AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

UNIT-2
Transmission System
Transmission System: Clutches, principle, types, cone clutch, single plate clutch

Necessity of clutch in Automobiles:

In Automobiles, the clutch is used to engage or disengage the engine with the transmission
system. It enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted to the second shaft as and
when required.

Requirements of clutch:
a) Torque Transmission
b) Gradual engagement
c) Heat dissipation
d) Dynamic balancing
e) Vibration damping
f) Size
g) Free pedal play
h) Ease of operation
The clutch should be able to transmit the maximum torque. It should take drive gradually.
During clutch application, the heat generated by the friction of clutch surfaces should be
dissipated. During high speeds the clutch should be balanced.

Types of clutches:
The following are the main types of clutches:
1. Friction clutches
2. Fluid fly wheel.

Friction clutches:
The Torque transmitted by a friction clutch depends upon the factors namely Coefficient of
friction (µ), Axial pressure (w) and Mean effective Radius of contact surfaces(R).

The Torque Transmitted (T) = μwR.

Types of friction clutches:

a) cone clutch
b) Single plate clutch
c) Mutilate clutch
d) Semi centrifugal clutch
e) Centrifugal clutch.

Construction and Working Of Single Plate Clutch

It is the most common type of clutch used in motor vehicles. It consists of only one clutch plate,
mounted on the spines of the clutch shaft. The fly wheel is mounted on the engine crane shaft and
rotates witch it. The pressure plate is bolted to the fly wheel through clutch springs, and is free to
slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated.When the clutch is engaged, the clutch
plate, having friction linings on its both sides, is gripped between the fly wheel and pressure plate.
Due to the friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and pressure plate revolves; the clutch shaft
which is connected to the transmission system also revolves. When the clutch pedal is pressed, the
pressure plate moves back against the force of the springs, and the clutch plate becomes free
between the fly wheel and pressure plate. Thus, the flywheel remains rotating as long as the engine
is running and the speed of the clutch shaft reduces slowly and finally it stops rotating. As soon as
the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be disengaged, otherwise it remains engaged due
to the force of springs.
Cone Clutch

Cone clutches are friction clutches. They are simple in construction and are easy to disengage.
However, the driving and driven shafts must be perfectly coaxial for efficient functioning of the
clutch. This requirement is more critical for cone clutch compared to single plate friction clutch.
A cone clutch consists of two working surfaces, viz., inner and outer cones.

Lecture Class 12: Multi Plate Clutch

Construction And Working of Multiplate Clutch

Multi plate clutch consists of a number of clutch plates. As the number of clutch plates increased,
the friction surfaces also increased. the increased number of friction surfaces obviously increases
the capacity of the clutch to transmit torque. The plates are alternately fitted to the engine shaft
and gear box shaft. one set of plates slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other set slides on
spines on pressure plate hub. They are firmly pressed by strong coil springs and assembled in a
drum. Each of the alternate plate slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other slides on spines
on the pressure plate.

Thus each alternate plate has inner and outer spines.

These clutches are used in heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars and motor cycles for
transmitting higher torque. Beside these clutches are used in scooters and motor cycles where space
available is limited.

Lecture Class 13 : Magnetic and Centrifugal Clutches, fluid fly wheel

Magnetic and Centrifugal Clutches:

Electromagnetic clutches operate electrically but transmit torque mechanically. Engineers once
referred to them as electromechanical clutches. Over the years EM came to stand for
electromagnetic, referring to the way the units actuate, but their basic operation has not changed.

Electromagnetic clutches and brakes come in many forms, including tooth, multiple disc,
hysteresis, and magnetic particle. However, the most widely used version is the single-face design.
Elements of Electromagnetic Clutch: Both EM clutches and brakes share basic structural
components: a coil in a shell, also referred to as a field; a hub; and an armature. A clutch also has
a rotor, which connects to the moving part of the machine, such as a driveshaft.

In an EM clutch, current running through the coil generates a magnetic field that attracts the
armature toward the rotor. The rotor connects via a hub to the rotating input, like a driveshaft,
while the armature connects to the output. Contact transfers torque between the armature and rotor,
bringing the output up to the input speed.

The coil shell is usually carbon steel, which combines strength with magnetic properties. Copper
wire forms the coil, although sometimes aluminum is used. A bobbin or epoxy adhesive holds the
coil in the shell.

Activating the unit’s electric circuit energizes the coil. The current running through the coil
generates a magnetic field. When magnetic flux overcomes the air gap between the armature and
field, magnetic attraction pulls the armature which connects to the hub into contact with the rotor.

Magnetic and friction forces accelerate the armature and hub to match rotor speed. The rotor and
armature slip past each other for the first 0.02 to 1.0 sec until the input and output speeds are the
same. The matching of speeds is sometimes called 100% lockup.

Brakes lack a rotor, so magnetic flux acts directly between the armature and field. The field usually
bolts to the machine frame or on a torque arm that handles brake torque. When the armature
contacts the field, braking torque transfers into the field housing and machine frame, decelerating
the load. As in a clutch, speed can change quickly.
Most industrial applications use single-flux, twopole clutches. These have one north-south flux
path between the rotor and armature. However, mobile clutches and other specialty
electromagnetic clutches can use a double or triple-flux rotor. These clutches have slots in both
the rotor and armature that create additional air gaps between the two parts. These curved slots run
parallel to the rotor or armature circumference, so they are often called banana slots.

Electromagnetic Clutch

In this type of clutch, the flywheel consists of winding from the battery or dynamo.
When the current passes through the winding. it produced an electromagnetic field which attracts
the pressure plate. Thereby engaging the clutch,When the supply is cutoff the clutch is disengaged.

The gear lever consists of a clutch release switch.

When the driver holds the gear lever to change the gear, the switch is operated cutting off the
current to the winding which causes the clutch disengaged.

At low speed when the dynamo output is low, the clutch is not firmly engaged.

Therefore, three springs are also provided on the pressure plate which helps the clutch engaged
firmly at low speed also.
This type of clutch is used in some Renult cars.

Basic operation of electromagnetic clutch

• The clutch has four main parts:

field
rotor
armature, and
hub(output)
When voltage is applied the stationary magnetic field generates the lines of flux that pass into the
rotor. (The rotor is normally connected to the part that is always moving in the machine.) The flux
(magnetic attraction) pulls the armature in contact with the rotor (the armature is connected to the
component that requires the acceleration), as the armature and the output start to accelerate.
Slipping between the rotor face and the armature face continues until the input and output speed
is the same (100% lockup). The actual time for this is quite short, between 1/200th of a second and
1 second
Disengagement is very simple. Once the field starts to degrade, flux falls rapidly and the armature
separates. One or more springs hold the armature away from the rotor at a predetermined air gap.
• Voltage/current -and the magnetic field
If a piece of copper wire was wound, around the nail and then connected to a battery, it would
create an electro magnet. The magnetic field that is generated in the wire, from the current, is
known as the “righthand thumb rule”.
 The strength of the magnetic field can be changed by changing both wire size and the amount of
wire (turns). EM clutches are similar; they use a copper wire coil (sometimes aluminum) to create
a magnetic field.
• The fields of EM clutch can be made to operate at almost any DC voltage, and the torque
produced by the clutch or brake will be the same, as long as the correct operating voltage and
current is used with the correct clutch. If a 90 V clutch, a 48 V clutch and a 24 V clutch, all being
powered with their respective voltages and current, all would produce the same amount of torque.
However, if a 90 V clutch had 48 V applied to it, this would get about half of the correct
torque output of that clutch. This is because voltage/current is almost linear to torque in DC
electromagnetic clutches.
A constant power supply is ideal if accurate or maximum torque is required from a clutch. If a non
regulated power supply is used, the magnetic flux will degrade, as the resistance of the coil goes
up. Basically, the hotter the coil gets the lower the torque will be, by about an average of 8% for
every 20°C. If the temperature is fairly constant, but there may not be enough service factor in
your design for minor temperature fluctuation. Over-sizing, the clutch would compensate for
minor flux.
This will allow the use a rectified power supply which is far less expensive than a constant current
supply.
• Based on V = I × R, as resistance increases available current falls. An increase in resistance,
often results from rising temperature as the coil heats up, according to:
Rf = Ri × [1 + αCu × (Tf - Ti)] Where Rf = final resistance, Ri = initial resistance, αCu =
copper wire’s temperature coefficient of resistance, 0.0039 °C - 1,
Tf = final temperature, and Ti = initial temperature

Centrifugal Clutch

A centrifugal clutch is a clutch that uses centrifugal force to connect two concentric shafts, with
the driving shaft nested inside the driven shaft. It engages more at higher speeds. The input of the
clutch is connected to the engine crankshaft while the output may drive a shaft, chain, or belt

This type of clutch is operated automatically depending upon the engine speed. This means that
the vehicle can be stopped in gear without stalling the engine. Similarly while starting, the driver
can first select the gear, put the car into the gear and simply press the accelerator pedal. This makes
driving operation very easy. This type of clutch is operated by the centrifugal force.

Fluid Flywheel

Fluid flywheel or fluid coupling

A liquid coupling is used to transmit engine turning effort (torque) to a clutch and transmission.
The coupling is always a major part of the engine flywheel assembly. As such it is sometime called
a fluid flywheel.

Construction of flywheel

The fluid flywheel details can be seen in the picture. It consists of two half dough nut shaped shells
equipped with interior fins. The fins radiate from the hub, and thereby form radial passages. The
areas of these passages, perpendicular to their centre line, are kept constant by a suitable design.
Since the circumferential width of the opening close to the hub is less than that at the periphery,
the radial size of the opening, close to the hub is made greater than that at the periphery.

One of the shells is fixed to the crankshaft of the engine and the other to the clutch/gearbox shaft.
The two shells are mounted very close, with their open ends facing each other, so that they can
be turned independently without touching. Housing surrounds both units to make a closed
assembly. About 80 percent of the interior of the assembly is filled with oil.

Working of fluid flywheel

The driving unit, called impeller, is linked to the engine crankshaft. When the engine throttle is
opened, the oil in the impeller starts moving. Due to the force of the rotating, trapped oil impinges
on the fins of the driven unit called runner and causes it to move. In this way, the moving liquid
transmits the engine power to the clutch driving plat or to any other unit to which the runner is
attached. This happens without any metal contact.

In the actual units, the runner speed becomes almost equal to that of the impeller only under the
best operating conditions, when the efficiency of liquid coupling is highest. But usually the runner
speed is less than that of the impeller. The (speed) lag of the runner behind the impeller is known
as slip. This (speed) slip varies with many factors such as engine speed, vehicle speed and engine
and vehicle load.

The slip is greatest with the vehicle at rest (ie runner stationary), and the engine throttle being
opened to cause the impeller to start circulating the oil. Under these conditions, the oil moves in
two general directions at the same time. It rotates at right angles to the shafts, i.e., undergoes rotary
flow. The oil also circulates between the impeller and runner, i.e., undergoes vortex flow. When
the rotary flow attains sufficient force and volume, it causes the movement of the runner.

The vortex flow is at right angles to the rotary flow. The vortex flow is produced by the oil trapped
in the fins of the impeller. The oil flies out against the curved interior, because of centrifugal force.
The centrifugal force directs the oil across to the runner, thereby returning it to the impeller in the
region of the hub.

The vortex flow is maximum when the slip is 100 percent (runner stationary), and decreases as the
runner speed approaches that of the impeller. This results from the centrifugal force produced by
the oil in the runner, which moves out and opposes the vortex flow. At cruising speeds, there is
little or no vortex flow because the centrifugal forces produced in the impeller and runner are
almost equal. As such, the efficiency of coupling increases rapidly from zero at rest to nearly 99
percent at higher speeds.

The torque or turning effort delivered to the runner through the liquid is equal to the torque applied
to the impeller by the engine. But the power (ie the rate at which the energy is furnished) received
by the runner is always less than that furnished by the engine. The power losses in the coupling
appear as heat, which is dissipated as the assembly revolves.

Advantages of fluid flywheel

An ordinary friction clutch would be damaged by prolonged slipping, with increased fuel
consumption. But by prolonged slipping, the fluid flywheel will not suffer any mechanical damage
although it may become so hot as to burn one’s hand if one touched it.

When a liquid coupling is used with a conventional clutch and transmission, it enables the driver
to use the clutch and gears with less skill and fatigue than with an all mechanical linkage. Unskillful
clutch engagement or selection of the improper gear will not produce any chattering and bucking.
Any sudden load is cushioned and absorbed by the coupling so that dynamic stresses on the gear
teeth of the transmission and rear (drive) axle are greatly reduced.
Liquid coupling at low speeds are not as efficient as mechanical clutch. As such it reduces engine
braking when slowing down the vehicle speed, particularly during coming down a hilly track,
Further, it requires higher speeds to start a vehicle by pushing or towing it.
4.9 Lesson 14: Gear boxes, types, sliding mesh gear box

Gear Box: Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a
prime mover output shaft (e.g. a motor crankshaft). This means that the output shaft of a gearbox
rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft, and this reduction in speed produces a mechanical
advantage, increasing torque.

A gearbox is a mechanical device utilized to increase the output torque or change the speed (RPM)
of a motor. The motor's shaft is attached to one end of the gearbox and through the internal
configuration of gears of a gearbox, provides a given output torque and speed determined by the
gear ratio.

Necessity of gear box in Automobiles

The purpose of transmission is to provide high torque at the time of starting, hill climbing,
accelerating and pulling a load. The vehicle will have to face the resistances like wind resistance,
gradient resistance and rolling resistance. The tractive effort of the vehicle can be available at
various speeds.
The variation of total resistance to the vehicle motion is equal to the tractive effort of the vehicle
with speed.

Function of Transmission Box (Gear Box) in Automobile

The transmission box which is also known as the gear box is the second element of the power train
in an automobile. It is used to change the speed and torque of vehicle according to variety of road
and load condition. Transmission box change the engine speed into torque when climbing hills and
when the vehicle required. Sometimes it is known as torque converter. Main functions of a gear
box is as follow:

1. Provide the torque needed to move the vehicle under a variety of road and load conditions. It
does this by changing the gear ratio between the engine crankshaft and vehicle drive wheels.

2. Be shifted into reverse so the vehicle can move backward.

3. Be shifted into neutral for starting the engine.

Main Components of A Gear Box

In any device two or more component works together and fulfills the required function. In
a transmission box four components are required to fulfill its function. These components are-
1. Counter shaft
 Counter shaft is a shaft which connects with the clutch shaft directly. It contains the gear
which connects it to the clutch shaft as well as the main shaft. It may be run runs at the engine
speed or at lower than engine speed according to gear ratio.

2. Main shaft
It is the shaft which runs at the vehicle speed. It carries power form the counter shaft by
use of gears and according to the gear ratio, it runs at different speed and torque compares to
counter shaft. One end of this shaft is connects with the universal shaft.

3. Gears
Gears are used to transmit the power form one shaft to another. They are most useful
component of transmission box because the variation is torque of counter shaft and main shaft is
depend on the gear ratio. The gear ratio is the ratio of the driven gear teeth to the driving gear teeth.
If gear ratio is large than one, the main shaft revolves at lower speed than the counter shaft and the
torque of the main shaft is higher than the counter shaft. On other hand if the gear ratio is less than
one, than the main shaft revolves at higher speed than the counter shaft and the torque of the main
shaft is lower than the counter shaft. A small car gear box contains four speed gear ratio and one
reverse gear ratio.

4. Bearings
Whenever the rotary motion, bearings are required to support the revolving part and reduce
the friction. In the gear box both counter and main shaft are supported by the bearing.

Working of a principle gear box

In a gear box, the counter shaft is mashed to the clutch with a use of a couple of gear. So
the counter shaft is always in running condition. When the counter shaft is bring in contact with
the main shaft by use of meshing gears, the main shaft start to rotate according to the gear ratio.
When want to change the gear ratio, simply press the clutch pedal which disconnect the counter
shaft with engine and change connect the main shaft with counter shaft by another gear ratio by
use of gearshift lever. In an gear box, the gear teeth and other moving metal must not touch. They
must be continuously separated by a thin film of lubricant. This prevents excessive wear and early
failure. Therefor a gearbox runs partially filled with lubricant oil.

Types of Gearboxes:

Types of gear boxes:

a) Epicyclic or planetary gear box

b) Progressive gear box
c) Selective gear box
Again the selective gear boxes are classified into
three types.
1) constant mesh gear box
2) Selective mesh gear box or sliding mesh gearbox.
3) synchromesh gear box

Sliding Mesh Gearbox

It is the simplest type of gear box. The clutch gear is rigidly fixed to the clutch shaft. It remains
always connected to the drive gear of the lay shaft (counter shaft). The other gears also rigidly
fixed to the counter shaft. A reverse idler gear is mounted on another shaft and always remains
connected to the reverse gear of the counter shaft. The power is transmitted from the engine to the
clutch shaft of gear box and will be transmitted to the main shaft through counter shaft. The
required speed is obtained by shifting the gears in counter shaft by selective mechanism.

4.9.2.5. Lesson 15: Constant mesh, Synchro mesh gear boxes

Constant Mesh Gear box:

Explanation about the constant mesh gearbox

• In this type of gearbox, all the gears of the main shaft are in constant mesh with corresponding
gears of the countershaft.
• The gears on the main shaft which are bushed are free to rotate.
• The dog clutches are provided on main shaft.
• The gears on the lay shaft are, however, fixed.
• When the left Dog clutch is slide to the left by means of the selector mechanism, its teeth are
engaged with those on the clutch gear and we get the direct gear
• The same dog clutch, however, when slide to right makes contact with the second gear and
second gear is obtained .
• Similarly movement of the right dog clutch to the left results in low gear and towards right in
reverse gear.
Usually the helical gears are used in constant mesh gearbox for smooth and noiseless operation.

Synchro mesh Gearbox

This type of gearbox is similar to the constant mesh type gearbox.

• Instead of using dog clutches here synchronizers are used.
• The modern cars use helical gears and synchromesh devices in gearboxes, that synchronize the
rotation of gears that are about to be meshed.

Synchronizers
• This type of gearbox is similar to the constant mesh type in that all the gears on the main shaft
are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on the lay shaft.
• The gears on the lay shaft are fixed to it while those on the main shaft are free to rotate on the
same.
• Its working is also similar to the constant mesh type, but in the former there is one definite
improvement over the latter .
• This is the provision of synchromesh device which avoids the necessity of double-declutching.
• The parts that ultimately are to be engaged are first brought into frictional contact, which
equalizes their speed, after which these may be engaged smoothly.
• Figure shows the construction and working of a synchromesh gearbox .
In most of the cars, however, the synchromesh devices are not fitted to all the gears as is shown
in this figure .
•They are fitted only on the high gears and on the low and reverse gears ordinary dog clutches are
only provided.• This is done to reduce the cost.

Lesson 16: Epicyclic gear box, over drive torque converter.

Epicyclic gearbox:

Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and around another. The design involves planet and sun
gears as one orbits the other like a planet around the sun. This design can produce large gear ratios
in a small space and are used on a wide range of applications from marine gearboxes to electric
screw drivers.

Applications of epicyclic gearboxes:

The epicyclic gear trains are useful for transmitting high velodcity ratios with gears of moderate
size in a comparatively lesser space.

The epicyclic gear trains are used in the back gear of lathe, differential gears of the automobiles,
hoists, pulley blocks, wrist watches etc.

Over drive torque convertor

Overdrive

By definition, an overdrive has a faster output speed than input speed. It's a speed increase -- the
opposite of a reduction. In this transmission, engaging the overdrive accomplishes two things at
once. In order to improve efficiency, some cars have a mechanism that locks up the torque
 converter so that the output of the engine goes straight to the transmission.

In this transmission, when overdrive is engaged, a shaft that is attached to the housing of the torque
converter (which is bolted to the flywheel of the engine) is connected by clutch to the planet carrier.
The small sun gear freewheels, and the larger sun gear is held by the overdrive band. Nothing is
connected to the turbine; the only input comes from the converter housing. Let's go back to our
chart again, this time with the planet carrier for input, the sun gear fixed and the ring gear for
output. Ratio = 1 / (1 + S/R) = 1 / ( 1 + 36/72) = 0.67:1

So the output spins once for every two-thirds of a rotation of the engine. If the engine is turning at
2000 rotations per minute (RPM), the output speed is 3000 RPM. This allows cars to drive at
freeway speed while the engine speed stays nice and slow.

The overdrive is the gear ratio used when we need road wheel rpm(rotations per minute) to be
greater than the speed of the engine. For example in 5 speed transmission the first three gears have
gear ratio less than 1.while the fourth gear is a direct drive implying the engine speed is the same
as road wheel speed. The 5th gear is overdrive gear having gear ratio greater than 1 and capable
of having road wheel speed greater than engine speed.
The torque converter is only found in A/T transmissions while the overdrive gear is present on any
new middle class cars. The torque converter normally takes the place of a mechanical clutch in
a vehicle with an automatic transmission, allowing the load to be separated from the power source.
It is usually located between the engine's flexplate and the transmission
Lesson 17: propeller shaft – Hotch – Kiss drive

Propeller shaft: This is the shaft which transmits the drive from the gearbox to the bevel pinion
or worm of final drive which is attached to the differential. It is a driving shaft that connects the
transmission to the differential.

Hotch kiss Drive

It consists of propeller shaft, two universal joints and a slip joint. The leaf springs besides taking
weight of the body, also take the torque reaction, driving thrust and side thrust. The front end of
the leaf spring is fixed rigidly on the frame, while the rear end is supported in a shackle. The
driving thrust is transmitted to the frame by the front half of the springs. Due to the torque reaction
the spring deflects. Thus torque reaction is taken up by the springs.When the springs deflect, the
bevel pinion shaft also changes its position. If there is only one universal joint, it will bend. To
avoid this, another universal joint is used. Again when the rear axle moves up and down, it has to
move in a circle. During this movement of rear axle, the length of propeller shaft has to vary which
is done by slip joint (sliding joint).

Lesson 18: Torque tube drive

Torque tube drive: In Torque tube drive, the propeller shaft is enclosed in a hollow tube.

The tube is rigidly bolted to the differential housing at one end and is fastened at the other end to
the transmission through a flexible joint. In this drive the springs take only the side thrust besides
supporting weight of the body. The tube incorporates bearing which support the propeller shaft.
Only one universal joint is necessary in this drive. It is usually placed between the transmission
and the propeller shaft. No siding joint is necessary.

Lesson – 19: universal joint, differential rear axles – types – wheels and tyres.

Universal Joint: Universal joints are capable of transmitting torque and rotational motion from
one shaft to another when their axes are inclined to each other by some angle, which may
constantly vary under working conditions. Universal joints are incorporated in the of vehicle’s
transmission system to perform three basic applications :
(a) Propeller shaft end joints between longitudinally front mounted gearbox and rear final drive
axle.
(b) Rear axle drive shaft end joints between the sprung final drive and the unsprung rear wheel
stub axle.
(c) Front axle drive shaft end joints between the sprung front mounted final drive and the unsprung
front wheel steered stub axle.
Universal joints have movement only in the vertical plane when they are used for longitudinally
mounted propeller shafts and transverse rear mounted drive shafts. When these joints have been
used for front outer drive shaft they have to move in both the vertical and horizontal plane to
accommodate both vertical suspension deflection and the swivel pin angular movement to steer
the front road wheels. The compounding of angular working movement of the outer drive shaft
steering joint in two planes imposes large and varying working angles even when the torque is
being transmitted to the stub axle. Due to the severe working conditions, special universal joints
known as constant velocity joints are employed. These joints have been designed to absorb torque
and speed fluctuations and to operate reliably with very little noise and wear having long life.

Use of a Differential

The automotive differential is designed to drive a pair of wheels while allowing them to
rotate at different speeds. In vehicles without a differential, such as karts, both driving wheels are
forced to rotate at the same speed, usually on a common axle driven by a simple chain-drive
mechanism.

When a car turns a corner, one wheel is on the "inside" of a turning arc, and the other wheel
is on the "outside." Consequently, the outside wheel has to turn faster than the inside one in order
to cover the greater distance in the same amount of time. Thus, because the two wheels are not
driven with the same speed, a differential is necessary. A car differential is placed halfway between
the driving wheels, on either the front, rear, or both axes (depending on whether it’s a front-, rear-
, or 4-wheel-drive car). In rear-wheel drive cars, the differential converts rotational motion of the
transmission shaft which lies parallel to the car’s motion to rotational motion of the half-shafts (on
the ends of which are the wheels), which lie perpendicular to the car’s motion.

Rear axles – types – wheels and tyres

Rear axle is the last member of power train. In most of automobiles, real axle is the driving axle.
It lies between the driving wheels and the differential gear and transmit power from the differential
to the driving wheels. It consists of two half shaft connected to the differential gear, one for one
wheel. The inner end of the each half shaft connected to the sun gear of the differential and the
outer end to the wheel. The rear axle and differential gear are completely encloses in a housing
which protecting them from water, dust and injury.

Function of rear axle

The rear axle mainly performs following two functions.

1. It carries the weight of the vehicle.

2. It rotates and transmits the power from the engine to the wheels.
Types of rear axle

Classification of rear axle

Rear axle classified by two methods.

1. According to the design of axle:

(A.) Banjo axle

This type of axle is a single shaft and final drive assembly is carried in a separate casing which is
bolted to the axle housing. The banjo construction is often used for smaller and lighter vehicle.

(B.) Split axle

In this type of axle split shaft are used with the central housing contain the differential gear and it
is fitted with a tube on each side to carry the half axles and bearing.

2. According to the method of supporting:

(A.) Half floating rear axle or Semi-floating Axle Hub.

In this axle the bearing which support the axle, are inside the casing. The axle of the wheel is at
the center of the axle casing.
The whole weight of the vehicle is first transmitted to the suspension spring then to the axle casing,
rear axle, wheel and ground.

The road-wheel is attached to the axle hub, which is an extension of the axle half-shaft. A single
bearing inside the tubular axle-casing supports the outer end of the shaft. The inner end of the shaft
is splined and supported by the final-drive unit, which itself is mounted on bearings within the axle
casing.The semi-floating axle along with its overhanging hub is subjected to the driving torque as
well as to both vertical and horizontal loads. The vertical load produces a shearing force, and the
distance between the wheel and the suspension-spring seat on the axle causes a bending moment,
the reaction of which is shared between the axle bearing and the final-drive-unit bearings. The
horizontal load due to tilting of the vehicle, cornering centrifugal force, or side wind gives rise to
both side-thrust and a bending moment. This bending moment may add to the vertical bending
moment or may oppose it, depending on the direction of application of the side-force.A semi
floating axle, suitable for small and medium sized cars, is illustrated in Fig. 26.53. The axle half
shaft and flanged hub are forged from a single piece of nickel chrome steel. The hub end of the
shaft is provided with a larger diameter than the rest of its length, which resists the vertical and
horizontal loads. The outer face of the flanged hub is shouldered so that it centralizes accurately
the brake drum. The flange is provided with evenly spaced holes around it for wheel studs.

A pre-greased and sealed deep grooved ball-race bearing is pressed over and along the shaft up to
its shoulder. The bearing is sandwiched on one side by the axle-casing and on the other by the
brake back-plate and the retaining plate by four nuts and bolts. To prevent excess oil leakage to
the end of the axle-casing, a radial-lip oil-seal is pressed into a recess in the casing. Oil level of
the final-drive is considerably lower than the axle shaft. However, the large amount of splash may
cause the lubricant to spread along the shaft and enter the brake drum. An oil retainer is fitted at
the hub end and the lip of the seal is positioned towards the final drive in the sealing arrangement.
A semi-floating axle shown in Fig. 26.54 uses a taper-roller bearing, which is suitable for larger
and higher-performance cars because of its greater load-carrying capacity. A separate hub is
wedged on to a keyed and tapered half-shaft and a castellated nut holds it is position. The taper-
roller-bearing inner cone fits with a light force inside the mouth of the casing. The exact position
of the bearing in the casing is provided by shims packed between the casing flange and the brake
back-plate. Increasing the thickness of the shims on one side and decreasing it on the other shifts
both half-shafts further to one side relative to the axl casing. On either road-wheel the outward
thrust is absorbed by the adjacent hub bearing, while inward thrust is transmitted to the opposite
bearing through the axle half-shafts and a slotted axle-shaft spacer (not shown). Therefore, each
hub bearing takes thrust in one direction only.

(B) Three quarter floating rear axle:

In this axle bearing are on the outer side of casing between the wheel and the axle casing. The
wheels are fitted at the end of the axle by means of a key, bolt or nut.The weight of the vehicle is
supported partly by the axle casing and partly by the axle. The main advantage of this type of axle
over the half floating axle is that the major part of the load is taken by the axle casing and not by
axle. Axle only takes care of the rotating and transmits the power.

(C) Full floating rear axle

In this type of axle bearing are on the outer side of casing between the wheel and the axle casing.
The axle is not supported by the bearing at entire end and its position is maintained by the way
that it is supported at both ends. The wheels are fitted at the end of the axle by means of a key, bolt
or nut.
Thus the entire weight of the vehicle is supported by the wheel and axle casing. The axle is relieved
of all strain caused by the weight of the vehicle on end thrust. It transmits only driving torque.

Wheels and Tyres

Wheels must be strong enough to support the vehicle and withstand the forces caused by normal
operation. At the same time, they must be as light as possible, to help keep un-sprung weight to a
minimum.Wheels can be made from cast aluminium alloy or magnesium alloy. Alloy wheels are
popular because of their appearance and because they are lighter than similar steel wheels.
Aluminium is a better conductor of heat, so alloy wheels can dissipate heat from brakes and tyres
more effectively than steel ones. Most wheels have ventilation holes in the flange, so air can
circulate to the brakes. Most passenger car wheels are of well, or drop-centre design. This design
allows for tyre removal and fitting. The removal and fitting of tyres should be carried out according
to manufactures instructions.

Types of Wheels
Passenger cars normally use rims which are of well based, or drop-centre design. The drop enter
is used for mounting and demounting the tyre onto the rim. Wheels must be strong enough to carry
the mass of the vehicle and withstand the forces that are generated during use. The wheel centre
must accurately locate the wheel rim centrally on the axle. It must also provide the required
distance from the centreline of the wheel, to the face of the mounting flange.
This is called offset. Offset is important because it brings the tyre centreline into close alignment
with the larger inner hub bearing and reduces load on the stub axle. This allows the inside of the
wheel centre to be shaped to provide space for the brake assembly, usually located inside the wheel.
Ventilation slots allow air to circulate around the brakes. The rim must be accurately shaped and
dimensioned and strong enough to support the tyre under the load of the vehicle and the forces
generated by the motion of the vehicle. When inflated, the tyre is locked to the rim by tapering
the bead seat towards the flange, or by safety ridges or humps, close to the flange.
In the event of sudden deflation, or blow-out, safety ridges prevent the tyre moving down into the
well. This helps maintain control of the vehicle while the brakes are applied. Well-based rims can
also be used on heavy commercial vehicles for tubeless tyres.

Rim Sizes & Designations

To ensure correct fit between a tyre and rim, all manufacturers of wheels and tyres comply with
standard dimensions, as recommended by automotive manufactures. The width of the rim is the
distance across the rim flanges, at the bead seat. Its diameter is the distance across the centre of
the rim from bead seat to bead seat.
The tyre must be an exact fit on the rim, to fulfil a number of functions.
• It ensures that the narrow contact area between the beads of the tyre and the rim will seal the air
in a tubeless tyre.
• It transfers all the forces between the tyre and the wheel, without slipping or chafing.
• It ensures the friction between the tyre and the rim prevents the tyre turning on the rim

Tyre Types

The tyre provides a cushion between the vehicle and the road to reduce the transmission of road
shocks. It also provides friction to allow the vehicle perform its normal operations. Modern tyres
are manufactured from a range of materials. The rubber is mainly synthetic. Two types of tyre
construction are common – cross-ply and radial. Most passenger cars now use radial tyres, as do
most 4-wheel-drives and heavy vehicles. Tube tyres require an inner tube to seal the air inside the
tyre.

Tubeless tyres eliminate the inner tube by making the complete wheel and tyre assembly air-tight.
A special, air-tight valve assembly is needed. This can be a tight fit into the rim, or it can be held
with a nut and sealing washers.
Tyres can be identified by markings on the sidewalls. This typically includes the maker’s name,
the rim size, the type of tyre construction,aspect ratio, maximum load and speed and, in some
cases, intended use. Regulations cover the allowable dimensions for wheels and tyres on a
particular vehicle.
. These dimensions are usually set out on the tyre spec attached to the vehicle. Incorrectly selected
wheels and tyres can overload wheel bearings and change steering characteristics.
The tyre chart lists the wheel and tyre sizes approved by the manufacturer for the vehicle.
Using other wheels and tyres may be illegal. The repairing of punctures on tyres must be carried
out in accordance with current legalisation.

Tyre Construction

A tyre provides a cushion between the vehicle and the road, to reduce the transmission of road
shocks. The air in the tyre supports the vehicle’s mass and the tread provides frictional contact
with the road surface, so the vehicle can manoeuvre for normal use. Radial ply tyres are usually
manufactured in stages. The casing is initially formed by laying the rubber inner and the first layer
of textile ply cords, around a flat drum mould. The rubber-covered bead wire and sidewalls are
then locked into position. The rubber sidewalls protect a finished tyre from kerb damage and
weathering. At the second stage-building machine, the tyre is shaped.
Belts of steel wire are guided into place. The tread is then positioned and the uncured tyre is
consolidated by rollers, before it is placed in the mould. During the moulding and curing stage, the
tyre is subjected to high temperature and pressure and it takes on its final fixed identity, with its
own distinctive tread pattern. It is then trimmed and checked for balance and quality before it is
inflated and run under load against a rotating drum. This is a final check for ride uniformity.

Specification of wheels

For example, the code on a common fitment for Australian cars is:205/65R15 95H

205 indicates the nominal section width of the tyre in millimetres (205mm).

65 indicates its aspect ratio, a comparison of the tyre's section height with its section width (65
indicates the height is 65% of its width).

R indicates radial ply construction.

15 indicates the nominal diameter of the wheel rim (15 inches).

95H is a symbol indicating the maximum load capacity and speed at which the tyre can be safely
operated, subject to the tyre being in sound condition, correctly fitted, and with recommended
inflation pressures (95 represents a maximum load of 690kg per tyre; H represents a maximum
speed of 210km/h).