Education: Biology BIO02

ECOLOGY
AND ENVIRONMENT
Dr. John Kiogora Mworia
 Ecology and Environment

Foreword
The African Virtual University (AVU) is proud to participate in increasing access to education
in African countries through the production of quality learning materials. We are also proud
to contribute to global knowledge as our Open Educational Resources (OERs) are mostly
accessed from outside the African continent. This module was prepared in collaboration with
twenty one (21) African partner institutions which participated in the AVU Multinational Project
I and II.

From 2005 to 2011, an ICT-integrated Teacher Education Program, funded by the African
Development Bank, was developed and offered by 12 universities drawn from 10 countries
which worked collaboratively to design, develop, and deliver their own Open Distance
and e-Learning (ODeL) programs for teachers in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Math, ICTs for
teachers, and Teacher Education Professional Development. Four Bachelors of Education
in mathematics and sciences were developed and peer-reviewed by African Subject Matter
Experts (SMEs) from the participating institutions. A total of 73 modules were developed and
translated to ensure availability in English, French and Portuguese making it a total of 219
modules. These modules have also been made available as Open Educational Resources (OER)
on oer.avu.org, and have since then been accessed over 2 million times.

In 2012 a second phase of this project was launched to build on the existing teacher education
modules, learning from the lessons of the existing teacher education program, reviewing the
existing modules and creating new ones. This exercise was completed in 2017.

On behalf of the African Virtual University and our patron, our partner institutions, the African
Development Bank, I invite you to use this module in your institution, for your own education,
to share it as widely as possible, and to participate actively in the AVU communities of practice
of your interest. We are committed to be on the frontline of developing and sharing open
educational resources.

The African Virtual University (AVU) is a Pan African Intergovernmental Organization established
by charter with the mandate of significantly increasing access to quality higher education and
training through the innovative use of information communication technologies. A Charter,
establishing the AVU as an Intergovernmental Organization, has been signed so far by
nineteen (19) African Governments - Kenya, Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Cote d’Ivoire, Tanzania,
Mozambique, Democratic Republic of Congo, Benin, Ghana, Republic of Guinea, Burkina Faso,
Niger, South Sudan, Sudan, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Ethiopia and Cape Verde.

The following institutions participated in the teacher education program of the Multinational
Project I: University of Nairobi – Kenya, Kyambogo University – Uganda, Open University
of Tanzania, University of Zambia, University of Zimbabwe – Zimbabwe, Jimma University
– Ethiopia, Amoud University - Somalia; Université Cheikh Anta Diop (UCAD)-Senegal,
Université d’ Antananarivo – Madagascar, Universidade Pedagogica – Mozambique, East
African University - Somalia, and University of Hargeisa - Somalia

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The following institutions participated in the teacher education program of the Multinational
Project II: University of Juba (UOJ) - South Sudan, University of The Gambia (UTG), University
of Port Harcourt (UNIPORT) – Nigeria, Open University of Sudan (OUS) – Sudan, University of
Education Winneba (UEW) – Ghana, University of Cape Verde (UniCV) – Cape Verde, Institut
des Sciences (IDS) – Burkina Faso, Ecole Normale Supérieure (ENSUP) - Mali, Université
Abdou Moumouni (UAM) - Niger, Institut Supérieur Pédagogique de la Gombe (ISPG) –
Democratic Republic of Congo and Escola Normal Superieur Tchicote – Guinea Bissau

Bakary Diallo

The Rector

African Virtual University

3
 Ecology and Environment

Production Credits
This second edition is the result of the revision of the first edition of this module. The
informations provided below, at the exception of the name of the author of the first edition,
refer to the second edition.

Author
John Kiogora Mworia

Reviewer

AVU - Academic Coordination

Dr. Marilena Cabral

Module Coordinator
Mamadou Sarr

Instructional Designers
Elizabeth Mbasu

Diana Tuel

Benta Ochola

Media Team
Sidney McGregor Michal Abigael Koyier

Barry Savala Mercy Tabi Ojwang

Edwin Kiprono Josiah Mutsogu

Kelvin Muriithi Kefa Murimi

Victor Oluoch Otieno Gerisson Mulongo

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Copyright Notice
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Supported By

AVU Multinational Project II funded by the African Development Bank.

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 Ecology and Environment

Table of Contents
Foreword 2

Production Credits 4

Copyright Notice 5

Supported By 5

Introduction 8

Prerequisite Course or Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Module Rationale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Graphic Organizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Objective(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

General objective(s) 11

Teaching and Learning Activities 13

Assessment of prior knowledge in ecology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Pedagogical Comment For The Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Appendices 17

17

Key concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Compulsory Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Reading 1: Introduction to basic ecology 18

Reading 2: Basic ecology 19

Reading 3: Climatic determinants of global patterns of biodiversity (Douglas

A. Kelt, 2004) 19

Multimedia Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Useful links. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

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Learning Activities: Introduction to Ecological Concepts 25

Specific Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Summary of the learning activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Introduction to the content:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Key concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

List of Compulsory readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

List of optional readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Introduction to the content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

What is ecology? 27

Branches of ecology 27

Basic concepts 28

Biomes and biosphere 28

Types of biomes and their key features 29

Access the internet: Read more about biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Biosphere 31

How do environmental factors influence plant distribution 32

Life form classification 33

Field work: Lifeform classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Learning Activity 2: Population Ecology 36

Specific learning objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Summary of the learning activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Key concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Introduction to the content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Natural selection 38

How does natural selection operate 39

Types of Natural selection 39

Limiting factors 42

4.Interactions between populations 42

Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology 45

Specific Learning Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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 Ecology and Environment

Summary of the learning activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Key concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Introduction to the content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Habitats and Niches 48

Fundamental niche versus realized niche 49

Structure and function of key African vegetation communities 51

Savannas 52

Factors that govern the structure of African savannas 53

Forests in Africa 54

Wetlands in Africa 54

The Mangrove Communities 55

Learning Activity 4 : Ecosystem Ecology 61

Specific Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

Summary of the learning activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Key concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Introduction to the content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Factors That Influence Terrestrial And Aquatic Primary Production. 63

Trophic Levels 65

Trophic structure and ecological pyramids 66

Knowledge application: Distribution of C3, C4 and CAM plants 69

Comprehension: Compare terrestrial and aquatic production 69

Knowledge application: calculating nutrient budgets 70

Learning Activity 5: Natural Resource Conservation 71

Specific Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Summary of the learning activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Key concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Biological Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Principles Of Conservation 74

Habitat Degradation In Africa 75

Synthesis of the Module 78

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Summative Evaluation 79

Answers To Summative Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

References 86

Students Records 87

Main Author of the Module 88

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 Ecology and Environment

Introduction
Prerequisite Course or Knowledge
You should have completed secondary school and have done biology with introduction to
ecology. You should also have meet minimum university entry requirements for a degree

Time
120 hours (84 more)

Materials
To successfully complete this module you should have access to a computer. Internet
connection will be necessary. simple tools to enable you conduct a basic fieldwork will also be
necessary. Some of these material includes tape measure, meter rule, string, quadrat (1X1m),
sweep nets, pitfall traps and markers.

Module Rationale
In this module you will learn how organisms interact with one another and how they interact
with the environment. Key ecological concepts in the organisation of organisms, population
growth and community dynamics which are important components of pre-university ecology
curriculum will be also covered. The module is tailored for delivery using ICT and on
completion you will be ready to design relevant courses in ecology and to undertake further
studies in envi- ronmental sciences.

8
 Introduction

Overview
The module consists of 5 units, each with at least 4 learning activities. First you will be
introduced to ecology by defining its various branches and terminology. You will then learn
how organisms are organised into populations and commu- nities and factors governing their
change over time. Organisms interact with one another in ways that affect their populations
we will therefore study the various types of relationships between populations and their
implications. Having un- derstood how organisms are organised at population and community
levels you will proceed to look at their interaction with the environment by studying two key
ecosystem processes namely the flow of energy and the cycling of nutrients. You will then
apply the ecological concepts learned to analyse the structure and function of key African
vegetation communities. We will conclude our study by assessing ecological effects of human
activity that lead to habitat degradation characterised by deforestation, desertification, and
loss of biodiversity.

Outline

Outline Number of Hours

Unit

1.0 Introduction to ecological concepts 20

2.0 Population ecology 30

3.0 Community ecology 30

4.0 Ecosystem ecology 30

5.0 Natural resource conservation 10

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 Ecology and Environment

Graphic Organizer

10
 Introduction

Objective(s)

General objective(s)

To achieve the specific objectives listed in the following paragraph we have broken down the
general objectives into 3 sections. They are the following;

• Basic concepts in population and community ecology

• The contribution of environmental factors to species distribution
• Basic principles of natural resource conservation

Specific Learning Objectives

(Instructional Objectives)

Unit 1: Introduction to ecological concepts

When you have completed this unit you should be able to;

Define the science of ecology and describe its branches Identify the key components of the
environment both biotic and abiotic

Comprehend how the key environmental components influence species

Unit 2: Population ecology

When you have completed this unit you should be able to;

Comprehend the basic principles of natural selection and speciation

Explain conceptual and mathematical models that describe the growth of populations

Describe types of interactions between populations including competition, predation and

symbiosis.

