RADIATION

PHYSICS

AN MARI CAPUZ, RRT

MASS V.S. WEIGHT
 MASS
VS
WEIGHT
 MATTER AND ENERGY
 Matter is anything that occupies space. It is the material substance
having mass of which physical objects are composed.
 fundamental, complex building blocks of matter are atoms and
molecules.
 Energy is the ability to do work.
 strangest property associated with matter and energy is that they are
interchangeable
 matter can be transformed from one size, shape, and form to another,
so too can energy be transformed from one type to another
 Theory of relativity – Albert Einstein
KINDS OF ENERGY

 POTENTIAL ENERGY
 KINETIC ENERGY
 CHEMICAL ENERGY
 ELECTRICAL ENERGY
 THERMAL ENERGY
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
ENERGY
 Electromagnetic energy is
usually referred to as
electromagnetic
radiation or, simply,
radiation.
 Energy emitted and
transferred through space
is called radiation.
 Matter that intercepts
radiation and absorbs
part or all of it is said to be
exposed or irradiated.
WHAT IS IONIZING RADIATION?

 Kind of radiation capable of

removing/ejecting an orbital electron
from the atom with which it interacts.
 Occurs when an x-ray passes close to
an orbital electron of an atom and
transfers sufficient energy to the
electron to remove it from the atom.
 Removal of an electron from an atom
 Ion pair: negative ion and positive ion
 WHAT ARE THE
SOURCES OF
IONIZING
RADIATION?
1. ENVIRONMENTAL
RADIATION/
BACKGROUND RADIATION

2. MAN-MADE
RADIATION/ARTIFICIAL
RADIATION
ENVIRONMENTAL
RADIATION/ BACKGROUND
RADIATION
 Cosmic ray (29mrem) -
sun and star (high
altitude and latitude)
 Terrestrial radiation
(29mrem) - uranium,
thorium, radionuclide
(geology)
 Internal deposited
radionuclides
(39mrem) – K-40
 Radon (198mrem) -
concrete, bricks,
gypsum wallboard
= 295mrem
 MAN-MADE
RADIATION/ARTIFICIAL
RADIATION

 (60-65mrem)
 Diagnostic/medical x-ray
39 mrem
 Nuclear medicine 14 mrem
 Consumer product 10 mrem
 Industrial source/powerplant
2 mrem
 Consumer’s items (watch
dial, exit sign, smoke
detector, camping lantern
mantles, and airport
surveillance.
DISCOVERY OF X-RAY

 Discovery was accidental

 November 8, 1895
 Roentgen discovered x-rays by accident
 Working with crooks tube and barium
platinocyanide plate
 “x”- mathematical symbol for “unknown”
 Crookes tube- the forerunner of modern
fluorescent lamp and x-ray tubes.
 William Crookes- Crookes tube
GENERAL TYPE OF X-RAY EXAMINATION

1. Radiography- fixed image

2. Fluoroscopy -
moving/dynamic image
3. CT – 3D dimensional and
cross-sectional images
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN RADIOLOGY

 1896-Michael Pupin- intensifying screen

 1896-Thomas A. Edison- Fluoroscopy
 1904-Clarence Dally Madison- first x-ray fatality in the United States
 1904-Charles L. Leonard- double emulsion film
 Early 1900s-William Rollins- collimator and filtration
 1907-H. C. Snook- interrupter less transformer. Snook transformer
 1913-William Coolidge- Coolidge tube
 1921-Hollis E. Potter- Potter- Bucky grid was introduced
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN RADIOLOGY
 1966 - Diagnostic ultrasonography enters routine use.
 1972 - Single-emulsion film and one-screen mammography become
available (DuPont).
 1973 - Hounsfield completes development of first computed
tomography (CT) imaging system (EMI).
 1973 - Damadian and Lauterbur produce the first magnetic resonance
image (MRI).
 1977 - Mistretta demonstrates digital subtraction fluoroscopy
 2002 - Positron emission tomography (PET) is placed into routine clinical
service.
UNITS OF
MEASUREMENTS
BASE QUANTITIES

LENGTH (meter)
Old unit
 1meter →distance between 2 lines engraved on platinum-iridium
SI unit
 1meter → wavelength of orange light emitted from an isotope of
krypton86
 1meter → distance travelled by light
 1 meter → 1/ 299, 792, 468 sec.
BASE QUANTITIES

MASS (kilograms)
Old Unit
 1 kilogram → 1000cm3 of water in platinum-iridium
cylinder.
SI unit
 1 kilogram → 1000cm3 of water at 4˚c
 Kilogram→ unit of mass
 Newton or pound→ unit British, unit of weight.
BASE QUANTITIES

TIME (second)
Old unit
 1 second - rotation of the earth on its axis-the
mean solar day
SI unit
 1 second - vibration of atoms of cesium
atomic clock
MECHANICS

 Is a segment of physics that deals with object at rest

(statics) and objects in motion (dynamics)
DERIVED QUANTITIES

VELOCITY
 sometimes called speed, is a measure of how fast
something is moving or, more precisely, the rate of
change of its position with time.
 Old unit: miles/hour
 SI: meter/second
 DERIVED QUANTITIES
ACCELERATION
 The rate of change of velocity with time is acceleration.
 It is how “quickly or slowly” the velocity is changing.
 Because acceleration is velocity divided by time, the unitis
meters per second squared (m/s^2)
 DERIVED QUANTITIES

WEIGHT
 is a force on a body caused by the downward pull of
gravity on it.
 the unit is Newton (N) or pounds (lbs)
 DERIVED QUANTITIES

MOMENTUM
 Is the product of mass and velocity
 The total momentum before any interaction is equal to the
total momentum after the interaction
 Represented by p
 DERIVED QUANTITIES

WORK
 The work done on an object is the force applied times the
distance over which it is applied.
 Work is the product of force and distance
 the unit is Joule (J)
 DERIVED QUANTITIES
POWER
 Is the rate of doing work
 Is the quotient of work by time
 British unit is Horsepower (hp)
 SI unit is Joules/second (Watt)
 DERIVED QUANTITIES

ENERGY
 Is the ability to do work
 Energy may be transformed from
one to another, but it cannot be
created nor destroyed.
 The unit of energy and work is the
same, the Joule (J).
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION (FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF MOTION)

1. LAW OF INERTIA - A body will remain at rest or continue to move with

constant velocity in straight line unless acted on by an external force
(push/friction)
2. LAW OF FORCE - The force (f) on acting on an object is equal to the
mass (m) object multiplied by the acceleration (a) produced. Force
can be thought of as a push or pull on an object. (F= ma)
3. LAW OF ACTION/REACTION - For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction. “Action” was Newton’s word for “force”. According
to this law, if you push on a heavy block, the block will push back on
you with the same force that you apply.
HEAT

 Is the kinetic energy of the random motion

of molecules.
 The unit of heat, the “calorie”, is defined as
the heat necessary to raise the
temperature of 1g of water through 1˚C.
 The heat is transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation.
TEMPERATURE
RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

ROENTGEN (R) = AIR KERMA (GYa)

 The Roentgen is the unit of radiation
exposure or intensity
 Amount of radiation and is defined as the
charge liberated per unit mass of air
 Applies only to x-ray and gamma rays and
their interaction with air
 Kinetic Energy Released per unit Mass
 C/kg
RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

ROENTGEN (R) = AIR KERMA (GYa)

1R = 2.08 x 109 ip/cm3
1R = 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg
RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

rad = Gray (Gyt)

 Radiation Absorbed Dose
 Radiation Absorbed by a patient
 Measure of the effect of radiation and is
defined as the energy absorbed by a unit
mass of a substance
 J/kg
RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

rad = Gray (Gyt)

1 rad = 100 erg/g
1 rad = 10-2 Gy
Erg or joule- unit of energy
Kg/gram- unit of mass
RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

Rem = Sievert (Sv)

 Radiation Equivalent Man
 Dose equivalent
 Effective dose
 Equivalent dose
 Used to express the quantity of radiation
received by radiation worker and
population
 J/kg/min
RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

Rem = Sievert (Sv)

1 Sv = 100 rems
0.01 Sv = 10 mSv = 1 rem
RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

Curie (Ci) = Bequerel (Bq)

 Curie is the unit of radioactivity
 Number of nuclear disintegrations per
unit time.
RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

Curie (Ci) = Bequerel (Bq)

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
1mCi = 3.7 x 107 Bq
SUMMARY RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

Customary unit SI UNIT

Roentgen X 0.01 =Air Kerma
Rad X 0.01 =Gy
Rem X 0.01 =Sv
10
Curie X 3.7 X 10 =Bq
SUMMARY RADIOLOGICAL UNITS

SI UNIT Customary Unit

Air Kerma ÷ 0.01 =Roentgen
Gy ÷ 0.01 =Rad
Sv ÷ 0.01 =Rem
10
Bq ÷ 3.7 X 10 =Curie
SUMMARY
RADIOLOGICAL
UNITS
THE ATOM

 Is the smallest part of an element that

has all the properties of the elements.
 atom is essentially empty space.
 Greek Atom
 Dalton Atom
 Thomson Atom
 Rutherford Atom
 Bohr’s Atom
 GREEK ATOM

DEMOCRITUS
ATOM MEANING
“INDIVISIBLE”
A= not
Temon= cut
 DALTON’S
ATOM
1808- John Dalton
“Eye And Hook Affair”
THEY LOOKED ALIKE, THEY WERE CONSTRUCTED
ALIKE, AND THEY REACTED ALIKE.
THEY WERE, HOWEVER, VERY DIFFERENT FROM
ATOMS OF ANY OTHER ELEMENT
 THOMSON’S
ATOM

1890- J.J. Thompson

“Plum Pudding”
Plum-represented
Negative Electric
Charges (Electron)
Pudding- Shapeless
Mass Of Uniform
Positive
Electrification.
 RUTHERFORD’S
ATOM
1911- Ernest Rutherford
“Nuclear Model”
Described The Atom As
Continuing A Small Dense,
Positively Charged Centre
Surrounded By A Negative
Cloud Of Electron.
He Called The Center Of The
Atom “Nucleus”
 BOHR’S ATOM

1913- Niels Bohr

“Miniature Solar System”

Bohr Atom Contains A Small,

Dense, Positively Charged Nucleus
By Negatively Charged Electrons
That Revolve In Fixed, Well-
Defined Orbits About The Nucleus.
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
 Because an atomic particle is extremely
small, its
 mass is expressed in atomic mass units (amu)
 Electron (-)
 Proton (+)
 Neutron (o)
 Proton and neutron are called nucleons.
 Composed of Quarks that are held together
by Gluons
 The primary difference between proton and
neutron is “ electric charge”
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOMIC STRUCTURES

 The atom is essentially empty space

 The atom is neutral
 The number of protons determines the “chemical elements”
 The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the higher its binding energy.
 In their normal state, atoms are electrically neutral; the electric charge on the
atom is zero
 The total number of electron in the orbital shells is exactly equal to the
number of proton in the nucleus.
 If an atom has an extra electron or had an electron removed, it is said “
ionized”
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
 An ionized atom is not electrically neutral but carries a charge equal in magnitude to
the difference between the number of electron and protons.
 Atoms cannot be ionized by the addition or subtraction of protons because they are
bound very strongly together and that would change the type of atom
 An alteration in the number of neutrons does not ionize an atom because the
neutron is electrically neutral.
 Ionization is the removal of an orbital electron from an atom
 The number of neutrons is always greater than the number of protons. The larger the
atom, the greater the abundance of neutrons over protons.
 When an atom or molecule gain or loses an electron it becomes an ion.
 A cation has lost an electron and therefore has a positive charge
 An anion has gained an electron and therefore has a negative charge.
ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT

 physicists call the shell number n the principal quantum number

 The number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom is equal to its group in
the periodic table.
 The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the valence of an
atom
 The number of the outermost electron shell of an atom is equal to its period in
the periodic table.
 No outer shell can contain more than 8 electrons (Octet Rule)
 Centripetal force keeps an electron in orbit.
 Centrifugal force keeps the electron maintains their distance from the
nucleus travelling in a circular or elliptical path.
 ELECTRON
BINDING ENERGY

 The strength of
attachment of an
electron to the
nucleus.
 The greater the total
number of electron in
an atom, the highly
each is bound.
ATOMIC NOMENCLATURES

A = Z + N
ATOMIC NOMENCLATURES
 A - atomic mass number (z + n= A (whole #) )
 Z - atomic number (# of proton - # of neutron) (A-N=Z)
 N - number of neutron (A-Z=n)
 The number of protons(Z) plus the number of neutron(n) of an atom is called
atomic mass number, symbolized by A
 The atomic mass number is a whole number.
 The atomic mass number and the precise mass of an atom are not equal.
 An atom’s atomic mass number is a whole number that is equal to the
number of nucleons in the atom. The actual atomic mass of an atom is
determined by measurement and rarely is a whole number.
ISOTOPES (Z)

 Atoms that have the

same number, but
different atomic
mass numbers are
isotopes
ISOBAR (A)

 Atomic nuclei that

have the same
atomic mass number
but different atomic
number
ISOTONES (N)

