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Dr. J. Ramkumar
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Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Design
IIT Kanpur
▪ Conventional Manufacturing techniques for Metal Matrix Composites
▪ Additive Manufacturing techniques of Metal Matrix Composites

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▪ AM Challenges and Opportunities
▪ Preparation of Composite Materials: Mechanical Mixing
▪ AM of

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▪ Ferrous Matrix Composites
▪ Titanium-Matrix Composites (TMCs)
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▪ Aluminum Matrix Composite
▪ Nickel Matrix Composites

▪ Factors Affecting Composite Property

1. Liquid-phase methods

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2. Solid-phase methods
3. Solid/liquid dual-phase methods
4.

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Deposition methods
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1. LIQUID-PHASE METHODS

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i. Mixing liquid metal matrix and ceramic reinforcements
ii. Melt infiltration
iii. Squeeze casting or pressure infiltration

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iv. Reaction infiltration
v. Melt oxidation process
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2. SOLID-PHASE METHODS

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▪ Powder metallurgy techniques such as pressing followed by
sintering
I. Forging, and extrusion;

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II. Higher energy and higher rate methods;
III. Diffusion bonding;
IV. Plastic deformation processes such as friction stir welding and
superplastic forming
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3. SOLID/LIQUID DUAL-PHASE METHODS

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▪ Rheo-casting/Compo-casting
▪ Variable co-deposition of multiphase materials

▪ Spray depositionPT
4. DEPOSITION METHODS

▪ Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

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▪ Physical vapor deposition (PVD)
▪ Spray forming processes
▪ MMCs are made from metals or alloys strengthened with
diverse materials to increase strength, toughness, thermal

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stability, wear resistance, fatigue property, and application-
specific qualities.

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▪ AM's multidirectional and free-form production makes it an
attractive manufacturing approach for composites.
▪ The ability to fabricate composites using AM techniques allows
for their use in industries that desire lighter, lower-cost
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materials, such as automotive, aerospace, and biomedical.
General AM methods of MMCs.

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▪ AM's design freedom allows it to produce novel structures with
distinctive geometry.

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▪ This approach allows producers to insert reinforcing elements into
structures to make pieces with the needed qualities.
▪ Laser-processed composite melt has nonequilibrium solidification

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due to rapid heating and cooling on a limited area, which promotes
finer structure and consistent distribution of strengthening
materials.
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▪ AM can save operation times and costs by manufacturing near-net
forms and complicated composites geometry.
▪ AM-fabricated MMC parts are ideal for automotive, aerospace, and
other industries.
▪ Most AM techniques allow either particle or fiber-reinforced
MMCs.
▪ AM sheet lamination cannot produce complex-shaped MMCs.
Challenges and opportunities

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▪ In heat-based AM processes, the robust Marangoni convection
created by increased thermal capillary forces causes liquid
metal instability.

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▪ Gravity, buoyancy, and surface tension affect melt flow.
▪ Then, reinforcements are redistributed. Liquid flow affects their
dispersions.
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▪ All over the matrix, filler/reinforcing elements are
concentrated around solidification cell borders, creating a
honeycomb shape.
▪ Well-distributed high-melting particle fillers can refine grain.
Challenges and opportunities

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▪ According to the composite hypothesis, well-distributed nano-
fillers increase nucleation sites and create equiaxed grains,
which have weak crystallographic textures.

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▪ By increasing nucleation, composite columnar structures don't
extend over the layer.
▪ Reinforcing element volume affects composite size and shape.
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▪ Based on heat source parameters, reinforcing components can
be globular, rod, flower-shaped, cubic, or dendritic.
Challenges and opportunities

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▪ For a laser-based moving heat source, laser power, intensity
distribution, spot size, powder feed rate, scanning techniques,
and scanning speed will affect the reinforcing elements that

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could be dissolved partly, totally, or remain undissolved
throughout the matrix.
▪ Therefore, process input factors affect composite properties
and interfacial strength in reinforcing materials and matrix.
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Ceramic-reinforced MMCs aren't always preferred.
▪ Porosity,melt pool instability, and post-processing
expenditures remain issues.
▪ Variations in physical and mechanical qualities between
particles and matrix may cause micro-cracks.
Challenges and opportunities

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▪ Cracks degrade manufactured parts' functionality and cause
failure. Ex-situ composites are made by mixing reinforcing
ingredients with matrix materials.

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▪ In these instances, the thermal coefficient mismatch weakens
the boundary between the reinforcements and composite
matrix.
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▪ Additionally, Ex-situ ceramic filler materials form thin oxide
layers on reinforcements' exteriors, reducing bonding strength
and causing cracking.
▪ AM composite production can be done through material
deposition or a hybrid process, where materials are mixed

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before AM.
▪A blend of matrix-reinforcing elements must have a
homogeneous distribution of reinforcing materials for

▪ Mechanical PT
consistent bulk composite distribution.
mixing/alloying creates metal/alloy-reinforced
powders for compression moulding, die casting, extrusion,
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remelting, and solidification. Reinforcing element dispersion
varies on processing and size.
▪ Mechanical alloying creates finer solid grains by adding
particles that increase solid solubility and create a non-
equilibrium state.
▪ Grinding improves alloy powder characteristics and chemical
compositions.
▪ Type of milling machine, particle size, ball-to-powder ratio,
milling speed, and milling time affect particle size and

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characteristics.
▪ Mechanical alloying particle size controls homogeneity

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between two materials.
▪ Time, mechanical energy, and strain hardening affect particle
refinement and composite structural uniformity.
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▪ Smaller reinforcing materials allow aggregation with the
matrix.
▪ During agglomeration, mechanical connection between
particles might infiltrate its lattice and inhibit dislocation
motion, increasing material strength.
▪ In mechanical alloying, the rotational speed of the ball mill
influences the milling process through the transmission of

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kinetic energy to powder particles from grinding balls during
the collision of balls with powders.