Unit 3: Community ecology

When you have completed this unit you should be able to;

Describe the structure of communities

Describe stages in plant community dynamics

Characterize the structure and adaptations of key vegetation communities in Africa

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 Ecology and Environment

Unit 4: Ecosystem

When you have completed this unit you should be able to;

Articulate factors that influence terrestrial and aquatic primary produc- tion

Explain the concept of trophic levels in ecosystems

Describe the process of nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems

Unit 5: Natural resource conservation

When you have completed this unit you should be able to;

Define biodiversity and enumerate its measurement indices

Outline common forms of habitat degradation in Africa and methods of restoration

Outline the processes of desertification and global warming

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 Teaching and Learning Activities

Teaching and Learning Activities

Assessment of prior knowledge in ecology
Rationale :Effective learning depends on what one knows about the subject before
attempting to master new material. You are going to a short test to assess your knowledge on
the content of this module.

Questions
1. The term ‘population’ as applied in ecology refers to …

a. Any one individual of one species in one area.

b. Many individuals of many species in many areas.

c. All individuals found in a given area.

d. All individuals of one species in one area.

2. Commensalism is the relationship between two organisms whereby…

a. Both organisms gain from the relationship.

b. Both organisms lose as a result of the relationship.

c. One gains but the other is not affected.

d. One gains while the other loses.

3. Plants require nutrients, what class of nutrients are referred to has

‘macronutrients’?

a. Those extracted from the soil.

b. Those stored in the stem.

c.Those required in large quantities.

d. Those lost through excretion in large quantities

4. What does the term ‘food chain’ in ecology mean?

a. The use of Photosynethically Active Radiation (PAR) to produce food.

b. Illustration of the transfer of food starting with the primary producer.

c. Stages through which nutrients passes before being used to producefood.

d. Illustration of the movement of water in the ecosystem

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 Ecology and Environment

5. Which of the following factors has no effect on plant growth?

a. Amount of nutrients in the troposphere.

b. The prevailing atmospheric temperatures.

c. Amount of water in the soil.

d. Level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

6. When do ecologists consider a species to be extinct?

a. When it can longer be found in the forest.

b. When less than 10 individuals are left.

c. When it migrates away from its original habitat.

d. When it no longer exists on the earth.

7. What is a climax plant community?

a. The plant community at the top of the mountain.

b. The plant community that grows after cutting a forest.

c. The final plant community during succession.

d. The first plant community in the process of succession.

8. Which statement is TRUE about eutophic water bodies?

a. Have Magnesium as the only nutrient.

b. Are poor in nutrients.

c. Have calcium as the only nutrient.

d. Rich in nutrients.

9. What does the term ‘Net Primary Production’ mean, as applied in ecology?

a. Total primary production per annum.

b. Gross primary production plus energy used in respiration.

c. Total primary production per day.

d. Gross primary production less energy used in respiration.

10. What is the role of plant litter in nutrient cycling?

a. Litter does not play any role.

b. Litter acts as a store for nutrients.

c. Transfers nutrients from plants to the soil.

d. Transfers nutrients from the plant to the leafs.

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 Teaching and Learning Activities

11. Species diversity of an area refers to …

a.The total number of individuals in the area.

b. The average number of species in the area.

c. The total number species in the area

d. The total number of individuals of each population.

12. An animal that displays territorial behaviour means that …..

a. It has no home range.

b. It defends part of its home range.

c. It is confined to one habitat.

d. It does not migrate.

Answer Key
1. D: The word population refers to individuals of one species

2. C: This one type of symbiotic relationship

3. C: Some macronutrients include Nitrogen while micronutrients are those

required in small amounts

4. B: An example of a food chain would be grass ‡ antelope‡lion

5. A: The troposphere is outermost layer of the atmosphere of which plants

have no access

6. D: A species extinct when it neither in captivity nor in the wild anywhere on

earth

7. C: The climax community is final product of plant succession and it

represents a stable self-perpuating entity.

8. D: Eutrophic water bodies have high amounts of nutrients especially as

result of agricultural or industrial pollution

9. D: Gross primary production is the total energy captured while net pri- mary
production is that which is left after respiration

10. C: When litter falls it is decomposed releasing nutrients to the soil.

11. C: When considering diversity the total number of species is critical

12. D:Territorial behaviour is whereby an individual animal or group defend a

section of the home range

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 Ecology and Environment

Pedagogical Comment For The Learners

The preassessment is drawn from your secondary biology. The area of community dynamics
which is tested in question 7 is very wide and it’s expected to have been exhaustively covered
in secondary school level. If you score below 60% it is recommended that you review your high
school level biology before proceeding with this module.

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 Appendices

Appendices

Key concepts
Species: A population that is compatible reproductively

Population: a group of individuals belonging to the same

species in geographical area

Community: all individuals in interacting populations in a

given area.

Ecosystem: community of organisms together with the

biotic and abiotic factors that sur- round and interact with
them

Primary Productivity: Rate at which organic matter

is produced or radiant energy is bound, through
photosynthesis per unit area per unit time.

Unit: g m-2 yr-1 or g m-2

Biological Diversity/ Biodiversity”: These terms refer

species richness or species number and genetic variation

Fauna: The term that refers animals in an area collectively

Flora: Plant or bacterial lifeforms or an area

Edemic: A taxa or species that is restricted to certain

geographical area and can not found anywhere else. Such
a species is said to endemic to the area.

Biota: The total aggregation of organisms in a specific.

This includes both plants and animals

Gross Primary Productivity: ( Pg) The total organic matter

created (including that used for respiration) in a unit area
per unit time (g m-2 d-1).

Succession: This is the orderly process of one plant

community gradually or rapidly replacing another. Pioneer
communities modify the habitat making it more for others
to invade which eventually replaces them.

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 Ecology and Environment

Conservation: This is the management of natural resources

aimed at restoration and maintenance of balance between
human demands and requirements of other species.
Conserva- tion can focus on individual species, ecosystems,
biomes or even the biosphere

Compulsory Readings

Reading 1: Introduction to basic ecology

Complete reference : http/en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ecology/introduction

Date visited: 28th August 2006

Abstract :The following abstract was retrieved from the above mentioned refe- rence: Ecology
is the study of animals and plants in their relations to each other and to their environment.
The term oekologie (ecology) was coined in 1866 by the German biologist, Ernst Haeckel
from the Greek oikos meaning “house” or “dwelling”, and logos meaning “science” or
“study”—thus, ecology is the “study of the household of nature”. Ecology is regarded as
multidisciplinary so broad is its potential scope. But we need not, in defining it, get caught up
in its ultimate complexity. Ecology incorporates and overlaps with many other disciplines in
both the biological and physical sciences. Certainly on one level, there is no information about
the natural environment that does not have some applicability to ecology. Ecology is both a
biological and an environmental science, some- thing that should certainly be evident from the
definition provided above. Many environmental sciences are minimally concerned with biology
(meteorology, for example) and others (environmental toxicology, for example) necessarily
combine physical and biological sciences

Rationale:The first chapter of this book gives you a definition of ecology and how it linked to
other sciences. It also gives you a brief history of ecology. This reading is important in that it
helps you understand the scope of ecology.

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 Appendices

Reading 2: Basic ecology

Complete reference : http/en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ecology

Date visited: 28th August 2006

Abstract : Chapter 1 commences by explaining to you the essence of eclology as science: It

(Ecology) is regarded as the study of animals and plants in their relations to each other and to
their environment. The first chapter will explain how ‘oekologie’ (ecology) was coined in 1866
by the German biologist, Ernst Haeckel from the Greek oikos meaning “house” or “dwelling”,
and logos meaning “science” or “study” — thus, ecology is the “study of the household of
nature”. But ecology is also regarded as multidisciplinary - so broad is its potential scope.
Ecology is both a biological and an environmental science, something that should certainly
be evident from the definition provided above. Many environmental sciences are minimally
concerned with biology (meteorology, for example) and others (environmental toxicology, for
example) necessarily combine physical and biological sciences.

You will notice that chapter 2 focuses mainly on the biological organization development
stage covering important issues such as basic definitions, the Gaia Theory and information
on species and habitat (More information on these topics are contained in the second and
third readings to fol- low in this module). We also thought it important for you to become
acquainted with developmental stages associated with environmental response and encou-
rage you to work very carefully through chapters 3 and 4 where these issues are dealt with and
explained. Although the expected outcomes of the module do not necessarily expect from you
to study the rest of the book in great depth, it would be benificial for you to work through its
content and gain a good understanding of the principles and practices underpinning ecology
as science.

Rationale: The inclusion of this book as compulsory reading will give you the foundational
knowledge required to understand ecology as science and also come to terms with the
principles and practices associated with this field of specialisa- tion. It not only defines ecology,
but also explains how it links to other sciences. The reader will also povide you with a brief
history of ecology, and and also explain to you its rules and applications. Knowledge of these
foundations remain fundamental to the practical manifestations of the science.

Reading 3: Climatic determinants of global patterns of biodiversity (Douglas A. Kelt,

2004)

Complete reference: URL : http:www.//marinebio.org/oceans/conservation/ moyle/ch3.asp

Date: August 2006

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 Ecology and Environment

Abstract : I recommend that you read the following sections of this article; Introduction,
earth’s seasons, why does it rain so much in the tropics?, why are deserts located at 30o
latitude. This article gives an analysis of the global distri- bution of biodiversity and shows
the distribution of the major terrestrial systems. Two main classes of factors have led the
distribution of biodiversity at a global scale. The first class are as historical factors while the
second are ecological. Our concern in this module is ecological factors. The article explains
why there is unequal distribution heat on the globe. This includes the spherical nature of the
earth, inclination of the earth’s axis, rotation and revolution. The article also explains the global
variation in rainfall. Finally it links these to variation in biodiversity.

Rationale: The link gives you an assessment of the relationship of climatic factors to the
distribution of plant species distribution. The relationship of physical com- ponents of the
environment to plant distribution is a key objective in this unit.