 Atoms that have the

same number of
neutrons but different
number of protons
 ISOMERS (M)
 Isomers have the same
atomic number and
the same atomic mass
number.
 Isomers are identical
atoms except that they
exist at different energy
state because of
differences in nucleon
arrangement.
ATOMIC NOMENCLATURES

Atomic Atomic mass Neutron

Arrangement Number Number Number
Isotope Same Different Different

Isobar Different Same Different

Isotone Different Different Same

Isomer Same Same Same

COMBINATION OF
ATOMS

 Covalent bonds
(sharing)
 Ionic bonds
(giving)
RADIOACTIVITY

 Is the emission of particles and

energy in order to become stable.
 Radioactive disintegration or
radioactive decay - To reach
stability the nucleus spontaneously
emits particles and energy and
transforms itself into another atom.
 The half-life of a radioisotope is the
time required for a quantity of
radioactivity to be reduced to
one-half its original value
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

 Electromagnetic energy exists over a wide range called an energy

continuum. A continuum is an uninterrupted (continuous) ordered
sequence.
 Photon is the smallest quantity of any type of electromagnetic energy.
 A photon may be pictured as a small bundle of energy, sometimes
called a quantum, that travels through space at the speed of light (3 ×
108 m/s.)
PROPERTIES
OF PHOTONS
PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS

VELOCITY
 photons are energy disturbance moving through space at the speed of light
(c)
 The velocity of EM photons in British units is 186, 400 miles/sec or the speed of
light (c)
 186, 000 miles per sec or 186, 400 miles per sec
 c = 3x10^8 meter/sec
PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS

AMPLITUDE

 Is one-half the range from crest to valley over which the sine wave
varies.
 Although photons have no mass and therefore no identifiable form,
they do have electric and magnetic fields that are continuously
moving in sinusoidal fashion or sine wave.
PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS

WAVELENGTH

 Represented by Greek symbol λ or lambda

 the distance from one crest to another crest; from one valley to
another valley; or from any point on the sine wave to the next
corresponding point is the wavelength
 frequency and wavelength is inversely proportional
PROPERTIES OF PHOTONS

FREQUENCY

 The rate of rise and fall of a sine wave is called frequency. It

is usually identified as oscillations per second or cycle per
second. The unit of measurement is the Hertz (Hz).
 1Hz = 1 cycle/ sec.
RELATIONSHIP OF WAVE PARAMETERS

 Frequency is inversely proportional to

wavelength
 Energy is directly proportional to frequency
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
VISIBLE LIGHT

 Refraction - deviation in the line of travel.

Ex. Rainbow
 White light passing through a prism is
refracted because it is composed of
photons of a range of wavelength.
 sunlight also contains 2 types of invisible
light: infrared light and ultraviolet light
 Infrared - consists of photons with
wavelengths longer than those of visible
light
 Ultraviolet – is located in EM spectrum
between visible light and ionizing
radiation.
 ROYGBIV
RADIOFREQUENCY

 Electromagnetic radiation having frequency from 0.3 kHz to 300GHz

 Because microwaves are also used for communication, there is
considerable overlap between what are identifiable as RF and as
microwaves.
 Very-short-wavelength RF is microwave radiation. Microwave
frequencies vary according to use but are always higher than
broadcast RF and lower than infrared. Microwaves have many uses,
such as cellular telephone communication, highway speed monitoring,
medical diathermy, and hotdog preparation
IONIZING RADIATION

 Radiation capable of ionization

 The only difference between x-rays and gamma
rays is their source of ORIGIN.
 X-rays are emitted from the electron cloud of an
atom that has been artificially stimulated.
Gamma rays on the other hand, come from
inside the nucleus of radioactive atom.
 X-rays are produced in electrical machines,
whereas gamma rays are emitted spontaneously
from radioactive materials.
 WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

 Photons interact with matter most easily

when the matter is approximately the
same size as the photon wavelength.
 All radiation with wavelengths longer
than that of x-radiation interact primarily
as a wave phenomenon. Although X-
rays behave as though they are particles
 Wave Model: Visible light behaves like a
wave.
 WAVE MODEL:VISIBLE LIGHT

 The visible-light spectrum extends

from short-wavelength violet
radiation through green and yellow
to long wavelength red radiation.
 Many familiar phenomena of light,
such as reflection, absorption and
transmission are explained by using
the wave model of EMR.
 Attenuation - partial absorption of
energy
 INVERSE SQUARE LAW

 the intensity of light is inversely

proportional to the square of the
distance of the object from the
source
 As a rule, the inverse square law can
be applied to distance greater than
seven times the longest dimension of
the source.
 PARTICLE MODEL: QUANTUM THEORY
 Unlike other portions of EM spectrum, x-rays are
usually identified by their energy which is
measured in electron volts (eV)
 X-rays are created with the speed of light (c),
and they exist with velocity (c)or they do not
exist at all. That is one of the substantive
statements of Planck’s quantum theory of Max
Planck
 Photon energy is directly proportional to
photon frequency. The constant of
proportionality, known as Planck’s constant
and symbolized by h, has a numeric value of
4.15 ×10−15 eVs or 6.63 × 10−34 Js
ELECTROSTATICS

 Study of stationary electric charges

Laws
 Electrification – transfer of electric charges can be created by contact, friction and
induction
 Like and unlike charges – like charges repel, unlike charges attracts
 Coulomb’s law: The electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the
electrostatic charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
 Law of distribution – distribution of charges is uniform throughout or on the surface
 Law of concentration – electric charge of conductor is concentrated along the
sharpest curvature of the surface
 Electric potential is sometimes called voltage
LAW OF ELECTRIFICATION

 An object is said to be electrified if it has

too few or too many electrons.
 One object that is always available to
accept electric charges from an
electrified object is the Earth. The Earth
behaves as a huge reservoir for stray
electric charges. In this capacity, it is
called an electric ground.
 The smallest unit of electric charge is the
electron. This charge is much too small
to be useful, so the fundamental unit of
electric charge is the coulomb (C): 1 C =
6.3 × 10^18 electron charges.
LAW OF LIKE AND UNLIKE CHARGES

 The electric field points outward from a positive

charge and inward to a negative charge.
 When two similar electric charges—negative and
negative or positive and positive—are brought close
together, their electric fields are in opposite
directions, which cause the electric charges to
repel each other
 When unlike charges—one negative and one
positive—are close to each other, the electric fields
radiate in the same direction and cause the two
charges to attract each other. The force of
attraction between unlike charges or repulsion
between like charges is attributable to the electric
field. It is called an electrostatic force
 COULOMB’S LAW

 The electrostatic force is

very strong when objects
are close but decreases
rapidly as objects
separate. This inverse
square relationship for
electrostatic force is the
same as that for x-ray
intensity
LAW OF DISTRIBUTION AND CONCENTRATION
 ELECTRODYNAMICS
 Study of electric charges in motion
 We recognize electrodynamic phenomena as
electricity.
 If an electric potential is applied to objects such as
copper wire, then electrons move along the wire.
This is called an electric current, or electricity.
 Direction of electric current is always opposite that
of electron flow.
 Conductor - any substance through which
electrons flow easily
 Insulator - any material that does not allow
electron flow
 Semiconductor - material that under some
conditions behaves as an insulator and in other
conditions behaves as a conductor
 Superconductor - property of some materials to
exhibit no resistance below a critical temperature.
ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT
ELEMENTS
OHM’S LAW
 Electric Circuits are made when resistance is
controlled, and the conductor is made into a
closed path.
 Increasing electric resistance results in a reduced
electric current.
 Electric current is measured in amperes (A). The
ampere is proportional to the number of electrons
flowing in the electric circuit. One ampere is equal
to an electric charge of 1 C flowing through a
conductor each second.
 Electric potential is measured in volts (V), and
electric resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Electrons at high voltage have high potential
energy and high capacity to do work. If electron
flow is inhibited, the circuit resistance is high.
 SERIES CIRCUIT
 In a series circuit, all circuit elements
are connected in a line along the
same conductor.
RULES FOR SERIES CIRCUITS
 The total resistance is equal to the sum
of the individual resistances.
 The current through each circuit
element is the same and is equal to
the total circuit current.
 The sum of the voltages across each
circuit element is equal to the total
circuit voltage
 PARALLEL CIRCUIT
 A parallel circuit contains elements that
are connected at their ends rather than
lying in a line along a conductor..
RULES FOR PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 The sum of the currents through each
circuit element is equal to the total circuit
current.
 The voltage across each circuit element is
the same and is equal to the total circuit
voltage.
 The total resistance is the inverse of the
sum of the reciprocals of each individual
resistance.
ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Electrons that flow in only one direction

constitute DC; electrons that flow alternately in
opposite directions constitute AC.
 For DC, the electrons always flow in the same
direction; therefore, DC is represented by a
horizontal line. The vertical separation between
this line and the time axis represents the
magnitude of the current or the voltage.
 The waveform for AC is a sine curve. Electrons
flow first in a positive direction and then in a
negative direction. At one instant in time, all
electrons are at rest.
ELECTRIC POWER

 Electric power is measured in

watts (W).
 One watt is equal to 1 A of
current flowing through an
electric potential of 1 V.
Power (W) = voltage (V) ×
current (A).
 MAGNETISM
 oxide of iron (Fe3O4) – rodlike stone moving
back and forth also called as lodestone or
leading stone
 Magnetic field – any charged particle in
motion creates magnetic field
 Magnetism – Milk of magnesia from cows of
the North pole
 Electron spin – magnetic field created by
rotating electron on its axis or
counterclockwise
 Magnetic moment – protons of hydrogen spin
on its axis creates nuclear magnetic dipole
MAGNETISM

 Magnetic field always have north and south pole (they’re dipolar or
bipolars) and does not have starts and ends like electric field
 Magnetic dipole – small magnetic field created by electron orbit
 Magnetic domain – accumulation of many atomic magnets with aligned
dipoles, randomly distributed
 Magnetic permeability is the ability of a material to attract the lines of
magnetic field intensity
 The degree to which a material can be magnetized is its magnetic
susceptibility.
 TYPES OF MAGNETS
 Natural magnet - earth
 Permanent magnet – available in many shape
and sizes as bar or horseshoe-shaped magnets,
usually made of iron. Produce by aligning
domains.
 Electromagnet – current-carrying coil of wire
wrapped around an iron core, which intensifies
the induced magnetic field
 Electromagnet - cconsists of wire wrapped
around an iron core. When an electric current is
conducted through the wire, a magnetic field is
created. The intensity of the magnetic field is
proportional to the electric current. The iron core
greatly increases the intensity of the magnetic
field
FOUR MAGNETIC
STATES OF MATTER
MAGNETIC LAWS
 Law of induction – ferromagnetic objects can be made into magnets
through induction
 Law of magnetic force - magnetic force is proportional to the product
of the magnetic pole strengths divided by the square of the distance
between them.
 Electromagnetism (Oersted Law) - Any charge in motion induces a
magnetic field.
 Electromagnetic Induction (Faraday’s Law) - electric current is
induced in a circuit if some part of that circuit is in a changing
magnetic field
OERSTED LAW

 electric current
produces a
mechanical motion
(the motion of the
compass needle).
This is the basis of the
electric motor.
 FARADAY’S LAW

 mechanical motion (the motion

of a magnet near a coil of wire)
induces electricity in a coil of
wire. This is the principle on which
the electric generator operates.
ELECTROMECHANICAL DEVICES

 ELECTRIC GENERATOR - a coil of wire is placed in a strong magnetic field

between two magnetic poles. The coil is rotated by mechanical energy.
 ELECTRIC MOTOR - electric energy is supplied to the current loop to produce a
mechanical motion—that is, a rotation of the loop in the magnetic field. It
uses many turns of wire for the current loop and many bar magnets to create
the external magnetic field
 INDUCTION MOTOR - the rotating rotor is a shaft made of bars of copper and
soft iron fabricated into one mass; however, the external magnetic field is
supplied by several fixed electromagnets called stators. (p.78-79)
 TRANSFORMER - changes the intensity of alternating voltage and current.
TRANSFORMER LAW
TYPE OF TRANSFORMERS
 A transformer with a turns ratio greater
than 1 is a step-up transformer because
the voltage is increased or stepped up
from the primary side to the secondary
side. When the turns ratio is less than 1,
the transformer is a step-down
transformer.
 In a step-up transformer, the current on
the secondary side (Is) is smaller than
the current on the primary side (Ip). In a
step-down transformer, the secondary
current is larger than the primary
current.
TYPE OF TRANSFORMERS
TYPE OF TRANSFORMERS
 Closed- core - built about a square core of ferromagnetic
material, ferromagnetic core is not a single piece but rather is
built up of laminated layers of iron. This layering helps reduce
energy losses, resulting in greater efficiency
 Autotransformer - consists of an iron core with only one winding of
wire about it. This single winding acts as both the primary and the
secondary winding.
 Shell type - confines even more of the magnet field lines of the
primary winding because the secondary is wrapped around it
and there are essentially two closed cores. This type is more
efficient than the closed-core transformer. Most currently used
transformers are shell type
 THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING!
REFERENCES:
Bushong, S.C. (2017). Radiologic Science For
Technologists: Physics, Biology, And Protection
(11th edition). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier