aluminum are joined with no melting involved, an inter-
and increased productivity. Less electrical power is atomic attraction develops, producing a section with no
required when using high-frequency current due to con- brittle intermetallics.
centrating the heat where needed rather than spreading The six solid-state processes discussed here are pre-
it out. However, high-frequency current can cause haz- sented in descending order from the highest-temperature
ards as it broadcasts electrical noise that can affect the process to the lowest-temperature process. These are
performance of sensitive electronic equipment that may forge welding (FOW), friction welding (FRW), diffusion
be in the area. welding (DFW), ultrasonic welding (USW), explosion
Figure 1.24 illustrates the use of an induction coil for welding (EXW), and cold welding (CW).
the high-frequency upset welding of butt joints for pipe
seams. When using an induction coil, heating is accom-
plished by inducing high-frequency current using a cop- Forge Welding
per coil that encircles the pipe or tube. The induction
coil heating method is preferred when a problem is Forge welding (FOW) accomplishes joining by heat-
posed by the electrode’s contacting the surface of the ing the materials to welding temperature and then
pipe or tube. applying pressure (hammer blows or steady pressure) to
effect the weld. Possibly dating back to circa 4000 B.C.,
forge welding is the oldest known welding process.
SOLID-STATE WELDING Even then, articles were forged from both ferrous and
nonferrous metals. It is postulated that forge welding
The solid-state welding (SSW) processes accomplish may have been accomplished by first heating the articles
joining by the application of pressure at a temperature with the aid of a bellows to a high enough temperature
for forging. As illustrated in Figure 1.25, hammer blows
were applied to weld and shape the heated portion of
the metal.
Forge welding remained the only welding method
until late in the nineteenth century, when the electric
and oxyacetylene processes came into existence. At
present, some materials are still forge welded using the
hammer method, while others are joined using the die
and the roll welding (ROW) methods. In the fabrication
of laminated coins, for example, three layers of metal
are roll welded together before the stamping operation
is initiated. Another contemporary application of this
process involves the welding of low-carbon steels in the
production of tubing and clad metals.

Friction Welding
Friction welding (FRW), illustrated sequentially in
Figure 1.26, is a solid-state process that accomplishes
Source: Adapted from Linnert, G. E., 1994, Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., Miami: American
Welding Society, Figure 6.31. joining with the heat produced by means of the com-
pressive force generated by the workpieces’ rotating or
Figure 1.24—Schematic Illustration of moving in relation to each other, causing the displace-
Induction High-Frequency Upset Seam Welding ment of material from the faying surfaces. Friction
4 SURVEY OF JOINING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES

Table 1.1
Capabilities of the Commonly Used Joining Processes
Processes*
S G F G
M S M C T P E E O D F E L I D
A A A A A A S G R F F F R B B T F R I D R F
Material Thickness† W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W B B B B B B B S
Carbon S x‡ x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
steel I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x x x x x
Low-alloy S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
steel I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x x x x
Stainless S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
steel I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x x x x
Cast iron I x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x
Nickel and S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
alloys I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x
Aluminum S x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
and alloys I x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x
Titanium S x x x x x x x x x x x x
and alloys I x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x x x x
T x x x x x x x x
Copper and S x x x x§ x x x x x x x x
alloys I x x x x x x x
M x x x x x
T x x x x
Magnesium S x x x x x x x x x
and alloys I x x x x x x x x x x
M x x x x x x
T x x
Refractory S x x x x x x x x x x x x
alloys I x x x x x x x x
M x
T
* SMAW = shielded metal arc welding; SAW = submerged arc welding; GMAW = gas metal arc welding; FCAW = flux cored arc welding; GTAW = gas tungsten
arc welding; PAW = plasma arc welding; ESW = electroslag welding; EGW = electrogas welding; RW = resistance welding; FW = flash welding; OFW = oxyfuel
gas welding; DFW = diffusion welding; FRW = friction welding; EBW = electron beam welding; LBW = laser beam welding; TB = torch brazing; FB = furnace
brazing; RB = resistance brazing; IB = induction brazing; DB = dip brazing; IRB = infrared brazing; DB = diffusion brazing; and S = soldering.
† S = sheet (up to 1/8 inch [in.] 3 millimeters [mm]); I = intermediate (1/8 in. to 1/4 in. [3 mm to 6 mm]); M = medium (1/4 in. to 3/4 in. [6 mm to 19 mm]);

T = thick (3/4 in. [19 mm] and up).

‡ Commercial process.
§ Copper requires molybdenum-coated tips.