© April 2020 | IJIRT | Volume 6 Issue 11 | ISSN: 2349-6002

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL VEHICLES

Swapnil Namekar1, Harshdeep2

1
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering,
2
Student, Department of Electrical Engineering,
Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University College of Engineering Pune, India

Abstract- Fuel cell vehicles should be further improved. hydrocarbons to a hydrogen rich gas on-board, is very
Key issues are cost reduction; higher power density of complex [2]. Consequently, the above cited potential
the primary energy converter, the fuel cell; wider can only be assessed, if satisfying answers to the
operation ranges and improvement of operation
questions of hydrogen production, infrastructure and
parameters, e.g. higher operation temperature and
storage are found with regard to economics.
starting ability in freezing conditions. Using advanced
materials and construction principles is a key factor by
Furthermore, technical progress is needed in fuel cell
meeting these requirements. The paper gives a short propulsion technology. Main issues are: cost of the
introduction to the technology of fuel cell vehicles and the power train; lifetime of the core components, namely
most prominent fuel cell type for traction applications, the fuel cell stack; cold start ability; performance
the polymer-electrolyte-membrane fuel cell (PEFC). under freezing conditions; and operating range of the
Progress in material development of a core component of vehicles. Improved materials are needed to meeting
the PEFC, the bipolar plate is described. In the second the envisaged targets. This paper gives some
part of the paper some ideas are presented, in which way
examples for challenges in material science
material research could help to enable suitable on-board
developing advanced PEFC-stacks and advanced
storages for hydrogen. Namely, a new approach to design
compressed gas storages and new developments in
hydrogen storages.
materials for solid state hydrogen storage are brought to II. FUEL CELL POWER TRAIN
attention.
Fig. 1 shows the scheme of fuel cell power train
I. INRODUCTION applied to an electrical drive train. Torque for traction
The fuel cell is in the transformation from chemical is provided by an electrical engine, which is usually
energy to electricity a very promising primary energy fed with electrical energy by an inverter. The primary
converter for automotive propulsion due to their high energy converter, which provides the electrical
efficiency and ultra-low emissions. The polymer- energy, is a fuel cell system. The hydrogen, which is
electrolyte-membrane fuel cell (PEFC) - among the consumed by the fuel cell, is stored in a hydrogen
different types of fuel cells - is almost exclusively storage.
discussed for applications in traction because of their
rugged design and suitability for dynamic operation.
Therefore, this paper deals exclusively with PEFC
technology. In comparative views with other vehicle
power trains "tank to wheel" lowest CO2-emissions
for vehicles with fuel cell power trains were obtained
with the PEFC-fuel cell technology [1]. However,
extending the view to “well-to-wheel” it becomes
apparent that the advantage is getting smaller or – for
unfavorable fuel supply chains – CO2-emissions
could be also higher. The PEFC’s preferable fuel for Figure 1: Scheme of a fuel cell power train.
is hydrogen. As fuel up-to-date almost exclusively
hydrogen is used, because it has been found that the Despite of the hydrogen supply the fuel cell system
realization of gas generation systems, which convert needs more sub systems: an air supply system, a heat
and water management system and a control system.

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However, the most important component, which is given on the right-hand-side of fig. 2. The single
determines the characteristics of the fuel cell system cells and bipolar plates are covered on both sides with
to a wide extend is the fuel metallic end plates, which fix mechanically the stack
cell or fuel cell stack itself. Although the fuel cell and provide the inlets and outlets for the media. Near
technology has already made substantial to each end plate one current collector (plus and minus
improvements in the past; the road map of fuel cell pole of the stack) of the stack can be seen. It is obvious
developers foresees significant improvements e.g. that within the stack manifolds are needed, which
cost reduction, durability, lifetime and power density provide the media supply to each individual cell,
until 2010. For instance, in the road map of Ballard whereby appropriate gaskets must separate the
the cost target for a fuel cell stack by 2010 comes to different media.
25 USD/kW net EOL compared to 103 USD by 2004
[3].
With regard to the hydrogen storage the target of the
DOE in the United States a cost reduction to 6 $/kWh
of stored energy at a recoverable hydrogen storage
capacity of 4.5 wt% shall be reached by 2007 [4].
III. PEFC STACKS
A fuel cell stack has to provide all manifold functions.
Fig. 2 shows on the left side a schematic
representation of a single PEFC, whereby flow of
media, heat and current is indicated. This scheme is Figure 2: left: schematic representation of a PEFC.
not complete and some flow directions may differ Right: PEFC stack, manufacturer NUVERA Fuel
depending on specific cell designs and/or specific cells.
operating conditions. The center component of the
PEFC is the proton exchange membrane, which In summary the main transportation processes in the
separates the two reaction layers. The combination of fuel cell are: (1) proton transport through the
the membrane and the two electrodes is often called membrane from the anodic side to the catalyst surface
membrane electrode assembly (MEA). On the anode of the cathode; (2) electrons through an external
fuel is oxidized, whereby electrons are dragged to an electric circuit from anodic side to the catalytic
external circuit and protons are conducted through the surface of the cathode (3) electrons from the cathode
membrane to the cathodic side. On the cathode of one fuel cell to the anode of a second cell through
oxygen is reduced and combined with protons from the interconnecting bipolar plate, (4) the reactants and
the membrane and the electrons from the external products to and from the reaction layers on the anodic
electric circuit to water. Heat is released in several and cathodic side as well; (5) heat from the membrane
reaction steps and must be removed from the location electrode assembly (MEA) to the htf cooling
of its genesis transferred to a heat transfer fluid (htf). channels. There are various research activities
The heat transfer fluid flows in a cooling plate, which ongoing regarding all components of fuel cells. In the
may serve as the so called bipolar plate (BPP) as well. following some aspects regarding material research
The function of the layers - gas distributor and gas on BPPs and polymer membranes are given.
diffusion layer - is to distribute the reactants to the IV. BIPOLAR PLATE AND MEMBRANE
active layers (electrodes: anode and cathode)
respectively to collect and remove the products or Bipolar Plates (BPPs) contribute significantly to cost,
inert gases from active layers. The gas distributor is volume and mass of fuel cell stacks. Hermann et al.
often integrated into the bipolar plate. The gas report, that BBPs participate with about 80% to the
diffusion layer is also called backing. Bipolar plates stack weight and with 45% to its cost [5]. Newest
interconnect electrically a number of single PEFCs research results at DLR-IFK indicate a contribution of
forming a so-called “stack” and multiplying thereby about 33% to the stack cost [6]. A BPP fulfills
the voltage of the stack. An example of a PEFC stack multiple functions: it separates individual cells in the

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stack, it distributes fuel and oxidant, it may serve as a there are extensive research activities on advanced
support for gaskets, it may serve as a cooling plate, it electrolyte membranes ongoing. An overview can be
conducts electrons. Herman et al. give the following found in [9].
properties, which should be met by a BPP. ƒ
V. PRINCIPLES OF FUEL CELL
Electrical conductivity: plate resistance < 0.01
Ohmcm2 ƒ Thermal conductivity: as high as possible. There are various types of FC systems. However, the
 Hydrogen/gas permeability: <10-4 cm3/(s principle of their function is similar. For a fuel cell
2
cm ) system, three pillars are required: an anode, a cathode,
 Corrosion resistance: corrosion rate < 0.016 and an electrolyte. FCs are categorized by the type of
mA/cm2 electrolyte material used. An FC can be composed of
hundreds of individual cells, but each has the three
 Compressive strength: >22 lb/in2
same fundamental components. The electrolyte is
 Density: <5g/cm3
located between the cathode and the anode. Figure 2
The following materials are under investigation for
depicts a schematic of a polymer electrolyte FC
BPPs: non-porous graphite/electrographite; coated
(PEMFC) operation diagram. This FC type is also
and non-coated metals; composite materials (polymer
known as a proton exchange membrane FC. The
carbon and polymer-metal). Due to the character of
PEMFC is what is most commonly used in mobile
the membrane, the BPP must withstand an acidic
power applications, such as vehicles. While the
environment at temperatures around 80 °C. Because
electrolyte material used varies depending on the type
of its chemical stability and low electrical resistance,
of FC, the general function of the FC is as follows—
graphite has been widely used in the past as preferable
fuel (pure hydrogen) is fed into the anode
BPP material for PEFC stacks. However, the
compartment of the fuel cell while air or pure oxygen
mechanical properties of graphite are not favorable. It
is fed into the cathode side of the FC. On the anode
must be handled with care, manufacturing of parts
side of the cell, electrons are separated as the gas tries
with structures is very expensive and the design of the
to make its way through the electrolyte membrane.
entire stack has limits given by the mechanical
The membrane acts as a filter to separate the electrons
properties of graphite. Therefore, metal and
and the hydrogen ions while only allowing the
composite materials have actually drawn more
hydrogen ions to pass through. In the cathode
attention.
compartment, the hydrogen ions that passed through
Chemical stability is the main issue for metal plates,
the membrane combine with the oxygen atoms from
which can be shaped relatively easily. Recently the
the air supply to produce H2O as a by-product; heat is
supplier Dana reported promising results for BPPs
also produced as a by-product. Unlike internal
with special coatings [7]. In comparison with other
combustion engines, where the fuel is mixed with air
BPPs the degradation of special coated plates was
and fuel, there is separation of the fuel and the oxidant
reduced about by a factor 6 compared to stainless
with no combustion of the fuel in an FC. Therefore,
steel. The observed degradation was even smaller
FCs do not produce the harmful emissions that internal
than the degradation of a BPP made of gold.
combustion engines produce.
As explained above main functions of the polymer
electrolyte membrane are the conduction of protons
from the anode to the cathode side of the fuel cell and
the separation of the reactants. Consequently, the
membrane should have high proton conductivity, low
gas permeability, high thermal and chemical stability,
and high mechanical stability. Perfluorinated ionomer
membranes like Nafion® from DuPont are widely
used in PEFCs. However, the automotive industry is
asking for low-cost membranes, which can be
operated at higher temperatures without the need for
a sophisticated water management [8]. Worldwide Figure 3. Fuel cell operation diagram.

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VI. TYPES OF FUEL CELL been used to remove the water at the proton exchange
membrane at the end of the FC operation. Gas purge
FC systems are classified by the type of membrane
time increases with a decrease in the cell temperature.
they use. Table 1 shows some of the more common
The gas purge flow rate should be greater than the
FCs and the type of membrane each uses.
purging time. Due to the high flow rates, the water
droplets in the PEM can be pulled away from it. In FC
Fuel Cell Abbreviation Membrane mode, the mass flow rate of reactants is affected by the
water content in the cell. To make the successful mode
switching process from electrolysis mode to fuel cell
Solid Oxide Fuel cells SOFC Yttria- mode, enough time should be provided. Allowing
stabilized adequate time for gas purging enhances the mass flow
zirconia rate, which helps the FC start up. The water in the
Direct methanol fuel cell DMFC Solid polymer channel is pushed by the oxygen gas, but the water in
electrolyte the oxygen side is still present due to the increased
(Nafion) amount of time required for water electrolysis to
Phosphoric Acid fuel cell PAFC Phosphoric occur. Pre-reactant switching is the method where the
Acid (H3PO4) reactant gases are switched on before transitioning to
the FC mode. By supplying the oxygen to the FC
before the current supply, the residual water stored in
Solid polymer the channels and the gas diffusion layer made during
Polymer electrolyte
PEMFC electrolyte EC mode is eliminated. The gas must be supplied 180
fuel cell Or
(Nafion) s before the current transition to FC mode. This will
Proton exchange
effectively consume the residual water at end of EC
membrane
mode.
Aqueous
VIII. FUEL CELL HYBRID VEHICLE
solution
Alkaline fuel cell AFC Potassium The development of one important aspect of the fuel
Hydroxide cell vehicle—the electric motor—dates back to the
(KOH) early 19th century. Although electric vehicles were a
Table 1. Classification of fuel cell systems based on strong contender in the early 20th century to become
the employed membrane. a mainstream transportation method, the ICE vehicle
eventually won out due to the short range and the high
cost of electric vehicles. Additionally, the discovery of
VII. UNITIZED REVERSIBLE FUEL CELL
Texan oil reduced the price of gasoline, thus it became
A unitized reversible FC (URFC) is an energy-storage affordable to the average consumer, which caused fuel
device that performs in water-electrolysis mode (EC cell and electric vehicles to take a backseat to the ICE
mode) to produce hydrogen and works in FC mode to vehicle for most of the last 100 years. The oil embargo
generate electricity. During the mode switching of the in 1973 kick-started a renewed interest in FC power
URFC, a reversible electrochemical reaction takes for personal transportation applications, as
place that causes the change in temperature. Research governments looked to mitigate their dependence on
on URFCs found pre-reactant switching, oxygen flow petroleum imports. In the early 1970s, K. Kordesch
rate, hydrogen flow rate, and time interval length modified a sedan to operate from a 6-kW FC and a
makes the URFC more efficient and reliable. The lead acid battery pack. The automobile was driven on
water accumulation in URFCs is a major problem, as public roads for about three years. In 1993, Ballard
it decreases the mass flow rate of reactants in FC launched a fuel cell-powered light-duty transit bus
mode. It also affects the mode switching in URFC. using a 120-kW FC system, followed by a heavy-duty
The residual water left during EC mode and the water transit bus using a 200-kW FC system in 1995. In 1994
produced during FC mode should be eliminated to and 1995, H-Power built three fuel cell-battery hybrid
facilitate smooth mode switching. Gas purging has buses, each using a 50-kW FC and a 100-kW nickel-

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cadmium battery. The importance of these releases policy scenario. Figure 4 shows FCV sales volume
was to make FC technology understandable to key anticipations based on a long-term powertrain mix
decision makers in industry and government. These scenario (million annual units). Considering a similar
buses helped to prove that fuel cells would work in the scenario, the international energy agency (IEA)
real world. Fleet-vehicle operations, such as buses and anticipates an FCV market share of about 17% by
delivery services, were early adopters of fuel cell 2050 (35 million annual unit sales).
technology due to the ease of centralized refueling and
the reduced requirement for a high range capability
between fill-ups. Trials of FC powered buses have
occurred in Vancouver and Chicago, as well as in
other cities in Europe and North America. In July
2005, the first FC vehicle was leased to a family in
California as an important step in getting more fuel
cell vehicles on the road. However, many obstacles
remain to be overcome before the FC vehicle can
become a mainstream form of transportation. An
obvious issue is the need for a hydrogen infrastructure
to enable refueling of the vehicles. Hydrogen filling
stations currently exist in many countries around the
world, such as Canada, the USA, Iceland, Japan, Figure 4. Fuel cell vehicle (FCV) sales volume.
Singapore, and Germany. Though these stations are Source: IEA. All rights reserved.
currently not widespread enough to allow large
numbers of people to begin driving FCVs, it is Another option to increase the HRS prevalence is to
expected that more hydrogen infrastructure will be use electrolysis at refueling stations to convert
built as more FCVs become commercially available. electricity from the grid into hydrogen. This idea could
Hydrogen FCVs have evolved significantly; currently, be extended to residential applications, where people
they can drive between 311 to 597 miles on a full tank. would have a hydrogen refueling station in their own
The development of these vehicles is increasing, but homes. The obstacles associated with developing an
they still require significant improvements. adequate hydrogen infrastructure brings up another
It should be noted that FCEVs are more promising in important question—where will the hydrogen come
city bus applications due to two reasons—the supply from? Although hydrogen is the most abundant
of hydrogen is not crucial, because the buses refuel in element in the universe, it rarely exists alone in nature.
one place, hence only one refilling point is required, Today, hydrogen is mostly produced by reforming
and the price of FCs. FCs are still expensive therefore natural gas. In this way, pollutants can be captured if
it makes more sense to buy them for vehicles that are the reforming is done at a central plant. However,
in use for many hours each day. As of June 2018, there other options, such as direct solar hydrogen from
have been more than 6500 FCVs delivered to methane at landfills and hydrogen from bacteria, are
consumers. California was the leading market for continually being explored. If electrolysis is used to
FCVs, with nearly 3000 vehicles being delivered due generate hydrogen, there may have to be an increase
to it having the largest network of hydrogen refueling in electricity generation to satisfy the need for
stations (HRS). In Europe, Germany’s Linde AG and hydrogen, though the increase may be small, since
France’s Air Liquide have been working together to hydrogen can be produced during off-peak times.
increase Methods to generate electricity that have a minimal
Germany’s stations from 15 to 100 by 2017 and to 400 impact on the environment include nuclear, wind,
by 2023. About 1000 HRS would be required to solar, hydro, and geothermal. It is often said that, at
provide full coverage in countries such as Germany or the beginning of the hydrogen economy, most of the
France, with a cost of 1.5 to 2 billion euro. hydrogen will still be reformed from natural gas, but
FCV sales volumes are projected to be significant, but as time goes by, society will move towards more ideal
only in the long term, even with a favorable climate- sources of energy, such as wind and solar. Although

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generation and transportation of hydrogen is a major storage capacities, having also a satisfying kinetics. In
issue in the deployment of fuel cell vehicles, many a next step storage in technical size could be
diverse ideas are being developed to solve the developed.
problem. Other obstacles for fuel cell vehicles include
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