Multimedia Resources
Resource 1

Complete reference : Jeanne, Robert, Jan Cheetham, and the Transforming Teaching Through
Technology (T4) Project staff. (2006). Evolution/Species and speciation. Retrieved November
2006. http://www.merlot.org/merlot/view- Material.htm?id=83573

Abstract : This tutorial/simulation consists of three topics. In topic 1, students look at 5 frog
populations to decide whether they should be considered separate species using criteria of
three of the species concepts: biological, morphological, and phylogenetic. Students will:
1) describe why species are continuous over time and space; 2) review definitions of three
species concepts with strengths and weaknesses of each; 3) analyze traits to sort populations
into species based on 3 species concepts; and 4) gain familiarity with: 3 species concepts,
phylogenetic trees, and reproductive isolation. In topic 2, students will think about speciation
events at several points along the phylogeny of the plant genus Fuchsia.

Students decide whether vicariance, dispersal, or both are plausible explanations for past and
current distributions. Students will:

1. Interpret phylogenies and geographi- cal distributions to determine

speciation patterns;

2. Integrate understandings of continental drift with speciation;

3. Analyze hypotheses as they seek to explain patterns of speciation; and

4. Become familiar with the terms: allopatry, sympatry, adaptive radiation,

gene flow, vicariance, and polyploidy. In topic 3, students look at speciation
case studies.

Rationale: This multimedia resource takes you through the species concept and speciation
which are key topics in unit 2.0 of this module.

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 Appendices

source 2

Complete reference : Jeanne, Robert, Jan Cheetham, and the Transforming Teaching Through
Technology (T4) Project staff. (2006). Evolution/Species and speciation. Retrieved November
2006. http://www.merlot.org/merlot/view- Material.htm?id=83565

Abstract : This simulation/tutorial consists of three topics. In topic 1, students conduct a study
of a zebra mussel population in a fictitious lake and present their findings during a virtual
teleconference. Students will:

1. Review qualitative des- criptions of growth curves for the exponential and
logistic models, selecting one to test at the lake;

2. Collect and plot data, and determine which of the models the data fits;

3. Answer questions about populations at other localities by calculating rmax,

t, and N using their data. In topic 2, students review the math and biology
behind the logistic growth model with the help of a fish population. Students
will:

• Complete interactive explorations of density-dependence and carrying capacity,

the difference between r (realized intrinsic rate of increase or per capita, growth
rate), rmax, (maximum intrinsic rate of increase and dN/dt (population growth
rate), how growth rate changes over time while r decreases; and
• Summarize and compare properties of exponential and logistic growth. In topic
3, students follow the growth of the Kruger National Park elephant population
from 1903- 1996. While following the history of the population, students calculate
values using the logistic equation. Students will complete a case study in which
they:

1) learn the biological and sociopolitical history of the KNP elephants;

2) calculate dN/dt, N, and 1-(N/K) over time; 3) explain how assumptions of logistic growth
affect the shape of the curve; and 4) evaluate how well the KNP population fits the logistic
model.

Rationale: This resource discusses in detail the logistic growth model an impor- tant aspect in
population ecology covered in unit 2.0.

Useful links
Useful Link 1:Ecosystems

Complete reference : http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ecosystems

Date: August 2006

21
 Ecology and Environment

Description: In attempting to understand any interactive, complex system, especially one

as elaborate as even a simple ecosystem, it is helpful to break the system down into various
component parts. By this mental process we can arrive at some understanding of the
specific system and can make comparisons with other systems to further our understanding
of ecosystems in general. An ecosys- tem consists of many component structures and this
function together in various ways, suggesting an initial approach to describe any ecosystem is
to consider separately its structural and functional aspects

Rationale: This brief article gives shows how the interrelationship of organisms and resources
are critical to ecosystem. It also explains the importance of physical conditions in which the
organisms live. It also shows that physical conditions can also be from biotic sources such the
modification microclimate by forests. Finally the article shows how you divide the ecosystem
into its functional components (abiotic components, producers, consumers and decomposers)

Useful Link 2: Title : Resources

Complete reference : http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Biology/Contents/ Index/ES/

Ecosystems/Resources/Biotic_%28living%29_and_Abiotic_%28non- living%29_resources

Date: August 2006

Description: Describes the biotic and abiotic resources of the earth and examines trends and
impacts of human exploitation

Rationale: This article gives you a good indication of the serious negative impact of
uncontrolled or overexploitation of resources

Resource 3: Ecosystems (2)

Complete reference :

Description: The article defines the term ecosystems, its components and func- tions. It also
gives examples including some from Africa such as Sibanya in Kwazulu Natal

Date: August 2006

Rationale: The article will broaden your understanding of key concepts in ecology and how
they apply in Africa.

Useful Link 4 : Low pressure

Complete reference : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_pressure_area

Date: August 2006

Description: This is a one page article that basically defines and explains the phenomena Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

22
 Appendices

Rationale: The ITCZ as a great influence on rainfall patterns in Africa. Some sections of Africa
such as much of East Africa receive bi-modal rainfall that is two rainfall seasons per year. Other
parts have a unimodal rainfall pattern such as South Africa. We have seen that environmental
factors such as rainfall influence the distribution and abundance of species hence the
importance of understanding the ITCZ.

Useful Link 5: Principles of ecology

Complete reference : http://www.marinebio.org/oceans/conservation/

Date: August 2006

Description: The article begins defines populations, communities, and bios- phere. It dwells
largely on ecological interdependence and the role fire. Fire is important in natural ecosystems
because it influences composition and struc- ture of vegetation communities.

Rationale: In this article it is shown that not only are environmental factors such soils, climate
and water important in influencing plant distribution but also events such as fire and other
human activities.

Useful Link 6 : Peppered moth

Complete reference : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppered_moth

Date: August 2006

Description: The peppered moth (Biston betularia) is a temperate species of night-flying moth
often used by educators as an example of natural selection. The first carbonaria morph was
recorded by Edleston in Manchester in 1848, and over the subsequent years it increased in
frequency. This evolution was attributed to natural selection.

Rationale: The article takes you through the Peppered moth study to illustrate natural selection
and distinguishes it from genetic drift. The article also re- views views forwarded by critics of
the theory.

Useful Link 7 : Habitats

Complete reference : http://www.panda.org/news_facts/education/university/ habitats/index.

cfm

Date: August 2006

Description: The site contains adequate description of the worlds major habitats categorised
into terrestrial, fresh water and marine. Our interest here is mainly terrestrial habitats which
range tundra, temperate forests, tropical forests, and grasslands

Rationale: The articles describe the structure, patterns of biodiversity and environ- mental
characteristics which is important in our study of community structure.

23
 Ecology and Environment

Useful Link 8 : Mangroves

Complete reference : www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/ss1/WCMC- angrovesv11_1.

pdf

Date: August 2006

Description: The article describes structure and composition, the fauna, the threats and the
future of mangroves. It lays particular emphasizes on East African mangroves. It is however
appreciated that the general trend in threats is similar across Africa.

Rationale: Mangroves are an important marine community in Africa. They have multiple uses
and play a key role in the livelihoods of many coastal peoples.

Useful Link 9: Habitat Conservation

Complete reference : http://marinebio.org/Oceans/Conservation/Moyle/ch7. asp

Date: August 2006

Description: The article dwells on the niche theory and the habitat. It differentiates various
concepts of the niche and distinguishes them from the habitat. It describes factors that
influence the distribution of species and their implications on conser- vation. It finally relates
the concepts of the niche and habitat to conservation.

Rationale: The article is great in reinforcing your understanding of the niche theory and how it
relates to conservation. Thus even though the niche theory and conservation are covered as
separate topics in our learning activities this article will help interlink.

24
 Learning Activities: Introduction to Ecological Concepts

Learning Activities: Introduction

to Ecological Concepts
Specific Objectives
1. Define the science of ecology and describe its branches

2. Identify the key components of the environment both biotic and abiotic

3. Comprehend how the key environmental components influence species

distribution

Summary of the learning activity

In this activity, I firstly provide an introduction to the topic by defining ecology and its branches,
components of the environment and basic concepts of ecology. You will do a number of
activities to help you understand the topic better. The unit is organised as follows;

Introduction to the content:

1. What is ecology,

• Levels of organization
• Branches of ecology
• Basic concepts

2. Access the Internet: Read more about Biomes

3. Writing Assignment: Effects of unequal distribution of heat on species

distribution

4. Fieldwork: Conduct a Life form Classification exercise in a natural community

25
 Ecology and Environment

Key concepts
Ecology: is defined as the science that deals with the
interrelationships of animals, plants and the environment.

Levels of organization of organisms are; individual,

population and community

The main branches ecology can broadly divided into four;

Ecophysiology, Populaton Ecology, Community Ecology,
Ecosystem Ecology and Landscape Ecology.

The ecosystem: is the interacting system comprising of

community of organisms and their non-living physical
environment.

The components of the environment: can be divided

into biotic and abiotic

Physical-chemical components: of the environment

influence species distributionand diversity through its
effects on plant growth and functioning.

Form and structure: of living things is highly correlated to

their adaptations to the environment.

Key words

Synecology, Autecology, Environment, Ecosystem, Biome, Life form

List of Compulsory readings

1. Wikipedia. (2006). Ecosystems. Retrieved October 20 from http://
en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Ecosystems

2. WWF. (2006). Habitats. Retrieved September 2006 from http://www.panda.

org/news_facts/education/university/habitats/index.cfm

3. Wikipedia. (2006). Biomes. Retrieved September 2006 from http://

academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/Biome

4. Douglas, A. K. (2004). Climatic determinants of global patterns of biodiversity.

In P.Moyle & D. Kelt (Eds.), Essays of wildlife conservation Retrieved
September 20, 2006 from http://marinebio.org/Oceans/Conservation/
Moyle/ch3.asp

26
 Learning Activities: Introduction to Ecological Concepts

5. Wikipedia. (2005). Intertropical Convergence Zone. Retrieved October 20

from http://www.answers.com/topic/intertropical-convergence-zone-1

6. Wikipedia. (2005). Low pressure. Retrieved October 20 from http://www.

answers. com/topic/low_pressure_area

List of optional readings

1. Chapman, J.L., & Reiss, M.A. (1999). Ecology: principles and applications.
Cambridge University Press.

2. Berg, L.R. (1997). Introductory Botany: Plants, People and the Environment.
Harcourt, Inc.

3. Chapman, J.L. & M.A. Reiss. (1999).Ecology: principles and applications.

Cambridge University Press.

4. Beeby, A. & A. Brennan. 2003. First ecology. Oxford University Press

pp352.019926124

5. Barbour, M.G., J.H. Burk & W.D. Pitts. (1980). Terrestrial Plant Ecology. The
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.

Introduction to the content

What is ecology?

You have observed that many animals including man rely on plants for their food while some
even use plants as their homes. Similarly you might have seen reports to the effect that
livestock overstocking or too many animals in an area lead to soil erosion or degradation.
Ecology is the science that deals with interactions of animals and plants in their natural
environments. This interactions affect abun- dance and distribution of organisms. The term
ecology is derived from words ‘oikos’, which means home or habitat and logos meaning study.

Levels of organization

In studying ecology we will view organisms to be organized at 3 main levels, which can be
briefly stated as individual, population and community.

The individual is the fundamental unit of populations, communities, ecosystems and biomes.

A population is composed of all the members of a single species that occupy a particular area

A biological community consists of all populations of different species of organisms that exist
together in an area.

Branches of ecology

Ecology is broad and is considered a multi-disciplinary subject since it encom- passes the
interrelationships of the organism and its environment that requires an input from other
branches of science such as geography, meteorology, soil science etc.

27
 Ecology and Environment

Ecophysiology (or Physiological ecology) when referring to plants and behavioural ecology in
the case animals deals with adaptations of the individual. It may for example involve studies in
tolerance limits and phenology

Autecology or population ecology concentrates on one species. it deals with aspects of

population size and dynamics, breeding behaviour and speciation.

Community ecology or synecology concentrates on studies at the community level. It has

several branches some of which include paleoecology that is the study plant communities in he
geologic past and community dynamics that is the change of communities over time.

Ecosystem ecology here ecologist studies the processes that involve communities and the
environment such nutrient cycling and the flow of.

Landscape ecology is the broadest and focuses interrelationships and processes that across
ecosystems.

Learning tip: you will come across terms such as insect ecology, animal ecology etc. This are
terms that describe various specializations in ecology and fall into one or more of the basic
branches of ecology.

Basic concepts

Ecosystems

The ecosystem concept is central in the study of ecology. We have already defined a
community, ecosystem is more inclusive term and encompasses a community and its
environment. An ecosystem therefore includes interactions among the organisms of the
community as well as interactions between organisms and their physical environment. An
ecosystem ecologist may for example study the relationship between soil salinity and species
distribution in a swamp. Thus the swamp is the ecosystem. How big is an ecosystem? An
ecosystem could be of variable size, for example a forest could be studied as one ecosystem
but also a decomposing log in the forest could also be studied as an ecosystem. There are two
very important processes that link the components of the ecosystem this are energy flow and
nutrient cycling in the ecosystem.

In course of this module we will take a detailed look at each of the components and processes
of the ecosystem.

Biomes and biosphere

A biome in terrestrial ecology is next level of organization above the community and
ecosystem. The biome is large and relatively distinct region characterized by a particular
combination of soils, plants, animals and climate. The characte- ristics should be largely
wherever the specific biome occurs in the world. The boundaries of the biome largely
coincide with climate barriers with temperature and precipitation being the most important
determinants. Temperature is the most important factor towards the poles while precipitation is
more important temperate and tropical regions.

28
 Learning Activities: Introduction to Ecological Concepts

Learning tip: On how many biomes are there?

Ecologists do not seem to agree on how many biomes there are. This is not suprising since
the ‘biome’ is not a natural unit e.g such as a species, therefore, there is no definitive list of
the earths biomes. Different authors and text will give different classifications and numbers of
biomes.

Types of biomes and their key features

1. Tundra: The north most biome. From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tundra It exists

in the north most latitudes it is exposed to long harsh winters and very short
summers. It is dominated by mosses, lichens, grasses and sedges

2. Taiga: This is south of the tundra and is dominated conifers. It is also referred to
as boreal forest. It is a huge evergreen in Northern America and Northern Europe.
Dominate plants consist of spruce, fir and pine

3. Temperate Rain forest: This is biome consists of a coniferous forest that

occurs in the mid latitudes where annual precipitation is high, cool weather
and dense fog.

4. Temperate Deciduous forest: Here summers are hot, winters are pronounced
and annual precipitation is 750-1250mm. It is dominated by a dense canopy
of broad leaved trees with an undergrowth of saplings and shrubs.

5. Temperate grasslands: This biome occurs in the mid latitudes where

precipitation is moderate. The dominant vegetation is grasses. This is also
referred to as prairie in North America, steppe in Eurasia and veld in south
Africa

6. Chaparral: This biome occurs on temperate environments with plenty of

rainfall combined with mild winters and dry summers. This typically called
the Mediter- ranean climate but also occurs in other parts of the world. It is
characterised by thickets of evergreen shrubs and small trees.

7. Desert: This biome occurs where there is very little rainfall. Deserts occur
in all the continents mostly along the Tropic of Capricon and the Tropic of
Cancer. The worlds largest is the Sahara Desert while the Atcama Desert in
Chile is the driest.

29
 Ecology and Environment

8. Savannah: This s tropical grassland with scattered trees. Africa has the
world’s largest savannah but is also found in South America, Australia and
India. The African savannah is rich wildlife and is largely used by pastoralists.

Savannah

9. Tropical rain forest: This biome occurs where the temperatures are warm
throu- ghout the year and precipitation is high and uniformly distributed.
The soils are nutrient poor and most trees are evergreen flowering plants.

Tropical forest

10. Alpine grasslands: These are associated with the climate high up on
mountains. As we shall see in unit 3.0 the climate here is challenging to plant
life as result of low temperatures, high incoming shortwave radiation among
other factors. They occur on in New Guinea and East Africa, paramo in
South America, , steppes of the Tibetan plateaus and other similar subalpine
habitats around the world.

Alpine grassland

30
 Learning Activities: Introduction to Ecological Concepts

Note: We will study the structure and function of key plant communities in Africa in greater
detail in Unit 3.0.

Access the internet: Read more about biomes

Visit the sites given below and review

WWF. (2006). Habitats. Retrieved September 2006 from http://www.panda.org/ news_facts/

education/university/habitats/index.cfm (Read section on terrestrial habitats)

Wikipedia. (2006).http://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/Biome (read sections on

Tundra, Taiga and Rainforests)

Self-assessment

What are the trends in soil fertility across the biomes

What are the trends in biodiversity? Is there any relationship with latitude, temperature and
precipitation

Biosphere

The biosphere consists all communities of the earth that includes all organisms. The biosphere
interacts with atmosphere, hydrosphere which is earth’s water supply and lithosphere which is
the soil and rock

Abiotic and Biotic components of the environment

You have heard the term environment being used widely, the term simply refers to the
surrounding. It is therefore a complex of many factors that interact not only with the organisms
but also among themselves. The environment includes aspects of the soil and climate and it
is of great importance to an ecologist be- cause it influences plant growth and development
hence determines distribution and abundance

We can divide the environment into two major components; Physical/chemical and Biological.
Some components of the environment are given below

Physical-chemical Biological

Radiation Fauna and flora including

Temperature Trees, grasses and shrubs

Surface and ground water Decomposers

Gases and Wind Birds, reptiles and mammals

Soils/Nutrients Parasites

Geology Symbionts

Topography

31
 Ecology and Environment

How do environmental factors influence plant distribution

Most of the physical-chemical environmental factors listed above can influence plant
distribution and abundance. Here I will briefly discuss the effect of tempe- rature on
distribution and abundance ( For the others especially radiation, water and topography you will
find references in the reading section)

Temperature

Temperature is indication of the amount of heat energy in the system. Temperature is closely
related to radiation this is because a great percentage of solar radiation (>70%) absorbed
by the plants is converted into heat energy. Plants unlike us cannot regulate their own
temperature effectively hence they tend to assume the temperature of the environment.
We therefore refer to them as poikilothermic or Lectothermic organisms. That is their body
temperature changes markedly with the changes in external temperature

Plants in varying temperature conditions will have various adaptations. For exam- ple some
plants in the alpine zone of high mountains will have trunks covered by a dense layer of dead
dry leaves to insulate their inner tissues. In unit 3 we shall look in more details on various plant
adaptations to temperature

Temperature strongly influences the growth and functioning of plants by regulating rates of
numerous physical and biochemical processes such transpiration, pho- tosynthesis, respiration
and other metabolic processes. Normally plant growth is halted at temperatures close 0°C and
increases rapidly with a rise in temperature up to an optimum range of 20-30°C . Beyond the
optimum range of temperatures the growth rate begins to level out and subsequently begins
to decline.

3. Writing Assignment: Effects of unequal distribution of heat on species

distribution

You will do this writing assignment based material given in learning activity 1.1 and the
references given to you below

• Douglas, A. K. (2004). Climatic determinants of global patterns of biodive- risty.

In P.Moyle & D. Kelt (Eds.), Essays of wildlife conservation Retrieved September
20, 2006 from http://marinebio.org/Oceans/Conservation/Moyle/ ch3.asp (Read
sections; Introduction, Earth’s seasons, Why does it rain so much in the tropidcs,
and Why are deserts generally located at about 30° latitude?)
• Wikipedia. (2005).Intertropical Convergence Zone . Retrieved September 20,
2006 from http://www.answers.com/topic/intertropical-convergence- zone-1
• Wikipedia. (2005). Low pressure. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from http://www.
answers.com/topic/low_pressure_area
• Write a brief essay (600-800 words) titled: Effects of unequal distribution of heat
on plant distribution and diversity

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 Learning Activities: Introduction to Ecological Concepts

In your essay make sure you adress the following issues

• Nature of solar radiation, its composistion and how its partioned on reaching the
earth’s troposphere
• Causes of unequal distribution of heat on globe
• The Inter tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and its influence on the rainfall
pattern of Africa, unimodal and bimodal rainfall

Mt. Kilimanjoro

Life form classification

Adaptations to environmental conditions are primarily reflected by form and structure

living things. The study of form and structure in the natural plant communities is termed as
Physiognomy.

In the sections above we have seen the extremes of envionmental conditions experienced
in the different biomes. There are many types of plant classification systems e.g. habitat
classification, functional classification etc, however in this activity let look at one that links
physionomy to climate.

Christen Raunkiaer a Danish botanist used growth forms that had some adaptive value as a
means of quantitatively relating vegetation structure to climate. We now refer to this as Life
forms. Raunkiaer used a single principle characteristic that is the height of the perennating
tissue from the ground surface. A pe- rennating tissue is defined as the embryonic
(meristematic) tissue that remains inactive during adverse spells (winter and dry season) and
then resumes growth with the return of favourable conditions (spring, summer or rainy season).
Pe- rennating tissues include buds, seeds, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs etc. That means the position
which you see the flower or fruit is an indication of the perennating tissue height.

We know that the perennating organ makes it possible for the plants to survive during
unfavourable seasons, therefore, the location of this tissue is an essential feature of the plants
adaptation to climate. The harsher the climate the lesser the plant species are likely to have
buds far above the ground surface where they will fully exposed to the cold or drying power of
the atmosphere.

33
 Ecology and Environment

This tells us that species with exposed perennating organs will be more prevalent in wet and
warm climates than cold or dry climates. On the other hand adaptations to winter climate or
dry season of varying severity is achieved by life forms in which the perennating organs are
borne closer to the ground or buried in the soil. The extreme case is represented by annuals
which survive only in the highly resistant form of dormant seeds

Let us now look at the major life form categories developed by Christen Raun- kiaer

• Phanerophytes –These are aerial plants for example trees, shrubs and lianas with
the perennating organs (buds) >25cm above the ground.
• Epiphytes – These are aerial plants with no roots in the soil and are sup- ported
by other trees and shrubs, thus they are mainly parasites.
• Hemicryptophytes –These are perennial herbs and grasses with the perennating
tissue on or just below the soil surface.
• Chamaephytes – These are small or dwarf shrubs, herbs, mosses or ferns with the
perennating bud 0-25cm from the ground
• Cryptophytes – These are plants with the perennating bud under the soil or water.
water.
• Therophytes – These are annuals or ephermerals that survive unfavourable
seasons as seeds. For example seasonal grasses.

After you classify plants in particular community you then develop a life form spectrum.. When
you convert the numbers of species in each of the life forms categories in a community or
geographic area into percentages, then you have a life forms spectrum.

Field work: Lifeform classification

You will now condudct a practical to enable you relate climatic factors to vege- tation type.

Procedure:

Identify a location in your area with natural vegetation, that is, one that has not been greatly
disturbed. Disturbance here means cuting of trees or agriculture

Walk through the area and identify all the species, where you do not know the species name
use an appropriate symbol. Do not count a species more than once.

Allocate each species into its appropriate lifeform catergory. For most spe- cies this may be
determined by direct observation of its height and posistion of perennating bud or flower.

Tabulate your results to show the total of species in each life catergory and then express as a
percentage (e.g if you identified 10 annual grasses which are therophytes and total number of
species was 40 then lifeform catergory will read 25)

34
 Learning Activities: Introduction to Ecological Concepts

Fill your results in the table below

Questions:

• Using the data presented above and your data can you identify any rela- tionship
between the environmental variables and vegetation type
• What biome do you think your area falls into?
• What area would expect the highest frequency of phanerophytes?, thero- phytes?,
hemicryptophytes?

35
 Ecology and Environment

Learning Activity 2: Population

Ecology
Specific learning objectives
1. Comprehend the basic principles of natural selection and speciation

2. Explain conceptual and mathematical models that describe the growth of

populations

3. Describe types of interactions between populations including competition,

predation and symbiosis.

Summary of the learning activity

In this activity, you are introduced to the topic by explaining the theories of natural selection,
speciation, population growth and interaction between populations. You will also conduct a
number of activities to help you understand the topic.

The activities that you will conduct in this unit are organized as follows:

1. Introduction to the content.

• Natural selection
• Speciation
• Population growth
• Interaction between populations

2. Case study: Access Internet to review natural selection in peppered moth.

3. Knowledge application: Use an hypothetical case of turtles to predict effects

of environmental change on speciation

4. Listing and problem solving: What barriers lead to genetic isolation?

5. Case study: Access internet to review symbiosis and its linkage to evolution

36
 Learning Activity 2: Population Ecology

Key concepts
Natural selection: is the process that leads to adaptation
of a population to its environment, the modern concept
emphasizes differential reproduction rather than survival

There are 3 types of natural selection namely stabilizing

selection, directional selection and diversifying selection.

Speciation takes place when a section of the population is

isolated over a long period of time and diverges sufficiently
to become a distinct species Isolation barriers that lead
to speciation could be due to genetic isolation, geo-
graphical isolation or extremities in climatic differences.

Exponential growth model: describes the growth of

population in the absence of resource limitation

The logistic growth model: describes the of a population

with limiting factors. The equilibrium density is K or the
carrying capacity that cannot be exceeded permanently.

Interaction between species: can classified into

competition, predation and symbiosis. Symbiotic
relationships can be further classified into ammensalism,
mutualism, parasitism, or commensalism.

Key words

Natural selection, speciation, population growth, symbiosis

List of compulsory readings

• Wikipedia. (2006).Peppered moth. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppered_moth
• Farabee, M.J. ( 2001).Biological diversity. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from
http://www.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookpopecol.html
• Wikipedia. (2006). Symbiosis. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis

37
 Ecology and Environment

List of optional readings

• Chapman, J.L. and M.A. Reiss. 1999.Ecology: principles and applications.

• Cambridge University Press.
• Beeby, A. & A. Brennan. 2003. First ecology. Oxford University Press Barbour,
M.G., J.H. Burk & W.D. Pitts. (1980). Terrestrial Plant Ecology.
• Wiens, J.A. and M.R. Moss. (2005). Issues and perspectives in landscape ecology.
Cambridge University Press 404pp.
• Ranta, E., P. Lundberg & V. Kaitala. (2006). Ecology of populations. Cambridge
University Press 388pp.

Introduction to the content

In this activity you will study the key concepts of population ecology. We will start by looking
at natural selection that is the process that ensures individual organisms with favourable traits
are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with unfavourable traits. We will then
look at the theory of speciation that is the process that leads to development of new species.
Population size is not static, we will look at models of population growth. To conclude the
learning activity you will learn the types of interrelationship that exist between populations that
include competition, predation and symbiosis.

Natural selection

The theory of natural selection was put forward by Charles Darwin and articulated in his 1859
book titled ‘On the origin of species by means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life’. This is basically the process that results in adaptation
of a population to the biotic and abiotic environments. Darwin described natural selection as
process by which well- adapted individuals are selected by natural processes against the poorly
adapted ones. The core of the concept is that well-adapted individuals or species survive to
reproduce and contribute to the population gene pool. What this essentially means is that only
the fittest survive. Survival for the fittest is manifested through competition for critical resources
essential for survival of an individual. Note that Natural selection occurs within and between
species that share the same space or resource.

The modern concept of natural selection emphasizes differential reproduction rather than
differential survival. In this view factors that bring about differences in reproductive success
or the number of surviving offspring contribute to na- tural selection of species. Factors that
contribute to differential reproduction are survival, longevity (life span), fertility, competition,
sexual selection (whereby in some species the female can produce males in good times and
more females in bad times). Other factors include behavioural patterns such restricted habitats
or selective feeding.

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 Learning Activity 2: Population Ecology

How does natural selection operate

Individuals in a population are unique except when a zygote (fertilized egg) splits to produce
identical twins or in non-sexual reproduction whereby clones are produced. Thus there is
genetic diversity within the population of a species. This is necessary for natural selection to
occur. Natural selection occurs when a selective pressure such as an environmental condition
selects for certain cha- racteristics of individuals and selects against those of others.

Types of Natural selection

There are 3 types of natural selection

Stabilizing selection

This acts against extreme variants thus favouring intermediate phenotype. This type of
selection reduces variation and improves the adaptation of a population to aspects of the
environment that remain relatively constant (Blake et al.2002). For example, studies have
shown that in human babies mortality tends to be high in babies weighing 1.5kg and 4.5kg,
with the optimum birth weight being 3.4 kg.

Directional selection

This is common when there is environmental change taking place. This type natural selection
favours phenotypes at one extreme over the other and results in the distribution curve of
phenotypes shifting in that direction (Blake et al.2002). For example directional selection shift
took place in the horse as it evolved from the size of a dog adapted to forests to its current size
adapted to grasslands.

Diversing (Disruptive)selection

Takes place when the extremes of phenotypic differences are favoured relative to intermediate
phenotypes. A good example is adaptive changes in body shape as we see in stick insects
(Praying mantis) and butterflies.

Speciation

Dispersal of offspring leads to plants and animals changing their location over time through
the of their offspring. It is possible that a section or several sections of the population may be
isolated from each other for many generations. The isolated section of the population becomes
adapted to its environment. This leads to species exhibiting local adaptations and phenotypic
traits are known as races. Populations that have been isolated may diverge sufficiently to
become distinct species and hence, cannot interbreed with the original population. Forms of
bar- riers include genetic isolation that could be due to lack of compatible partners. Secondly
geographical barriers such as oceans Mountains that separate parts of a single population.
Thirdly large differences in temperature or moisture between areas. Large changes in climate
between wet and dry or cold and hot periods.

39
 Ecology and Environment

Population growth

Populations of living organisms including human beings are dynamic: they are always changing.
What processes account for change in population size?. We shall population growth in two
situations.

a.The first is the hypothetical situation of population growing with all resources available and
no limitation and the

b. Population growth in the realistic situation of growth with resources limited.

Unlimited population growth

The key processes include birth and immigration (movement of individuals into the population),
both of which lead to expansion in size. Secondly there is death and emigration (movement
out of the population). This factors can expressed in a word equation as

The birth rate and death rate are often collectively called vital rates of the popu- lation. The net
growth rate is equal to the birth rate minus the death rate. Simple expressions of the vital rates

Birth rate(b)= Number of births per unit time/Average population

Death rate(d)=Number of deaths per unit time/Average population

Growth rate (r)=Number of births-number of deaths/average population in time interval

The actual change in population numbers (ðN) over any span of ime (ðt) is equal rN. If r were
constant, the population growth would be exponential (see Figure 1a)

Farabee, M.J. ( 2001).Biological diversity. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from http://www.
estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookpopecol.html

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 Learning Activity 2: Population Ecology

Figure 1a : Shows population might grow if resources are un-limited resources Figure 1b:
Shows how a population might grow where food or resources are limited

The exponential growth model allows us to calculate population growth rates that do not
follow simple binary fission. The equation for this model can be stated as follows

Where e = base of natural logarithms (=2.718) and r = a constant for a particular

population under specific environmental conditions.

The value r is different for every species and it is known as the biotic potential or the intrinsic
rate of natural increase of a population in the optimum environment for the species. The
intrinsic rate of natural increase (r) can be easily calculated when natality and mortality rates are
known, e.g if a population has natality=0.028 and mortality=0.008 then r= 0.028 – 0.008 per
year =0.02 per year

No population can exponentially very long and r is never constant. Because r is the difference
between birth and death rate, changes can result from variation in either or both of those rates.

Limited growth

For many organisms the birth rate and death rates are related to population den- sity. If
the density is high, the birth rate is low, because of inadequate nutrition and other factors
associated with crowding. Thus the population will tend to grow exponentially at first but will
encounter a limiting factor that will cause the exponential growth to stop. The population
growth slows and may eventually stabilizes at a fairly constant population size within some
range of fluctuation. This model fits the logistic growth model (see figure 1b). The logistic
growth model is characterised by an equilibrium density or carrying capacity represented by K.

Using differential calculus the equation is represented as dN/dt=rN(K-N/K)

Where r=biotic potential or intrinsic rate of natural increase and represents the growth of the
population without resource limitation, K= the carrying capacity, dN/dt = change in population
size with time.

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 Ecology and Environment

Limiting factors

What factors limit the growth a population leading population stabilization around a range?
(see Figure 2). The factors can be broadly divided into physical environment and biological
environment. The categories are collectively referred to as environmental resistance. Lets look
at some of them.

1.Physical

1. Availability of raw materials: e.g plants require nitrates to produce protein

while water is required for transport

2. Space availability

3. Light in the case of plants

4. Shetler

5. Accumulation of waste.

2.Biological

Organisms in natural environment will always interact with one another, this interactions include
competition, predation and symbiosis. This interactions that can act as limiting factors are
discussed in detail in the next section (2.1.4)

Shortcomings of the model

Contrary to expectations the logistic growth model is common in natural popu- lations. This
because the model makes the following assumptions

That the environment is constant, therefore r and k are constant. This is not true since the
environment changes constantly.

That growth is continuous and age structure does not change. This not true because
population growth is not continuous and its age structure changes with successive generations.

That requirements and responses of individuals to density are the same. This is not true since
the two attributes vary with age and sex.

It follows therefore that the logistic model cannot be directly employed to predict population
change in natural communities

4.Interactions between populations

No species exists independent of other organisms. Species interact with one another in variety
of ways. The interactions can be within a species referred to intraspecific or between different
species referred to as interspecific. Predation, competition and symbiosis are the main types of
interactions among species in an ecosystem.

42
 Learning Activity 2: Population Ecology

Competition

Competition occurs between two organisms when they require a single resource that is usually
in limited supply. Competition can be either intraspecific or in- terspecific

Predation

Predation is the consumption of one species (the prey) by another (the preda- tor). This
includes herbivores eating grass and carnivores eating other animals. Predation has an
important role in evolution as predators develop more efficient strategies to catch the prey and
the prey develops better strategies to escape.

Symbiosis

Symbiosis describes an association between individuals of two or more species. The partners
in this relationship are called symbionts. The types of symbiosis ca be classified as; mutualism,
commensalism and parasitism. Theoretically popu- lations may interact in combinations that
are; beneficial (+), detrimental (-) or have no effect (0). This can be summarised as follows:

Amensalism - 0 Population 1 is inhibited while 2 is not

affected

Parasitism + - Population 1, the parasite benefits

and is generally smaller than 2

Commensalism + affected 0 Population 1, the commensal gains, the

host population 2 is not

Mutualism + - The interaction is favourable to both

populations

Case study:Peppered moth

Review the classical peppered moth(Biston betularia) study which shows how the proportions
of some inherited charateristics in population change in response to changes in the
environment

Wikipedia. (2006).Peppered moth. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/

wiki/Peppered_moth Formative evaluation

Did individuals change color in their lifetime

Explain the term ‘selective pressure’

Knowledge application: environmental change and speciation

Global climate change is leading to ocean currents that are consistently colder. Take an
hypothetical case of a water turtle in the East African coast. Discuss possible shifts in its
population in relation to their body fat. Consider successful reproduction, directional shift ,and
number of alleles for higher body fat in the population.

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 Ecology and Environment

Listing and problem solving: Genetic isolation

1. List possible barriers that can lead to genetic isolation

2. The afroalpine flora of East and Central Africa was found to have a very high degree of
endemism (80% of the taxa) in view of what have learnt in this activity discuss possible causes

Case study: Symbiosis

To understand the symbiotic relationships you will review documented studiesbon Symbiotic
relationships

Wikipedia. (2006). Symbiosis. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Symbiosis

Formative evaluation

Is the relationship between the oxpecker and the buffulo parasitic or mu- tualistic, explain.

What is the linkage between symbiosis and evolution.

44
 Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology

Learning Activity 3: Community

Ecology
Specific Learning Objectives
1. Determine and describe the structure of communities

2. Describe stages in plant community dynamics

3. Characterize the structure and adaptations of key vegetation communities

in Africa

Summary of the learning activity

In this activity, you are provided with an introduction to the topic by explaining the concepts
community structure and dynamics, after which we take look at the structure and function of
key vegetation communities in Africa. Activities to help you understand the topic are structured
as follows;

1. Introduction to the content

• Habitats and niches

• Community structure
• Community dynamics
• Structure and function of key African vegetation communities

2. Field practical to determine structure of a plant community

3. Case study: Ecological succession

4. Writing assignment: Description of various types of savannas

5. Reading Internet: Types and distribution of forests in Africa.

6. Literature search. The distribution and uses of mangroves in Africa

7. Writing assignment: Factors that influence zonation of mangrove swamps

45
 Ecology and Environment

Key concepts
Habitat : indicates where a species dwells while niche
refers to its func- tional role and position. Fundamental
niche refers to its niche in the absence of competition while
realized niche is its niche in the presence of competition.

Community structure: is term community attributes

such as composition, abun- dance or density, frequency,
and additionally dominance and canopy structure plant
communities

Ecological succession: is directional and cumulative

change in species over time culminating in climax plant
community.

Structure in plants: is closely linked to function hence

structural adaptations are related to adapting to
environmental constrains.

The afroalpine zone: has low temperature, intense short

radiation and drought conditions are the main challenges.
Plants have adapted by having shiny leaf surfaces,
pubescence, leaf rosettes etc.

African savannah types: consist various proportions

of grass and woody plants ranging from bushland to
wooded grasslands. The structure of African savannas is
mainly governed by factors such grazing, fire and shifting
cultivation.

A forest: is a formation of trees forming a continuous

canopy of complex struc- ture. Forests centres of biological
diversity, maintain watersheds and aid in the stability
climatic patterns. They distinguished into lowland forests,
montane forests, and other types.

Wetlands: are areas permanently or temporarily

waterlogged. In Africa we can distinguish seasonal
floodplains and inland deltas, lake and riverine edge
swamps, valley swamps and high altitude swamps. Seasonal
flooding causes both changes in plant communities and
soil chemical conditions.

46
 Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology

Mangroves: are trees of several species that grow in the

marine intertidal zone in sheltered estuaries and inlets.
Mangroves have developed adaptations to high salinity,
unstable substrate, anoxic mud environment and wave
action. Mangroves distinct zonation dependant on plant
adaptations

Keywords

Community structure, ecological succession, savanna, forests, afroalpine, wet- lands

List of relevant readings

1. Moyle, P. (2004). Niche and habitat. In P.Moyle & D. Kelt (Eds.), Essays of
wildlife conservation Retrieved September 20, 2006 from http://marinebio.
org/Oceans/Conservation/Moyle/ch7.asp

2. Rhett, B. (2006). Tropical rainforests. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from

Mon- gaby.Com

3. http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0103.html

4. United Nations Environmental Programme. (2002).Forest cover and

proctected areas. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://africa.unep.net/
forest_Degrad/index.asp

5. Florida Museum of Natural Histor y. (2006). Aquatic environments:

Mangroves. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/
SouthFlorida/mangrove/Zonation.html

6. United Nations Environmental Programme. (2003). Mangroves of East Africa.

7. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/

publications/ss1/WCMCMangrovesv11_1.pdf

8. The State of Queensland. (2005). Department of Primary Industries and

Fisheries: Mangrove Physiology and Zonation. Retrieved October 20, 2006
from http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/2623.html

9. Wikipedia. (2006). Scrubland. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrubland

10. Wikipedia. (2006). Ecological succession. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from
http://n.wikipendia.org/wiki/ecological_succession

11. Wikipedia. (2006). Savanna. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna

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 Ecology and Environment

List of optional reading

1. Chapman, J.L. & M.A. Reiss. (1999).Ecology: principles and applications.

Cambridge University Press

2. Barbour, M.G., J.H. Burk & W.D. Pitts. (1980). Terrestrial Plant Ecology. The
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.

3. Hedberg, O. (1995). Features of Afroalpine Plant Ecology. AB C O Ekblad &

Co, Västervik .

4. Pratt, D.J. & M.D. Gwynne. (1977). Rangeland management and ecology in
East Africa. Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company Huntington, New York.

5. Baronmark, C. & L. Hansson. (1998). The biology of lakes and ponds. Oxford
University Press

6. Hogarth, P.J. (1999). The biology of mangroves. Oxford University Press

238pp.

7. Wiens, J.A. and M.R. Moss . (2005). Issues and perspectives in landscape
ecology. Cambridge University Press 404pp.

Introduction to the content

Habitats and Niches

The Habitat

Habitat is latin word that means to ‘it inhabits’or ‘it dwells’. For some species the habitat can
be readily described e.g the mountain gorilla which inhabits tropical secondary forests. Other
species have a wide range of habitats e.g the African elephant found in forests and savannas.
Thus the word habitat refers to where a species is found. Read on the habitat further on http://
marinebio.org/Oceans/Conservation/Moyle/ch7.asp

The Niche Concept

The modern day concept of the niche is combination of two previous concepts. The first by
Charles Elton (1927) who perceived the niche as the fundamental role of the organism in the
community, that is, how it relates with its food and enemies. The concept by Joseph Grinnell
saw the niche as a the section or portion of the environment occupied by organism. The
modern concept combines the two and views the niche as the functional role of the organism
in the ecosystem plus its position and space.

Learning tip: You will easily understand the niche concept if you visualized the ecosystem as
the modern day human society, in which case the specialization or profession of an individual
(e.g. teacher, mechanic) would be the role while his/her adress would give the posistion and
space.

48
 Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology

The concept of the niche is also explained by viewing the community as an ag- gregate of
environmental variables each of which can be represented in infinite dimensional space, the
hypervolume. The hypervolume for a species would be the lower and upper limits of all the
variables which the species can exist. Lets take an hypothetical example of an afroalpine
species such Lobelia if though it’s a high mountain species it has temperature limits as well
as limits to other variables such as soil pH, rainfall etc. the concept of the hypervolume is
demonstrated below;

Figures from internet on tolerance limits for species in relation to fundamental niche

The hypervolumes of all the species that make up the community constitute the community
hypervolume. Now lets differentiate the fundamental and realized niche.

Fundamental niche versus realized niche

If you take a community and remove all the other species and leave one species the fraction
of the community hypervolume it will occupy is called the fundamental niche. That is in
the absence of intereference from all species. However in the presence of all other species
competition with other species e.g for moisture or nutrients will arise, this will lead the original
species to constrict the portion of the hypervolume it occupies. Thus the portion of the
hypervolume each species actually occupies in the face of competition from other species is
called the realized niche.

Community structure

The structure of a plant or animal community refers to attributes of its compo- sition,
stratification, species abundance, and diversity. Other attributes used to describe the structure
of a community include of complexity of trophic food webs, which indicates the importance of
primary producers, herbivores, predators and decomposers.

How can you describe and determine the the structure of a plant community. The parameters
used to describe the structure of plant community include;

1. The abundance or density of a species in relation to others, density is usually

expressed as individuals /hectare.

2. The frequency of a species expressed as a percentage or fraction.

3. The basal area of a species relative to others which is computed from tree
stem diameter. This usually is expressed as m2/hectare and is sometimes
referred to as dominance.

4. The above 3 parameters can be summed (relative density + relative frequency

+ relative dominance) to obtain the Importance Value of a particular species
in the community.

5. The canopy structure, which involves description of the height structure

or vertical stratification of the community. This frequently expressed by
drawing profile diagram of the upper, middle and lower stratum.

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 Ecology and Environment

Community dynamics

Plant communities are not static entities. Their structure In the process of com- munity
dynamics one community is replaced by another community. The process is defined as
ecological succession. We can define ecological succession as the process of change in
community species composition over time following natural or anthropogenic disturbances
(human related). Plant succession is a directional and cumulative change in species over time
culminating in climax community. changes over both time and space.

Historically ecologists have distinguished between primary succession on sites without existing
vegetation and secondary succession on sites previously occu- pied by vegetation.

Shortcomings of Clements succession theory

We have seen that Clements(1916) viewed succession as a directional change in vegetation

communities leading to a climax. He emphasized the role of a plant community in
modifying the environment for the next one. In this view a plant community is compared to
a superorganism with its own emergent properties, hence it’s referred to as the organismic
view. Immediately after Clements paper Gleason (1917) wrote one totally disputing the
concept. Gleason argued that whether a species increased or decreased in succession was not
dependent on other species but on its environmental requirements, this is known as the indivi-
dualistic view of community development.

Scientist have pointed out other shortcomings of the classical succession theory (Clements)
which include;

• The theory emphasizes replacement of communities by one another yet there no

clear-cut stages. Succession is the result of gradual population changes.
• The importance of site modification is overemphasized because most species in
disturbed sites were present buried in seeds, roots etc.
• Hence subsequent changes were due to different rates of growth, repro- duction
and survival.
• No two patches of vegetation are similar in composition hence the seed
composition in the soil is also different. Therefore succession of different patches
of disturbed ground in the same area will proceed differently.
• Current climatic variation are set to continue in future throwing into doubt the
probability of any really long-term stability in vegetation.
• Natural catastrophic events such as drought fire and floods prevent stability on a
time scale longer than that of the dominant species.
• Vegetation is being increasingly and markedly influenced by man’s acti- vities
such pollution, global warming, harvesting etc making the idea of “natural”
climax increasingly redundant

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 Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology

Structure and function of key African vegetation communities

We know that distribution of vegetation is governed by climate, topography and soils. You
have already studied the key factors of the physical environment that influence plant function
and distribution. In this we unit you will learn about the structure and function of the main
communities by studying their physiognomy and adaptive trends to prevailing environmental
challenges.

The diversity of climates and landforms leads to great diversity in Africa leads to a great
vegetation types. We will start with afroalpine vegetation on high mountains, then go down to
forests, grasslands, fresh water communities and marine communities.

Afroalpine Flora

This is the vegetation you find on high African mountains usually 3500 to 5000M Examples
include Mt.Kenya (5200m), Mt. Kilimanjaro (5895m), Mt.Ruwenzori(5108) etc. Afroalpine
vegetation has two key features firstly it is very distinct from the lowland vegetation because
it has very specialised life- forms. Secondly it is characterised by a high degree of endemism
e.g. of 278 taxa of vascular plants in afroalpine flora, 81% are endemic to the Eastern Africa
mountains.

Adaptative trends

Structure in plants is closely linked to function, thus structural adaptations are related to
overcoming a given constrain e.g. low temperature. Afroalpine envi- ronment is severe, the
most crucial being Intense incoming shortwave radiation, low temperature and drought.

Adaptations to intense shortwave radiation include light coloured hairy cover called
pubescence on one or both sides of their leaves. Species with such pubsescence are
particularly numerous in the genera Alchemilla (A. elgonensis, A.argyrophylla) Helichrysum,
Senecio (S. brassica, S.telekii,). Some plants also have very shiny leaf surfaces to reflect incident
radiation eg Haplocarpa rueppellii, some Giant senecios for example S. adnivalis and S.
keniodendron. The shiny leaf surface is often combined with a thick hypodermis.

Adaptations to low temperature:

Giant leaf rosettes: This adaptation is mainly among the Giant senceios and Gant Lobelias.
These plants are characterized by thick and unbran- ched or sparsely branched woody
or herbaceous stems, each carrying a continuously growing huge leaf rosette. This leaf
arrangement or rosette protects the primordia from low temperatures. During the day the leafs
spread outwards and flatten while during the night they fold forming what is called a ‘night
bud’ which close at night.

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 Ecology and Environment

Temperatures of +3.0oC have been inside the rosette while outside the rosette temperatures
were –5.0oC. Species that show this adaptation include Lobelia keniensis, Lobelia telekii,
Senecio brassica, Senecio keniodendron

Some plants have a layer of persistent dead leaves on the trunk and branches and these
insulate the internal water storage and water conducting tissues. These include the Senecio
keniodendron, Lobelia elgonensis

Big grass tussocks. This structure is formed of stems intermingled with dead and more or less
decaying leaves and stem bases forming a dense mass (see picture).

The grass tussock protects and buffers growing apices from harmful temperature variations.
Insulation is also given by leaf sheaths, dead and decaying leaf and stem bases. Such grasses
include Festuca pilgeri, Andropogon amethystinus, Agrostis trachyphylla

Big grass tussocks: courtersy John Mworia

Savannas

Structure and classification

Africa rarely has pure grasslands such as the prairies of N. America but will usually have
scattered trees or shrubs and therefore referred to as savannas. They also are sometimes
referred to as rangelands or Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs). They experience frequent
drought (see picture) and are utilized mainly by wild life and livestock and occupied largely by
pastoral tribes.

52
 Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology

Effects of drought in savannah

Factors that govern the structure of African savannas

We have seen in learning activity 3.4 that the ratio trees to grasses determines the type of
savannah e.g a wooded grassland as few trees while a woodland as a higher tree density.

Species composition, abundance and cover in savannas is strongly influenced by a number

of factors, which include: physical factors (rainfall, soils and tempera- ture) grazing, fire and
cultivation. In learning activity1.0 we looked at the role of physical factors, here we shall look at
grazing, fire and cultivation.

Herbivore Grazing and Browsing – grazers and browsers have profound ef- fects on
the grassland community structure depending on herbivore density and movement patterns.
Grazers influence the composition and diversity of grasses mainly because herbivores graze
selectively in that certain species of animals prefer certain species of plants. Extremely heavy
grazing also favours the increase of shrubs over grasses leading to bush encroachment.
Physical destruction of vegetation especially by elephants can have enormous effects on
structure (see picture)

Trees broken by elephants

Fire/burning - Fire is traditionally applied by our pastoralists to stimulate fresh grass growth
for grazing and also decrease tick and other parasite populations. Fire stimulates renewed
growth of fire adapted/resistant spe- cies such Themeda triadra, in this way fire influences
grassland composition. Fire also severely damages some woody plants and is used control
bush encroachment.

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 Ecology and Environment

Shifting cultivation - This is the clearing of plant communities using tra- ditional bush fallow
system and is a common phenomena in Africa. This reduces the diversity of the vegetation and
favours woodlands over forests and grasslands over woodlands

Forests in Africa

• You have seen a forest but how would you describe it?. A forest community
consists of trees with crowns touching and intermingling to form a continuous
canopy of complex structure. An important characteristic of the structure of a
forest especially the rainforests is vertical stratification of the canopy layers. The
three basic vertical layers or strata are;
• Upper Stratum; this occurs at 30 to50m above the ground. In some places the
upper canopy layer may be discontinuous consisting of scattered trees called
emergents that have very wide crowns
• Middle Stratum; this occurs at around 20 to 30m. Some discontinuities occur but
the gaps in its canopy generally occur below the emergent trees. The crowns in
this stratum are narrower than those of the upper stratum. An important property
of forests is that the upper and middle strata together form a more or less
continuous canopy
• Lower Stratum; The layer occurs at 10 to 20m, it is continuous and consists of
many mainly young trees with narrow crowns and densely packed together. Below
the lower canopy there is undergrowth of saplings, shrubs, herbs, grasses and
seedlings

Note: the height stratification given above may vary depending on the type of forest.

Importance of forests

In forest ecosystems trees are important in maintaining watersheds, preventing flooding and
erosion and aiding in the stability of long-term climatic patterns. Forests are also centres of
biological diversity, with tropical forests estimated to harbour 50% all plant and animal diversity.

Wetlands in Africa

These are communities that you find associated with freshwater lakes, river val- leys and areas
that are permanently or temporarily waterlogged. These areas are also referred to as wetlands.

Types of wetland

Just like forests and savannas there are many systems of classifying wetlands. The type of
wetland formed is the result of combined factors of altitude, hydrological patterns, geology
and soil mineral content. Lets briefly look at the major types of wetlands in Africa:

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 Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology

• Seasonal floodplains and inland deltas. These are flat plains surrounding lakes or
bordering river systems. They are dry for most part of the year but flooded after
rains. Seasonal floodplains occupy large parts of Africa, for example the Sudd, on
the river Nile occupies seasonally flooded grasslands occupy 17,000km2, while in
Botswana the Okavango swamp covers about 15000km2. Grasses dominate the
vegetation of seasonally flooded areas and the plant structure is maintained by
grazing from livestock and wil- dlife.
• Lake and Riverine edge Swamps: These are characterised by the presence of tall
vegetation that is flooded to a shallow depth permanently or for most of the year.

Lake edge swamp courtersy of John Mworia

• Valley swamps: These type of swamps are similar to lake-edge swamps but are
different in size and are largely used for agricultural projects.
• High altitude swamps. These include mires or bogs found in high altitu- des and
characterised by low rates of organic matter decomposition. These swamps have
high peat accumulation and the water is acidic (pH 3.5-4.5).

High altitude swamp Courtersy of John Mworia

The Mangrove Communities

Mangroves are trees of several species that grow in sheltered estuaries and inlets and are
collectively termed mangroves. Some species of mangroves in- clude Rhizophora mucronata,
Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymorhiza,Avicennia marina,Xylocarpus granatum, Heritiera littoralis,
Lumnitzera racemosa, Son- neratia alba. In Africa they are found between 270N in Egypt and
300S near Durban, South Africa. Mangroves serve as ecotone between the land and the sea, at
high tides they are partially submerged in by water and at low tides they are exposed.

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 Ecology and Environment

Adaptive trends

This unique environment is characterised by the following conditions that are a challenge to
plant growth and function; water of high salinity, unstable substrate (shifting sand), anoxic
substrate, presence of tides, and wave action. Lets now to sme adaptations;

Salinity: Mangroves are essentially halophytes. Some adaptations to high salinity include
(i) salt excretion; excretion of salts is done through special glands, e.g. Avicennia marina (ii)
Tolerance; without injury high internal concentrations of salts, e.g . Rhizophora mucronata. (iii)
salt accumulation; some mangroves e.g. Rhizophora mucronata accumulate salts in the leaves
and thereafter shed their leaves at regualar intervals.

Unstable substrate: Shifting mud sediments are a result of tides and waves. In addition the
mud is always waterlogged and anoxic (lacking aeration). These conditions pose a problem
to seed establishment, plant support and aeration. To overcome these mangroves: (i) Seed
establishment: seeds require a firm aerated soil substrate to allow and shoot development,
conditions which are lacking intertidal zone. To overcome this condition mangroves are the
only true viviparous plants in the ecosystem. Vivipary is the condition where seeds germinate
while still attached to the fruit and the fruit still attached to the mother plant. The seeds
germinate into a protruding embryo with a long

hypocotyl and finally fall from the trees. If the seedling falls in low tide it lodges itself upright
into the soft mud because of the sharp hypocotyls and proceeds to grow and establish very
fast. If seedlings fall during the high tide they float along and when water recedes they stick
in the soft mud. (ii) Aeration and support to overcome the problem of lack soil air in the mud
sediments mangroves have roots that are specialised to secure O and attain

This include;

1) Prop roots: These roots arise form the stem and support the trees and help in aeration

2) Aerial roots: these arise from branches and are used for aeration

3) Pneumatophores: These are horizontal roots protrude erect out the mud for aeration- see
picture

(4) Knee roots: horizontal root grows upwards until it breaks through the soil, then turns
downwards again forming a bent “knee” for aeration.

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 Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology

Pneumatophores Courtersy of John Mworia

Fieldwork: Determination of community structure

Select a woody site or forest to conduct this practical, and do the following

a.Layout a 10m transect line, using a tape measure. Along this line count the number of
individuals of each species that fall within 0.5m either side and measure the diameter (at
breast height for trees or at the base for other plants). Now divide the line into 10 one meter
segements and record the presence or absence of each species. Repeat this transect analysis.
Include all trees, all herbs and all shrubs.

b. Calculate the following

1. Densit y: The number of individuals of each species in transec t

(10 m x 1m = 10 m 2 ) to conver t to number/ ha mult ply 10 0 0.
Relative density =Density of one species/Total number of all plants/ha X 1000

2. Dominance: Conver t s tem Diameter at Breas t Height

( DBH) to b as al area (c m 2 ) u sing ð r 2 or a co nver sio n t able.
Relative dominance: Dominance of one species/Total dominance X100

3. Frequency: Consider each segement of the transect as a sample plot. The

number of segements in which a species occurs, divided by the total number
of segments, and expressed as decimal= frequency value

Relative frequency= Frerquency value of one species/Total of all fre- quency values
X 100

4. Importance value = The sum of relative density, dominance and fre- quency.

c. Calculate the importance value for all species and fill in the table below, use the correct
taxonomic names. an example of Prunus africana is given.

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 Ecology and Environment

Species Relative Relative Relative Relative Value

Density (%) Dominance (%) Frequency (%)
Importance

1. Prunus
africana

2.

3.

Questions

1. A species has a high density but low frequency, is the spatial distribution
clustered or uniform?

2. What is the maximum importance value a species can have?

3. What does parameter ‘importance value’ tell the ecologist in terms of com-

Case study: Ecological succession

In this learning activity you shall use internet resources to study documented cases of
ecological succession. The theory of plant succession was first descri- bed Fredredick Clements
(1916). Ecological succesion culminates in a climax community.

Wikipedia. (2006). Ecological succession. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://n.wikipendia.
org/wiki/ecological_succession

Formative evaluation and knowledge application

• What are the stages in ecological succession called and what are key properties
• What are attributes of a climax vegetation community

Writing assignment: Types of savannas

Savannas are very widely distributed across the globe. