Town Planning & Green Building

WEEK – 4 (Session – 1)
AERIAL SURVEY

Aerial survey refers to the process of collecting geographic data from the air using various
remote sensing techniques. This involves capturing images, measurements, and other data of
the Earth's surface from an elevated position, typically using aircraft or unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) equipped with specialized sensors.

Aerial surveys are conducted for a variety of purposes, including mapping, land surveying,
environmental monitoring, urban planning, disaster management, and resource management.
The data collected during an aerial survey can provide valuable information about the
topography, vegetation cover, infrastructure, land use, and other spatial features of an area.

There are different types of sensors used in aerial surveys, depending on the specific
objectives of the survey. These may include aerial cameras, LiDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) systems, multispectral or hyperspectral sensors, thermal sensors, and radar systems.
Each sensor has its own capabilities and is used to capture different types of data, such as
high-resolution imagery, elevation data, vegetation indices, or thermal signatures.

Aerial surveys offer several advantages over ground-based surveys. They can cover large
areas quickly and efficiently, allowing for the collection of data over vast landscapes or
inaccessible terrain. Aerial surveys also provide a bird's eye view perspective, which can
reveal patterns and features that may not be apparent from ground-level observations.

The data collected during an aerial survey is typically processed and analyzed using GIS
software. This allows for the integration of aerial imagery or other remote sensing data with
other spatial datasets, enabling further analysis, visualization, and decision-making.

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LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL SURVEYS FOR PLANNING

Traditional surveys for planning have several limitations. While traditional surveys have their
merits, they have limitations in terms of coverage, accuracy, timeliness, and cost-
effectiveness compared to aerial surveys using remote sensing techniques.
1. Time-consuming: Traditional surveys often require a significant amount of time to
conduct, especially for large areas. This can delay the planning process and hinder
timely decision-making.
2. Limited coverage: Ground-based surveys are typically limited in their coverage area.
It can be challenging and costly to survey vast or inaccessible terrains, such as dense
forests, mountains, or remote areas.
3. Inaccurate measurements: Traditional surveys may be prone to human errors or
inaccuracies in measurements. This can lead to less precise or unreliable data,
affecting the quality of planning decisions.
4. Costly: Ground-based surveys can be expensive, especially when considering the
equipment, personnel, and logistics required. The costs associated with traditional
surveys may limit their feasibility for certain projects or organizations with limited
resources.
5. Limited perspective: Ground-based surveys provide a limited perspective from a
single viewpoint. This can result in a narrow understanding of the spatial features and
dynamics of an area, potentially overlooking important details or patterns.
6. Difficulty in capturing dynamic changes: Traditional surveys may struggle to
capture dynamic changes in the environment over time, such as vegetation growth,
land use changes, or infrastructure development. These changes may require frequent
updates, which can be challenging with ground-based surveys.
7. Limited data types: Traditional surveys primarily rely on visual observations and
manual measurements. They may not capture other important data types, such as
elevation data, thermal signatures, or multispectral information, which are crucial for
comprehensive planning and analysis.
8. Safety Risks: Conducting surveys in hazardous environments (e.g., construction sites,
mines, forests, disaster areas) poses significant safety risks to surveyors. This includes
risks from terrain, wildlife, weather conditions, and human factors.
9. Labour-Intensive: Traditional surveys require a considerable amount of manual
labour. Surveyors must set up and calibrate equipment, take measurements, record
data, and often revisit the site multiple times to ensure accuracy.

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10. Potential for Human Error: Manual data collection is prone to human error,
including misreadings, incorrect recordings, and inconsistencies. This can affect the
accuracy and reliability of the survey data.
11. Environmental Impact: The presence of survey teams and equipment can disturb
sensitive environments, wildlife, and local communities. Traditional surveys may
leave a larger ecological footprint compared to remote sensing technologies.
12. Logistical Challenges: Organizing traditional surveys can be logistically complex,
requiring coordination of survey teams, transportation, equipment, and permits. This
is particularly challenging for large-scale projects or those in remote areas.

TYPES OF AERIAL SURVEYS

Aerial surveys involve the collection of data from above the Earth's surface using various
remote sensing techniques. These surveys are typically conducted using aircraft, drones, or
satellites and provide a broader perspective and coverage compared to ground-based surveys.
These aerial survey techniques offer advantages such as wider coverage, faster data
collection, higher accuracy, and the ability to capture different types of data. They overcome
many limitations associated with traditional ground-based surveys and provide valuable
information for planning and decision-making processes. Different types of aerial surveys,
are:
1. Photogrammetry: This technique involves capturing overlapping aerial photographs
of an area to create 3D models or maps. The images are analyzed and processed to
extract measurements and features.

2. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): LiDAR uses laser pulses to measure
distances and create highly accurate elevation models of the Earth's surface. It is
commonly used for terrain mapping, forest inventory, and infrastructure planning.

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3. Hyperspectral Imaging: Hyperspectral sensors capture images across a wide range

of wavelengths, allowing for detailed analysis of vegetation health, mineral
composition, and other features. This type of survey is useful for environmental
monitoring and agricultural applications.

4. Thermal Imaging: Thermal sensors capture infrared radiation emitted by objects,

providing information about temperature variations. This type of survey is used for
monitoring heat loss in buildings, detecting wildfires, and assessing thermal patterns
in natural environments.

5. Multispectral Imaging: Multispectral sensors capture images in specific wavelength

bands, enabling analysis of vegetation health, water quality, and land cover
classification. This type of survey is commonly used in agriculture, forestry, and
environmental monitoring.

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6. Satellite Imagery: Satellite-based surveys provide global coverage and can capture
various types of data, including optical imagery, radar data, and thermal images.
Satellite imagery is widely used for mapping, disaster management, and
environmental monitoring.

7. Radar Surveys: Radar surveys utilize radio waves to gather data about a target area
from a distance. Unlike other aerial surveys that rely on capturing visual information
or light detection, radar surveys function by emitting radio waves and analysing the
reflected signals.

8. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR): Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is a powerful

remote sensing technology used to create high-resolution two-dimensional images or
three-dimensional reconstructions of objects, particularly landscapes.

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9. Bathymetric Surveys: Bathymetric surveys, sometimes referred to as fathometric

surveys, are a type of hydrographic survey that specifically focuses on mapping the
underwater terrain. They essentially measure the depth of a body of water and create
a detailed map of the seabed floor, including its shape and features.

10. UAV/Drone Surveys: UAV survey, also known as drone survey or unmanned aerial
vehicle survey, is a type of aerial survey that involves the use of drones or unmanned
aerial vehicles to collect data from above the Earth's surface. UAVs are equipped with
various remote sensing technologies, such as cameras, LiDAR sensors, thermal
sensors, or multispectral sensors, to capture images and collect data.

11. Topographic and Planimetric Surveys: Topographic and planimetric surveys are
fundamental types of surveys used to capture the physical features and layout of a
specific area of land. They are essential in various fields such as engineering,
construction, urban planning, and environmental management.

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12. Oblique Photography: Oblique photography is a type of aerial photography where

the camera is tilted at an angle, capturing part of the ground and some horizon. This is
different from vertical aerial photography, where the camera is pointed straight down,
capturing a birds-eye view directly below the aircraft.

INTRODUCTION TO UAV SURVEY

UAV survey, also known as drone survey or unmanned aerial vehicle survey, is a type of
aerial survey that involves the use of drones or unmanned aerial vehicles to collect data from
above the Earth's surface. UAVs are equipped with various remote sensing technologies, such
as cameras, LiDAR sensors, thermal sensors, or multispectral sensors, to capture images and
collect data.

Equipment
 Drone: The drone itself is a small, remotely piloted aircraft equipped with various
sensors depending on the surveying needs. These sensors can include:
 High-resolution cameras: Capture detailed visual information about the survey area.

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 LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Uses lasers to create highly accurate 3D
models of the terrain.
 Multispectral cameras: Capture data beyond the visible spectrum, useful for
agriculture and environmental monitoring.

Process
 Planning: The surveyor defines the area to be surveyed and determines the type of
data needed (e.g., 2D maps, 3D models, stockpile volumes).
 Flight: A licensed pilot operates the drone along a pre-programmed flight path to
ensure complete coverage of the area.
 Data Collection: The drone's sensors capture images and data points from the ground
below.
 Data Processing: Specialized software processes the captured images and data to
create the desired outputs like:
 Orthomosaics: Highly accurate, stitched-together aerial photos creating a realistic
representation of the survey area.
 Digital Elevation Models (DEMs): Represent the elevation (height) of the terrain.
 3D Models: Detailed, three-dimensional computer models of the surveyed area.

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MERITS AND DEMERITS OF UAV SURVEY/DRONE SURVEY

Merits of UAV/Drone Surveys
1. Flexibility: UAV surveys offer flexibility in terms of flight paths and data collection.
They can be easily maneuvered to capture images and data from different angles and
altitudes, providing a comprehensive view of the surveyed area.
2. Cost-effectiveness: Compared to traditional aerial surveys using manned aircraft,
UAV surveys are generally more cost-effective. They require less manpower,
equipment, and operational expenses, making them a more affordable option for data
collection.
3. Accessibility: UAVs can access hard-to-reach or hazardous areas, such as rugged
terrains, dense forests, or disaster-stricken sites. This enables data collection in areas
that may be difficult or unsafe for ground-based surveys.
4. High-resolution imagery and data: UAVs are equipped with advanced remote
sensing technologies that can capture high-resolution images and collect detailed data.
This allows for accurate analysis, mapping, and monitoring of the surveyed area.
5. Rapid data collection: UAV surveys can cover large areas in a relatively short
amount of time. This rapid data collection capability is particularly useful in time-
sensitive applications, such as disaster management or emergency response.
6. Time-Efficient: Drones can cover large areas quickly, reducing the time needed to
complete surveys.
7. Versatility: UAVs can be equipped with various sensors (e.g., RGB cameras,
LiDAR, thermal cameras) to suit different survey requirements.
8. Safety: Reduces the need for human presence in hazardous environments, enhancing
safety for surveyors.
9. Environmental Impact: UAVs have a lower environmental impact compared to
manned aircraft, reducing fuel consumption and emissions.

Merits of UAV/Drone Surveys

1. Limited flight time and range: UAVs have limited flight time due to battery life and
range restrictions. This can limit the coverage area and duration of data collection,
requiring multiple flights or battery changes for larger surveys.
2. Weather dependency: UAV surveys are highly dependent on weather conditions.
Strong winds, rain, or fog can affect the stability and performance of the UAV,
potentially compromising data quality or safety.

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3. Regulatory restrictions: UAV surveys are subject to regulations and restrictions

imposed by aviation authorities. These regulations may include flight altitude limits,
airspace restrictions, or licensing requirements, which can add complexity and
limitations to the survey operations.
4. Data processing and analysis: The large amount of data collected from UAV
surveys requires extensive processing and analysis. This can be time-consuming and
may require specialized software or expertise, adding to the overall cost and
complexity of the survey.
5. Privacy concerns: UAV surveys can raise privacy concerns, especially when
capturing images or data in populated areas. Strict guidelines and protocols need to be
followed to ensure compliance with privacy regulations and protect the rights and
privacy of individuals.
6. Battery Life: Limited battery life restricts the flight duration, necessitating frequent
recharges or battery changes, which can be time-consuming.
7. Skill Requirements: Operating UAVs and processing the collected data require
specialized skills and training.
8. Technical Failures: Drones can experience technical issues such as GPS loss, sensor
malfunctions, or connectivity problems, potentially leading to incomplete surveys or
data loss.

APPLICATIONS OF DRONES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Surveying and mapping: Drones can be used to quickly and accurately survey and
map large areas of land. They can capture high-resolution images and collect data for
topographic surveys, aerial mapping, and 3D modelling.

2. Construction site monitoring: Drones can monitor construction sites to track

progress, identify potential issues, and ensure compliance with design plans. They can
capture real-time images and videos, allowing for remote monitoring and
collaboration.

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3. Inspections: Drones can conduct inspections of infrastructure such as bridges,

buildings, and pipelines. They can capture detailed images and data, enabling
engineers to identify defects, assess structural integrity, and plan maintenance or
repairs.

4. Environmental monitoring: Drones equipped with sensors can monitor

environmental factors such as air quality, water quality, and vegetation health. This
data can be used for environmental impact assessments, monitoring of construction
sites, and natural resource management.

5. Disaster response and management: Drones can be deployed in disaster-stricken

areas to assess damage, locate survivors, and support emergency response efforts.
They can provide real-time situational awareness and aid in search and rescue
operations.

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6. Geotechnical investigations: Drones can collect data on soil composition, slope

stability, and geological features. This information is crucial for geotechnical
assessments, foundation design, and land development projects.

7. Asset management: Drones can assist in asset management by conducting regular

inspections of infrastructure assets such as roads, railways, and power lines.
This helps identify maintenance needs, optimize asset performance, and extend their
lifespan.

8. Construction progress documentation: Drones can capture aerial images and videos
of construction projects at different stages. This documentation can be used for
progress reporting, dispute resolution, and marketing purposes.

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9. Urban planning and development: Drones can provide valuable data for urban
planning and development projects. They can assess land use patterns, monitor urban
growth, and assist in the design of infrastructure and transportation systems.

10. Safety and security: Drones can enhance safety and security on construction sites by
monitoring for potential hazards, conducting safety inspections, and identifying
unauthorized access. They can also be used for surveillance and monitoring in public
spaces or critical infrastructure areas.

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WEEK – 4 (Session – 2)
INTRODUCTION TO REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is a terminology which refers to any method adopted for gathering
information about an object without actually coming in contact with it. In a broader sense, the
term ‘remote sensing’ is used more commonly to denote identification of earth features by
detecting their characteristics with the help of electromagnetic radiations either reflected or
emitted by the earth surface features. The advent of satellites for weather forecasting, for
communications, for studying the earth and for studying the space, is one of the most exciting
developments of the modern times with an extensive application of remote sensing for
resource management.

OBJECTIVES OF REMOTE SENSING

1. Data Collection and Monitoring
 Environmental Monitoring: Tracking changes in the environment, such as
deforestation, desertification, and pollution levels.
 Climate Change Studies: Monitoring global climate patterns, sea-level changes, and
the melting of polar ice caps.
 Natural Disaster Assessment: Providing data for the assessment and management of
natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, and wildfires.
2. Resource Management
 Agriculture: Monitoring crop health, estimating yields, and managing irrigation
systems.
 Forestry: Assessing forest cover, detecting illegal logging activities, and managing
forest resources.

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 Water Resources: Monitoring surface water bodies, groundwater levels, and assessing
the quality and quantity of water resources.
3. Urban and Regional Planning
 Land Use and Land Cover Mapping: Analyzing urban sprawl, land use changes, and
planning urban infrastructure.
 Transportation Planning: Monitoring traffic patterns and planning transportation
networks.
 Zoning and Land Development: Assisting in zoning decisions and land development
projects.
4. Geological and Soil Studies
 Mineral Exploration: Identifying mineral deposits and mapping geological
formations.
 Soil Mapping: Assessing soil types, properties, and suitability for agriculture or
construction.
 Geomorphology: Studying landforms and their processes, including erosion and
sedimentation.
5. Oceanography and Marine Studies
 Sea Surface Temperature and Salinity: Monitoring ocean temperatures and salinity
levels for climate studies and marine biology.
 Coastal Studies: Assessing coastal erosion, land reclamation, and habitat mapping.
 Marine Ecosystem Monitoring: Tracking changes in marine ecosystems and
monitoring marine pollution.
6. Biodiversity and Conservation
 Habitat Mapping: Identifying and monitoring habitats of endangered species.
 Wildlife Monitoring: Tracking wildlife movements and population dynamics.
 Conservation Efforts: Supporting conservation programs by providing data on
biodiversity and ecosystem health.
7. Military and Defense
 Surveillance and Reconnaissance: Gathering intelligence and monitoring military
activities.
 Border Security: Monitoring and managing border security and detecting illegal
activities.
 Disaster Response: Assisting in disaster response and humanitarian aid operations.

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8. Infrastructure Development and Monitoring

 Construction Monitoring: Overseeing large construction projects and monitoring their
progress.
 Utilities Management: Monitoring infrastructure such as pipelines, power lines, and
communication networks.
 Asset Management: Managing public assets and infrastructure to ensure their efficient
use and maintenance.
9. Scientific Research and Education
 Earth System Science: Conducting research on various components of the Earth
system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
 Space Research: Studying celestial bodies, space weather, and other astronomical
phenomena.
 Educational Purposes: Providing educational resources and tools for teaching and
learning about remote sensing and its applications.
10. Public Health and Safety
 Disease Surveillance: Monitoring the spread of diseases and tracking environmental
factors that affect public health.
 Air Quality Monitoring: Assessing air pollution levels and their impact on human
health.
 Safety Assessments: Evaluating the safety of critical infrastructure and natural
hazards.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF REMOTE SENSING

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A. Emission of electromagnetic radiation

 The Sun or an EMR source located on the platform
B. Transmission of energy from the source to the object
 Absorption and scattering of the EMR while transmission
C. Interaction of EMR with the object and subsequent reflection and emission
D. Transmission of energy from the object to the sensor
E. Recording of energy by the sensor
 Photographic or non-photographic sensors
F. Transmission of the recorded information to the ground station
G. Processing of the data into digital or hard copy image
H. Analysis of data

The working process of remote sensing involves the following steps:

1. Energy source: Remote sensing begins with the emission of energy from a source,
such as the Sun. This energy can be in the form of electromagnetic radiation, which
includes visible light, infrared, and microwave wavelengths.
2. Energy interaction: The emitted energy interacts with the Earth's surface and
atmosphere. It can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted depending on the properties
of the objects it encounters. Different materials and surfaces have varying reflectance
and absorption characteristics.
3. Sensor detection: Remote sensing instruments, such as satellites or aircraft-mounted
sensors, detect the energy that is reflected or emitted by the Earth's surface. These
sensors are designed to capture specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.
4. Data acquisition: The sensors convert the detected energy into digital data, which
can be in the form of images, spectra, or other measurements. This data is collected
and stored for further analysis and interpretation.
5. Data pre-processing: The acquired data goes through pre-processing steps to correct
for atmospheric distortions, sensor errors, and other artefacts. This ensures that the
data is accurate and usable for analysis.
6. Image analysis: The pre-processed data is analysed using various techniques and
algorithms to extract meaningful information. This can involve image classification,
feature extraction, or change detection methods.

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7. Interpretation and visualization: The analysed data is interpreted by experts who

examine the patterns, relationships, and trends within the imagery. This interpretation
helps in understanding the characteristics and processes of the Earth's surface.
8. Decision-making and applications: The interpreted data is used to support decision-
making processes in various fields such as agriculture, urban planning, and natural
resource management. It provides valuable information for planning, monitoring, and
managing resources effectively.
9. Validation and verification: The results obtained from remote sensing analysis are
validated and verified through ground truthing, which involves collecting field data to
compare with the remote sensing data. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the
remote sensing results.
10. Reporting and dissemination: The final results and findings are reported and
disseminated to stakeholders, policymakers, and the public.
This helps in raising awareness, supporting evidence-based decision-making, and
promoting sustainable practices.

TYPES OF REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM

There are several types of remote sensing systems, including:
1. Passive remote sensing: This type of system detects natural energy that is reflected
or emitted by objects on the Earth's surface. It does not involve the use of an external
energy source. Examples of passive remote sensing systems include cameras,
radiometers, and thermal infrared sensors.

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2. Active remote sensing: In contrast to passive remote sensing, active remote sensing
systems emit their own energy and measure the reflected or backscattered energy.
This is typically done using radar or lidar (light detection and ranging) systems.
Active remote sensing is useful for studying objects or areas that do not reflect much
natural energy, such as dense vegetation or cloud-covered regions.

3. Optical remote sensing: This type of system uses sensors that detect electromagnetic
radiation in the visible, near-infrared, and thermal infrared regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Optical remote sensing is commonly used for capturing
high-resolution images and analyzing vegetation health, land cover changes, and
urban development.

4. Microwave remote sensing: Microwave sensors operate in the microwave region of

the electromagnetic spectrum and are used to study various aspects of the Earth's
surface, such as soil moisture, sea surface temperature, and ocean currents.
Microwave remote sensing is particularly useful for studying areas that are covered by
clouds or vegetation, as microwaves can penetrate these obstacles.

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5. Hyperspectral remote sensing: Hyperspectral sensors capture data in many narrow

and contiguous bands across the electromagnetic spectrum, providing detailed
information about the spectral signatures of objects and materials. This allows for
more precise identification and characterization of different land cover types, mineral
deposits, and pollution sources.

6. Thermal remote sensing: Thermal sensors measure the thermal radiation emitted by
objects on the Earth's surface. They are used to study temperature variations, heat
fluxes, and thermal properties of land, water bodies, and urban areas. Thermal remote
sensing is particularly useful for monitoring wildfires, urban heat islands, and thermal
pollution.

7. LiDAR remote sensing: LiDAR systems use laser pulses to measure the distance
between the sensor and objects on the Earth's surface. They provide highly accurate
elevation data, allowing for the creation of detailed topographic maps, 3D models,
and terrain analysis. LiDAR is commonly used in forestry, urban planning, and
floodplain mapping.

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8. Radar Systems: Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) systems use radio waves to
image the Earth's surface. They are used for topographic mapping, creating digital
elevation models (DEMs), and monitoring sea ice cover.

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING

1. Land Use and Land Cover Mapping: Remote sensing helps classify and map
different types of land cover, such as forests, grasslands, urban areas, and water
bodies. This information is crucial for monitoring deforestation, urban sprawl, and
changes in land use patterns over time.
2. Forest Management: Data from remote sensing is used to assess forest health, track
deforestation, identify forest fires, and monitor changes in forest biomass.
3. Water Resource Management: Remote sensing helps monitor water resources,
including surface water extent, water quality, and snowpack levels. This information
is vital for managing water supplies and irrigation systems.
4. Disaster Management: Before, during, and after natural disasters, remote sensing
provides crucial data for flood mapping, monitoring wildfires, assessing damage, and
coordinating relief efforts.
5. Crop Monitoring: By analyzing spectral reflectance of crops, remote sensing allows
farmers to assess crop health, identify areas of stress or nutrient deficiency, and
optimize fertilizer and water use.
6. Yield Estimation: Remote sensing data can be used to estimate crop yields over large
areas, which is helpful for agricultural planning and food security monitoring.
7. Drought Monitoring: Remote sensing helps monitor soil moisture levels and identify
areas affected by drought, enabling early intervention and resource allocation.
8. Geology: Remote sensing is used for geological mapping, mineral exploration, and
identifying potential sites for geothermal energy.

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9. Soil Studies: Spectral analysis of remotely sensed data helps in soil mapping,
assessing soil moisture, and monitoring soil degradation.
10. Urban Planning: Remote sensing data is used for urban planning, monitoring urban
growth, and infrastructure development.
11. Climate Change Studies: Remote sensing plays a key role in monitoring changes in
glaciers, sea ice cover, and global sea level rise, helping us understand the impacts of
climate change.
12. Archaeology: Remote sensing techniques can help identify and map archaeological
sites hidden beneath the surface.

REMOTE SENSING PLATFORMS

Remote sensing platforms are vehicles or systems used to collect data and images from a
distance without direct physical contact. These platforms are equipped with various sensors
and instruments to capture information about the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and other
celestial bodies.
Remote sensing platforms play a crucial role in various fields like meteorology, agriculture,
urban planning, disaster management, and environmental monitoring by providing valuable
data for analysis and decision-making. There are several types of remote sensing platforms,
including:
1. Satellites: These are the most common remote sensing platforms. They orbit the
Earth and capture images and data using sensors such as cameras, radar, and
spectrometers. Satellites can provide global coverage and are used for various
applications like weather monitoring, environmental studies, and mapping.

2. Aircraft: Airplanes and drones can be equipped with remote sensing instruments to
collect data at lower altitudes and smaller scales. They are often used for aerial
photography, land surveys, and monitoring specific areas of interest.

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3. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Also known as drones, UAVs are small aircraft
that can be controlled remotely or operate autonomously. They are increasingly used
in remote sensing applications due to their flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and ability to
access hard-to-reach areas.

4. Balloons: Weather balloons carrying remote sensing instruments can be launched into
the atmosphere to collect data on temperature, humidity, wind patterns, and
atmospheric composition.

5. Ground-based sensors: These platforms include fixed or mobile sensors placed on

the ground to collect data on specific locations or phenomena. Examples include
weather stations, seismic sensors, and soil moisture sensors.

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6. Space probes: These are robotic spacecraft sent to explore other planets, moons, or
asteroids in our solar system. They carry remote sensing instruments to capture
images and collect data about these celestial bodies.

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