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▪ The kinetic energy Ekin (J) is calculated by

(1)
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where mb is the mass of the ball (kg) and vc the collision velocity
(m/s)
▪ This technique uses a high-erosion mill to enable the process,
where higher rotational speed through milling and extended

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impact during alloying results in hardening of the powder
particles, thus distorting grain structure

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Collision between grinding ball and powder

particles during mechanical alloying
▪ Cold welding occurs due to extreme plastic deformation during
mechanical alloying of ductile powders.

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▪ To reduce powder agglomeration, lubricants are added to the
powder mixture during milling.
▪ Lubricants lower particles' surface tension.

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▪ In the milling process, the energy E required for particle size
reduction is presented as
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(2)

where γE is the specific surface energy (J/m2 ) and ΔS is the expansion of

the surface area (m2 ).
▪ The requirement of lower surface energy emphasizes a shorter
milling period and results in finer particles
▪ To understand the impact of the dropping phenomena of
powder particles, the kinematic trajectory motion is drawn

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ASSUMPTIONS
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• rb is the ball mill radius (m)
• A is a particle point
• α is the separating angle (angle
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within OA and vertical direction)
• ω is the rotating speed (rad/s)
• t0–t5 is the various times in the
trajectory (s)
▪ For a particle at point A, the centrifugal force F is equal to the
gravitational force in the opposite direction.

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▪ Therefore, considering the gravity and ignoring the particle
friction, F can be presented as

PT (3)
where mp is the mass of the particles (kg), and g is the gravitational
acceleration (m/s2 )
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▪ Considering the centrifugal force concept, F can be presented
as (N)
(4)

where vp is the velocity of the particle (m/s)

▪ From equations 3 and 4, the rotational speed is

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(5)

▪ The separating angle α, can be calculated as

PT (6)
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▪ The aforementioned equations illustrate that the separating angle
depends on the rotational speed and radius of the mill and the
gravitational acceleration.
▪ The higher separating angle because of greater rotational speed
may cause slipping of the particles from the ball mill interior
affecting the mixing/alloying process.
▪ Physical and mechanical performance of MMCs is determined by

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▪ Matrix material qualities
▪ Reinforcing element distribution
▪ Bond strength

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▪ Production procedures.

▪ MMCs with diverse matrix materials and reinforcements can be

made using several AM methods.
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▪ AM processing of MMCs opens new opportunities for
multifunctional composites.
▪ The next section presents AM-manufactured ferrous, titanium,
aluminum, and nickel matrix composites.
▪ 316 SS-TiC Composite
▪ 316L is a promising austenitic SS to manufacture composites

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because of the ductile matrix property.
▪ Overall, it's a good material for particle reinforcement.
▪ TiC is commonly used with ferrous alloys due to its high melting

▪
stability. PT
temperature, reduced density, superior corrosion resistance,
increased hardness, thermodynamic properties, and thermal

MMC hardness and wear qualities depend on structural restrictions

like volume percentage and magnitude of filler materials,
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dispersion of inserted elements, and interfacial joining within the
matrix and filler material.
▪ If there are no manufacturing faults, more strengthening
components increase composites' density, hardness, and elastic
modulus.
▪ Solidification Phases of 316 SS-TiC Composite

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▪ The reaction within Ti and C to form TiC is considered by the higher
activation energy. This reaction takes place vigorously because of
their exothermic nature.
▪ The possible reaction of TiC formation and the associated variations

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in the enthalpy and Gibbs free energy are thought to communicate
with two temperature extents as illustrated as follows

(7)
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(8)
▪ Solidification Phases of 316 SS-TiC Composite

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(9)

PT (10)
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(11)

The negative value of ΔG in the equation implies a higher chance of

TiC formation.
 ▪ Solidification Phases of 316 SS-TiC Composite

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▪ TiC is synthesized in situ from Ti and graphite.
▪ Ti reacts with other materials at high temperatures to generate in-
situ strengthening elements.
▪ The formation mechanism of the in-situ 316L-TiC composite is
schematically shown below
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Qian et al., Additive manufacturing of ultrafine-grained austenitic stainless steel matrix composite via vanadium carbide reinforcement addition and selective laser melting:
Formation mechanism and strengthening effect, 2019
▪ TiC reinforcements are found at grain boundaries and inside
columnar dendrites in laser-based AM procedures.

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▪ Higher solidification rates segregate TiC elements, causing
this.

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▪ Strong chaotic fluxes in liquid melt intensify heavy particles in
surrounding turbulences.
▪ Chemical inhomogeneity can affect the concentration contour,
and structural supercooling can affect the solidification
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approach and volume of TiC precipitates.
▪ Small contact time and fast heat transfer can reduce TiC
precipitates.
▪ Multiple laser scans over previously melted layers can increase
TiC volume due to accumulated heat.
▪ 316 SS-TiB2 Composite

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▪ In 316–TiB2 composites, reinforcing components form a ring-like
structure.
▪ LPBF's faster cooling affects composites.
Due to grain advance time, higher cooling rates (106 K/s) limit TiB2
▪

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grain growth. This makes finer TiB2 particles.
The laser AM process's temperature gradient causes a melt's
surface tension gradient.
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▪ This gradient adds Marangoni convection to move TiB2 particles by
limiting accumulation and regulating distribution across the
cemented matrix.
▪ 316 melts entirely, but TiB2 doesn't. Marangoni forces move TiB2-
elements.
▪ Matrix melting repels TiB2 particles. Repulsive force and Marangoni
convection generate a TiB2 ring-like structure.
▪ H13–TiB2 Composite

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▪ Laser AM in tool production allows for the digital production of
intricately formed parts.
▪ AM reduces the cost of tools, shortens production time, and reduces
personnel through robotics.
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Laser-processed H13–TiB2 has -Fe and TiB2 phases, but no austenite.
These structures may affect laser melting's Gaussian heat
distribution.
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▪ Faster heating and solidifying cycles stimulate fine equiaxed grains
with uniform TiB2 reinforcement along H13 grain borders.
▪ During laser melting, when a full liquid forms, the dissolution
mechanism generates strengthening phases by heterogeneous TiB2
nucleation and grain growth.
▪ H13–TiC Composite

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▪ The laser's faster heating and cooling cycle helps TiC structures
happen by shortening the amount of time TiC grains need to grow.
▪ When the temperature goes up, the Marangoni flow gets stronger,
and capillary forces push the liquid along.

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▪ So, the shear and rotational forces that form around the TiC particles
could be a driving force for the particles to spread out evenly,
which stops them from sticking together.
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▪ Also, when the volumetric energy density is lower, the torque is less,
which makes particles stick together more.
▪ Ferrous–WC Composite

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▪ AM ceramic arenas are interested in MMCs strengthened with
ceramic particles.
▪ Ceramic-reinforced ferrous composites perform better.
WC has a high melting temperature and excellent wettability with
▪

▪
▪
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many ferrous alloys.
WC can maintain 1400 C room temperature hardness.
Choosing the right reinforcing materials and matrix is key to
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boosting wear resistance, therefore the interface is important.
▪ Fe-based alloys are reinforced with ceramic components to improve
wear property.
 ▪ Ferrous–WC Composite
▪ In Fe–WC composite, dissolved WC

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reinforcing components release W and C
in the liquid melt.
▪ W and C atoms react with ferrous alloy to
generate carbides near grain

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boundaries.
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The gradient interface MC3 (M = W, Fe,
Cr, Ni) develops between WC reinforcing
element and matrix during laser AM
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procedures.
▪ Gradient interfaces may strengthen WC
and Fematrix bonds.
▪ Size and shape of the interface gradient Microstructure showing the
fluctuate with laser power, intensity, and morphology of matrix, interface,
spot size. and WC reinforcement in MMC.

Gu et al. Laser additive manufactured WC reinforced Fe-based composites with gradient reinforcement/matrix interface and enhanced performance, Compos. Struct. 2018
▪ Ferrous–WC Composite

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▪ Fe–WC composite performance involves densification, gradient
interface, microstructural morphology, and hardness development.
▪ First, when densification is low at a high scanning speed, the
material can be lost from the matrix due to pores.
▪

▪
improves wear. PT
Lower scan speed might result in increased densification, which

Second, the in-situ reaction's gradient interface improves wear.

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▪ A weak interfacial connection between reinforcing components and
matrix is caused by composite wear.
▪ Ferrous–WC Composite

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▪ Interfacial layers without pores and fissures ensure composite
bonding.
▪ Thicker interfacial layers provide strong bonding, making it difficult
to wear away WC components during the application, improving
wear property.
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▪ Higher composite hardness can hinder adhesive processes like
scuffing and removing material, reducing wear rate, and improving
wear property.
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▪ Ferrous–VC Composites

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▪ Through LPBF, vanadium carbides reinforce ferrous matrix
composites.
▪ In this process, the laser's energy and the pressure/flow in the laser-
stimulated liquid melt pool disintegrate micron-sized VC through a

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melting-solidifying mechanism.
The laser light quickly heats the 316L/VC mixture, forming a molten
region of entirely dissolved V8C7/316L liquids.
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▪ V8C7 can quickly dissolve and release V and C due to tiny particle
size, high surface tension, and laser heat.
▪ The tiny pressure on ultrafine VC in the liquid melt pool accelerates
the rapid melt process.
 ▪ Ferrous–VC Composites
Schematic diagram shows that

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the formation mechanism of
ferrous matrix composites
strengthens with VC in LPBF
technique

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Qian et al., Additive manufacturing of ultrafine-grained austenitic stainless steel matrix composite via vanadium carbide reinforcement addition and selective laser melting:
Formation mechanism and strengthening effect, 2019
▪ Ferrous–VC Composites

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▪ After the laser source leaves the melt, it solidifies quickly.
▪ During fast solidification, VC and VCx develop through
heterogeneous nucleation and grain expansion of VC nuclei.
The matured VCx strengthening components will be disseminated
▪

▪
progression. PT
at grain boundaries and in austenite grains due to nucleation and

When VCx phases become bulky, grain expansion pushes them

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toward grain boundaries.
▪ VCx phases are retained within austenite grains.
▪ As laser AM has a quick solidification process, few V and C diffuse
into austenite solid solution.
▪ Ti–TiC Composite

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▪ In laser-based additive manufacturing (AM) of Ti–TiC composites,
different amounts of Ti and TiC powders are mixed and milled with
a ball mill to get a better density.
▪ TiC elements are made by laser AM through dissolution or

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precipitation mechanisms, such as heterogeneous nucleation of TiC
and the growth of grains.
▪ The ex-situ construction of Ti-TiC and the distribution of TiC
reinforcement depend on the processing conditions, such as the
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functional energy density.
▪ At higher energy densities, the TiC reinforcing element spreads out
in the form of a network array with a dendritic shape.
▪ Ti–TiC Composite

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▪ At lower energy densities, the TiC gets smaller and spreads out
more evenly.
▪ The lower energy density can also change the shape of TiC from
rougher dendritic to whisker-like to lamellar.

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▪ Higher scanning speeds cause faster cooling rates, which means
there isn't enough time for TiC to grow in the composites.
▪ This leads to changes and improvements in the microstructure.
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▪ Ti–TiB Composites
▪ Even though a lot of different particles can be used to reinforce

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TMCs, ceramic particles like TiB and TiC have gotten a lot of
attention because they have a good chemical affinity with the
matrix.
This makes it easier for the matrix and particles to stick together
▪

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and makes the interfaces more complete.
TiB is a steady element, even with a very small solubility of boron in
titanium (<0.001%), which is far low compared with carbon (22%)
and nitrogen (1.8%).
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▪ Also, the thermal expansion coefficients of Ti and TiB are quite
similar, which makes it less likely that AM composite parts will have
residual stresses.
▪ In contrast to other elements like TiC, TiN, and TiB2, TiB can play a
role in increasing the strength and elasticity of composites even
with small amounts added.
 ▪ Solidification Phases of Ti–TiB Composite

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▪ Schematic presentation for the formation of TiB phase from the in-
situ reaction within Ti and TiB2 particles,
a) Powder mixture with good dispersion of TiB2, surrounded by bigger Ti
powders prior to sintering,

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b) In-situ reaction develops needle-like TiB, semi-reacted TiB2, and
unreacted TiB2.
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A. Sabahi Namini and M. Azadbeh, “Microstructural characterisation and mechanical properties of spark plasma-sintered TiB2-
reinforced titanium matrix composite,” Powder Metall., vol. 60, pp. 22–32, 2017, doi: 10.1080/00325899.2016.1265805
▪ Solidification Phases of Ti–TiB Composite

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▪ Before sintering, the powder mixture shows that the TiB2 particles
are well mixed with the larger Ti powders.
▪ The in-situ reaction makes TiB, as well as TiB2 that has partially
reacted and TiB2 that has not yet reacted.
▪

▪
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Ti-TiB2 powders are used to make in-situ Ti-TiB composites, and the
process parameters are optimized to make this happen.
TiB2 has a higher melting point than CP-Ti, so it needs a higher
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energy density to melt.
▪ When Ti–TiB2 composites are made, they have two phases: -Ti and
TiB2.
▪ The in-situ reaction occurs between TiB2 and Ti through the
diffusional removal of boron (B) from TiB2 or by melting and
successive solidification of TiB.
(12)
▪ Formation Mechanism of Three-Dimensional Quasi
Continuous Network of TiB

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STEP-1:
▪ Laser power on the substrate material will create the melt pool,

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which will capture powders delivered through the powder stream.
▪ Because of the higher input energy, Ti will react with B to form TiB.
▪ The recently developed TiB, together with the other delivered
powders, will be melted into the liquefied material
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▪ Formation Mechanism of Three-Dimensional Quasi
Continuous Network of TiB

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STEP-2:
▪ When the input energy is moved to the next location, the liquid melt
starts to solidify.

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▪ Initially, TiB nucleates and progress as long whiskers offering
heterogeneous nucleation positions for liquid Ti.
▪ Afterward, Ti melt will nucleate heterogeneously at walls of TiB
whiskers and homogeneously from liquid to develop βTi.
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▪ As a result, βTi nuclei grow, pushing TiB into the liquid, which will
not be submerged by βTi nuclei, due to the poor solubility of TiB in
βTi.
STEP-3:
▪ TiB whiskers accumulate at Ti grain boundaries, developing QCN-
like structure. Meanwhile, βTi converts to αTi.
 ▪ Formation Mechanism of Three-Dimensional Quasi
Continuous Network of TiB

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PT
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Hu et al., Laser deposition-additive manufacturing of TiBTi composites with novel three-dimensional quasi-continuous network microstructure:
Effects on strengthening and toughening,” Compos. Part B Eng. 2018.
▪ Ti–Hydroxyapatite (Ti–HA) Composites

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▪ Even though Ti alloys have good properties for biomedical uses,
bioactive ceramic reinforcements like hydroxyapatite could make
their osseointegration even better (HA).
▪ HA is a calcium phosphate compound (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) that has

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the same chemical makeup and shape as bone tissue.
▪ Nano-hydroxyapatite (nHA) has gotten a lot of attention as a
biomaterial for use in prosthetics because it is similar to human
bone tissue in size, shape, and chemical makeup.
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▪ Solidification Phases of Ti–HA Composite

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▪ The reactions that take place through the LPBF process

(13)

PT (14)

(15)
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(16)

(17)
▪ Solidification Phases of Ti–HA Composite

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▪ The LPBF phase generation method for Ti–nHA is as follows: Ca/P
components react with phase to create Ti5P3, Ca3(PO4)2, CaTiO3, and
TixO during HA breakdown.
▪ Ti5P3 and Ca3(PO4)2 remain dispersed throughout the matrix.

▪ PT
Ca3(PO4)2 remains after CaTiO3 synthesis.
Low oxygen absorption during production causes TixO phase, not
TiO2.
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▪ HA's oxygen diffuses into Ti matrix and creates titanium oxides.
▪ Faster LPBF solidification causes saturation, forming TixO. Long lath-
shaped grains are CP- structures.
▪ Ti's nHA in Ti matrix forms tiny acicular-shaped grains.
 ▪ Solidification Phases of Ti–HA Composite

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PT
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Schematic presentation of the microstructural development in pure Ti, and Ti-

2%HA and Ti-5%HA composites manufactured through LPBF techniques.
Han et al., Microstructure and property evolutions of titanium/nano-hydroxyapatite composites in-situ prepared by selective laser melting, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2017
▪ Solidification Phases of Ti–HA Composite

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▪ How the microstructure changes when HA is used has to do with
how fast the melt pool moves and how different nuclei form.
▪ The lower amount of HA can shorten the spherical grains without
making them too dense.
▪

▪
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While a higher amount of HA slows down the growth of crystals and
lets almost continuous spherical grains form.
With the addition of HA, the microstructure of composites made
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with LPBF gets better and better over time.
▪ In short, the grain's shape is changed in a unique way as follows:
Long grains shaped like a lath short grains with a round shape
quasi-continuous circle-shaped grains
▪ Ti-6Al-4V-Metallic Glass (MG) Composites

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▪ The use of Zr-based metallic glass (MG) reinforcement can open up
a new way to change the microstructure of TMCs by stabilising the
phase and refining both the and phases. This can make TMC parts
stronger and more flexible.

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▪ Ti-6Al-4V liquid melt usually solidifies in a planned way because
the temperature difference between the liquidus point and the
solidus point is small.
▪ On the other hand, adding MG to Ti-6Al-4V alloy may disrupt the
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equilibrium processes, causing the solidification form to change
from planner to dendritic.
▪ This type of conversion takes place when the liquid phase obtains a
thermal gradient below the critical value near the solidification
front.
▪ Ti-6Al-4V-Metallic Glass (MG) Composites
▪ The critical thermal gradient δT/δXcrit is given by

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(18)

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where C0 is the solute concentration, DL is the solute diffusion coefficient, R
is the solidification rate, and k is the solute partition coefficient, associated
with the solidification limit among the liquidus and solidus temperatures
▪ Because of the different density of Ti-6Al-4V and MG melts, a
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gravity force will act on MG melt to settle down the melt. The
dynamic viscosity, μ, for a liquid (kg/(m.s)) is given by

(19)

where m is the atomic mass (amu), γ is the surface tension (N/m), T is the
temperature (K), and σB is the Boltzmann constant (J/K).
▪ Ti-6Al-4V-Metallic Glass (MG) Composites

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▪ Theoretically, owing to a higher density and viscosity, the MG melt
leans to separate from the Ti-6Al-4V melt. In addition, the β phase
becomes stable by Cu and Ni and then passes through
solidification, having the higher melting temperature

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▪ The dendrite formation discards solute elements (Cu, Ni, and Al)
through the solid/liquid interface to supercooled melt, which
enriches the melt pool with MG contents leading to the initiation of
amorphous phases
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▪ In addition, the faster cooling process restricts the growth of the
amorphous phases, resulting in the MG as nanobands
▪ However, the MG nanobands can pass a partial crystallization
during continual heating of layer-to-layer deposition. Thereby, a
hard/soft nanostructured Ti-6Al-4V/MG composite is formed with
partially crystallized MG reinforcing elements (hard phase),
embedded in β grains (soft phase).
 ▪ Ti-6Al-4V + B4C Pre-alloyed Composites

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▪ TMCs manufactured from the mixture of Ti-6Al-4V + B4C powders
with different volume contents of B4C follow the in-situ chemical
reaction of
(20)

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Schematic microstructure of the as-printed Ti-6Al-4V/MG composite

Shen et al. On the microstructure, mechanical properties and wear resistance of an additively manufactured Ti64/metallic glass composite. 2019.
 ▪ Ti-6Al-4V + B4C Pre-alloyed Composites

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▪ The composite consists of a dual structure of α/β Widmanstätten Ti
matrix, enclosing with nonuniformly distributed TiB whiskers

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SEM micrograph showing Ti-6Al-4V- 3% B4C composite

Pouzet et al. Additive layer manufacturing of titanium matrix composites using the direct metal deposition laser process, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 2016.
▪ Ti-6Al-4V + B4C Pre-alloyed Composites

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▪ Ti4B affects solidification in several ways. β-Ti can form as the first
solid phase during solidification based on the TiB phase diagram.
▪ Boron rejects liquids when β-Ti grows, causing micro-segregation of
B near grain boundaries and eutectic solidification.
▪

▪
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Fine TiB whiskers stop grain expansion when the eutectic
temperature rises.
β-Ti grain variation may cause boron macro-segregation during
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solidification.
▪ This refinement happens only under each additive layer, which
should be non-melted.
▪ Ti-6Al-4V + B4C Pre-alloyed Composites

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▪ Boron segregation near the melt pool creates a partially remelted
region in the subsequent layer, improving grain refinement.
▪ TiB whiskers affect Ti-6Al-4V+B4C composite hardness.
▪ Carbon in β-Ti solid solution also contributes to hardening.

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▪ TiB's network-like structure around β-Ti grains increases composite
rigidity.
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▪ Ti-6Al-4V + Mo Composite

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▪ To manufacture TMCs, when Ti-6Al-4V powder is mixed with
different percentages of Mo powder, a novel microstructure
develops in the composite structure.
▪ In contrary to a complete α martensitic structure of Ti-6Al-4V alloy,

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Ti-6Al-4V-Mo composite contains β-Ti matrix with nonuniformly
distributed Mo particles

(21)
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▪ Mo can control the martensite transformation in two ways: primarily,
Mo can drop the critical cooling rate to keep the β phase
▪ Secondarily, Mo as a β stabilizer significantly lowers the martensite
start temperature
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PT
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 ▪ Different Al metal matrix composites:

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▪ typical microstructures

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▪ (a) Al/Al2O3 platelets.

▪ (b) Al/ Al2O3 continuous fibres.

▪ (c) Al/SiCp.

▪ (d) Al/graphite with 20 vol.% graphite flakes taken along the basal plane

Chen et al. Thermal properties of aluminum-graphite composites by powder metallurgy. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2013
▪ Al–Fe2O3 Composite

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▪ Fe2O3 is another low-cost reinforcement, which minimizes the
energy required to fabricate AMC in laser-based AM techniques.
▪ The in-situ reaction between the mixture of Al and Fe2O3 can
produce Fe3Al and Al2O3 in Al matrix,

PT (22)

▪ The stoichiometric reaction shows that the laser beam ignites the
N
additional heat and stimulates thermite interactions through the AM
process.
▪ This exothermal excess heat of in-situ reaction lowers the laser
energy required to melt powder mixtures, followed by solidifying
the composite melt
▪ Al–Fe2O3 Composite

EL
▪ The amount of Fe2O3 has a substantial impact on the hardness,
density, and surface roughness.
▪ It can control the energy discharge in the reaction and, thereby,
form the surface profile.

PT
▪ The higher content of Fe2O3 does not affect the composites’
densification property but can improve the hardness through
excellent interfacial bonding and uniform distribution of
reinforcements within the matrix
N
▪ AlSi10Mg–SiC Composite

EL
▪ The lower hardness and poor wear properties of Al alloys can be
improved through the incorporation of hard particles such as SiC,
Al2O3, and TiB2 into the matrix

PT (23)

▪ In-situ reaction between Al and SiC forms Al4SiC4 by forming

irregular nuclei at the contact.
N
▪ As the reaction progresses, the nuclei become plate-like.
▪ AlSi10Mg–SiC Composite

EL
▪ Uniform distribution of plate-like Al4SiC4 structures improves AM
composites' mechanical properties.
▪ Al's reduced absorption capacity limits laser AM.
SiC, a high-energy absorbent, can increase the energy absorption
▪

▪ PT
rate and generate enough liquid with continuous melt pools.
Increasing the melt pool's energy absorption rate enhances solid–
liquid wettability.
N
▪ The particular surface area between Al melt and SiC varies with SiC
particle size, affecting composite densification.
▪ AlSi10Mg–SiC Composite

EL
▪ In AM, coarser SiC melts fewer particles. Inadequate SiC-Al matrix
interface hinders in-situ reaction.
▪ Coarser SiC limits the matrix and reinforcement's specific surface
area, which diminishes wettability and composite density.
▪
▪ PT
Uneven SiC can alter the composite's microstructure and density.
Finer SiC can increase composite density by accelerating in-situ
processes.
N
▪ Through increased density and homogeneous microstructure, finer
SiC can improve composite wear and hardness.
▪ AlSi10Mg–TiC Composite

EL
▪ During laser processing of AMC reinforced with TiC particles,
temperature gradients induce surface tension and Marangoni
flow.
▪ All these actions cause capillary forces on TiC particles, which

PT
generate torque. Operating torque spins TiC particles in the
melt, redistributing them.
▪ Temperature gradient affects capillary force concentration.
N
▪ Insufficient energy may diminish the temperature gradient and
capillary force concentration, resulting in inhomogeneous TiC
particle dispersion in the melt.
▪ AlSi10Mg–TiC Composite

EL
▪ TiC particles are driven by torque and aggregate near the
center of the Marangoni flow, creating a ring pattern.
▪ When enough Al melts in the molten pool, TiC reinforcements
repel.

PT
▪ Marangoni flow and repulsive forces mutually contribute to the
composite matrix's TiC ring structure.
N
▪ 2024Al–TiB2 Composite

EL
▪ In laser AM, AlSi10Mg and Al-12Si have superior mechanical
characteristics than conventionally made ones.
▪ Other Al alloys are challenging to fabricate with AM due to their low
flowability and high reflectivity during laser processing.
▪

▪
PT
During solidification, they create enormous columnar grains, which
degrades their characteristics by causing fissures.
LPBF particle-reinforced Al matrix composites improve Al alloy
N
mechanical properties.
▪ TiB2 is compatible with Al alloys that are wettable, hard, stiff, wear-
resistant, and chemically stable.
▪ 2024Al–TiB2 Composite

EL
▪ 2024Al is a high-strength, low-density, heat-treatable aerospace
alloy.
▪ 2024Al alloy has columnar grains aligned parallel to the
construction direction and over many layers.
▪
▪
▪
PT
TiB2 makes columnar 2024Al grains equiaxed.
TiB2 inhibits Al grain development.
TiB2 provides heterogeneous nucleation sites before solidification
N
to promote fine equiaxed structure.
▪ AlSi10Mg–TiB2 Composite

EL
▪ In-situ nano-TiB2-enhanced AlSi10Mg shows a coherent interface
with Al matrix, indicating strong interfacial bonding.
▪ Faster AM cooling solidifies non-equilibrium and equilibrium
(eutectic) Al-Si phases.
▪

▪
PT
In this alloy, Al is supersaturated with Si, which is higher than
equilibrium (1.5%).
AM methods can freeze Si in Al.
N
▪ Al solidifies first in a supersaturated nonequilibrium Si solution.
▪ AlSi10Mg–TiB2 Composite

EL
▪ When solidification continues, the Al-Si melt becomes eutectic.
▪ Al-Si eutectic forms near Al cell borders.
▪ TiB2 occurs at Al grain boundaries because

PT
▪ Its melting temperature (3230o C) prevents it from melting and
▪ It does not react with Al, Si, and Mg, indicating its chemical stability.
▪ When TiB2 solidifies, eutectic Al-Si develops at the edges.
N
▪ AA7075–TiB2 Composite

EL
▪ TiB2 -reinforced AA7075 alloy has an irregular dispersion of
reinforcing elements in the matrix.
▪ The faster solidification results in nonequilibrium phase
transformation and inter-dendritic segregation of solutes.

PT
▪ The laser-processed AA7075-TiB2 composite forms Mg(Zn, Cu, Al)2
and Al6(Cu, Fe) intermetallic phases along the grain boundaries and
within the grains as well
N
▪ Inconel 625–TiC Composites

EL
▪ TiC possesses outstanding hardness, melting temperature, density,
and mechanical strength.
▪ TiC's brittleness limits its monolithic ceramic applications.
In high-temperature refractory, wear, and surface engineering
▪

▪
well. PT
applications, TiC-strengthened nickel matrix composites perform

Ni's decreased wetting angle with TiC improves interfacial bonding

N
between TiC reinforcements and Ni matrix.
▪ TiC-strengthened Ni matrix composites replace WC-Co wear-
resistant alloy.
▪ Inconel 625–TiC Composites

EL
▪ The graphite phase of Ni-TiC-C increases wear performance by
acting as an in-situ lubricant during friction.
▪ Inconel 625's typical microstructure has columnar primary and
secondary dendrites along the build direction.
▪ Inconel
PT
625-TiC composites have comparable dendritic
morphology to Inconel 625 alloy, but with shorter arm spacing.
▪ Randomly dispersed TiC reinforcing components are also used.
N
▪ Inconel 625–TiC Composites

EL
▪ Because TiC melts at 3200 0C, unmelted particles can enter
dendrites and interdendrites.
▪ TiC is a heterogeneous nucleation site for the alloy's phase.
Unmelted particles may speed up cooling, which reduces dendritic
▪

▪ PT
spacing in Inconel 625–TiC.
Interstitial and large self-diffusion components of nickel alloy can
cause robust mixing of liquid melt in the melt pool during laser AM
N
techniques, which will greatly influence component diffusion
compared to normal diffusion.
▪ Ti and C are homogeneously disseminated in the liquid melt when
TiC is dissolved by laser processing.
▪ Inconel 625–TiC Composites

EL
▪ TiC can be used in heterogeneous metal carbide (MC) nucleation
locations. (Nb, Ti)C dominates Nb-Ti-C structure.
▪ Instead of TiCx, MC phases containing more Nb form at the
TiC/matrix border transformation zone.

PT
▪ When there are no morphological differences in MC near unmelted
TiC elements in dendrite and inter-dendrite regions, this kind of
MC occurs more quickly than and rod-like MC phases.
N
▪ According to the literature, Inconel 625 solidifies as follows:
 ▪ Inconel 625–TiC Composites

EL
▪ Because of the partial melting of TiC elements, additional Ti and C
particles would be in the liquid melt.
▪ In place of developing NbC at inter-dendritic region, MC phases
(typically contain Nb, Ti with higher content of Mo) as rod-like

PT
morphology precipitate out, then the cooling behavior of the alloy
modifies as:
N
Mechanism of Inconel–TiB2
composite formation.

Zhang et al. Microhardness and microstructure evolution of TiB2 reinforced Inconel 625/TiB2 composite produced by selective laser melting, Opt. Laser Technol. 2016.
N
PT
EL
1. Mixing of Matrix and Reinforcing Elements

EL
2. Size of Reinforcing Elements
3. Decomposition Temperature
4.
5.
6.
PT
Viscosity and Pore Formation
Volume of Reinforcing Elements and Pore Formation
Buoyancy Effects and Surface Tension Forces
N
1. Mixing of Matrix and Reinforcing Elements

EL
▪ Both the matrix powder and the reinforcing ingredients are mixed
or ball milled at the commencement of composite manufacture.
▪ Mixing combines powder particles, unlike ball-milling, which uses
stainless steel balls. The ball-to-powder ratio must be maintained.
▪

▪
PT
Temperature and inert atmosphere are used to safeguard the
mixing and milling environment.
Milling can cause significant plastic deformations, such as crystal
N
flaws, which increase strain and lattice core energy.
▪ Before low-angle grain boundaries occur, the lattice discharges
energy through dislocation relocation.
▪ Milling time increases deformation. Sub-grain boundary
misorientations increase dislocation density.
1. Mixing of Matrix and Reinforcing Elements

EL
▪ Misorientations become high-angle grain borders and finer grains.
▪ Hard, small-scale reinforcing materials in a milling technique
confine dislocation activity via Orowan bending, which amplifies
dislocation density and speeds up grain refinement.

PT
▪ Due to dislocation density saturation, the crystal lattice reaches its
minimum unaltered level during milling.
▪ Longer grinding times shatter the mixed materials.
N
▪ Plastic deformation and stress concentration near reinforcing
particles enhance dislocation density, which can originate and
extend cracks that fracture particles and lead to homogeneous
reinforcement distribution.
2. Size of Reinforcing Elements

EL
▪ Size and volume of reinforcing elements affect composite
microstructure, densification, hardness, toughness, and wear.
▪ Composites with coarser elements have poor wear compared to
those with finer parts.
▪
PT
During laser processing, the redisposition rate of finer TiC
reinforcing elements is higher, leading to improved TiC element
dispersion within the matrix and increased solidification.
N
▪ Reduced particle size improves melting and solidification by
increasing surface contact between particles and matrix.
▪ Finer TiC-reinforced composites have strong interfacial
connections, improved densification, decreased spalling from the
wear out surface, and stronger wear resistance.
2. Size of Reinforcing Elements
▪ Composites reinforced with coarse TiC components may swell and

EL
separate particles from the wear-out surface under shear stress,
resulting in poor wear resistance.
▪ Shape and size of reinforcing components can affect AM composite
fracture toughness.
▪
PT
The toughening mechanism of Ti-TiB composites is best
represented by 3DQCN structure and finer TiB reinforcing with
increasing laser power.
This includes: In 3DQCN TiB–Ti composites, cracks may propagate
N
▪
along Ti grain boundaries (rich in stiff TiB) or Ti grains
(transcrystalline, rich with ductile TiB).
▪ Growing cracks are blunted and deflected by 3DQCN's ductile TiB
area. Crack creation and propagation require extra fracture energy,
increasing composites' toughness.
 2. Size of Reinforcing Elements

EL
PT
N

Gu et al. Laser additive manufacturing of nano-TiC reinforced Ni-based nanocomposites with tailored microstructure and performance. Compos. Part B Eng. 2019
3. Decomposition Temperature
▪ Reinforcing elements are occasionally combined with matrix

EL
powders before laser processing in AM of MMCs.
▪ If reinforcing materials have a high decomposition temperature
and/or large particles, they may not dissolve during laser
processing.

PT
▪ A faulty interface may develop between the reinforcing elements
and the matrix for the reasons of
(i) Deficient wettability of the reinforcing materials,
N
(ii) Unequal thermal expansion coefficients of reinforcing and matrix
materials,
(iii) Oxide layer formation on the undecomposed material surface.
▪ In-situ reinforcements are better than ex-situ ones.
▪ Reinforcing elements should be fine, thermodynamically stable, and
evenly distributed over the matrix.
4. Viscosity and Pore Formation

EL
▪ The relative density of a composite varies with process input
parameters including laser power and scanning speed, which can
be supported by the liquid phases' dynamic viscosity, flowability,
and wettability.
▪
▪ PT
In LPBF, the laser beam melts the powder combination.
Matrix alloy particles melt at a lower temperature, creating a
swirling melted area. Reinforcing phases dissipate in the matrix
alloy melt, which has a higher melting temperature.
N
▪ Dissolved reinforcing phases increase melt viscosity and impede
flowability.
▪ The dynamic viscosity for a composite melt clarifies the
temperature dependence of viscosity.
4. Viscosity and Pore Formation

EL
▪ Lower laser input power or higher scan speed don't provide enough
energy to heat the melt pool.
▪ This diminishes wettability and raises melt viscosity.
It inhibits melt dispersion on the solidified layer, generating
▪

▪ PT
unequal interlayer pores. Printed pieces become less dense.
Constant laser scan speed with higher laser power and constant
laser power with lower scan speed enhance the melt temperature to
N
lower viscosity, improve flowability and wettability, and increase
density.
▪ Lower scan speed offers a longer melt period, allowing the melt to
combine with successive layers and heal/minimize sample porosity.
5. Volume of Reinforcing Elements and Pore Formation
▪ Faster solidification of liquid melts causes partial filling of gaps in the

EL
melted area, causing pores.
▪ Melt pool dynamics allow asymmetric solidification due to various
melting and solidifying zones.
With more reinforcing materials, the melt pool's surface tension and
▪

▪ PT
Marangoni flow gradient increase.
As the liquid surface energy diminishes, the liquid melt's instability
causes little droplets to spatter off its front.
More reinforcing elements increase liquid instability and thermos-
N
▪
capillary forces.
▪ During laser scanning, when liquid flow moves from the perimeter to
the middle of the melt, the liquid spheroidizes as it approaches the laser
beam. This makes pores bigger.
▪ Surface tension and melt viscosity become powerful enough to perturb
the melt stream, resulting in heterogeneous heat and mass flow.
5. Volume of Reinforcing Elements and Pore Formation
▪ Melting unsteadiness and balling increase, leading to reduced

EL
solidification density.
▪ Finer TiC-reinforced ferrous composites have less porosity than coarser
ones. Melting point declines with particle size (fact).
At low temperatures, particles combine, resulting in greater density and
▪

▪ PT
lesser porosity, creating a liquid phase.
Before laser melting, reinforcing materials are milled, which causes
dispersion and size variation.
Narrowing the particle size distribution of finer TiC components affects
N
▪
density.
▪ When coarse particles with a rough powder layer undergo laser
melting, the liquid melt's solidification face is interrupted, resulting in
irregular holes.
▪ The reduced surface area of coarse TiC components reduces wettability
between reinforcements and matrix and interfacial bond consistency.
6. Buoyancy Effects and Surface Tension Forces
▪ In laser AM, fluid flow affects the geometry of the melt pool, as do
buoyancy effects and solid/liquid and liquid/gas surface tensions.

EL
▪ Beyond buoyancy force, flow forms are regulated by surface
tensions, which decrease with temperature.
▪ Laser Gaussian energy distribution says the beam’s center has more
energy than its perimeter.
▪

▪
PT
The difference in surface tension causes the melted liquid to flow
from low to high surface tension, causing external flow.
Therefore, Marangoni convection generates thermal capillary force
as the key force to rearrange particles and can be written as
N
(24)
where
Δγ is the difference of surface tension of Marangoni flow (N.m),
L is the length of the free surface (m),
μd is the dynamic viscosity (Pa.s),
D is the diffusion constant of element causing the surface tension difference
 6. Buoyancy Effects and Surface Tension Forces

EL
(a) The influence of
Marangoni flow
(b) TiC particles under
intensified energy
density through LPBF
process,
PT
N
(c) TiC particles are
distributed in γ
matrix,
(d) More grains with
uniformly distributed
TiC particles.

Gu et al. Laser additive manufacturing of nano-TiC reinforced Ni-based nanocomposites with tailored microstructure and performance. Compos. Part B Eng. 2019
6. Buoyancy Effects and Surface Tension Forces

EL
▪ As particle distances drop, Van der Waals forces increase,
intensifying particle clusters.
▪ At increasing energy density, the melt pool temperature rises,
raising the Marangoni flow and capillary force and wettability.

Waals. PT
▪ The combined capillary and thermal forces are greater than Van der

▪ Reinforcing components can't overcome this energy barrier to

N
unite, causing uniform matrix distribution.
▪ Methods that have been used to make metal matrix composites
in the past (MMCs)

EL
▪ Metal Matrix Composites and Additive Manufacturing
▪ AM Difficulties and Changes

PT
▪ Putting together composite materials: mechanical mixing
▪ Ferrous Matrix Composites
▪ Titanium-Matrix Composites (TMCs)
N
▪ Aluminum Matrix Composite
▪ Nickel Matrix Composites
▪ Things that affect composite properties
▪ Try to figure out the advantage of using metal matrix composite
in AM industry

EL
▪ Google and list challenges of printing Metal Matrix composites

PT
N
N
PT
EL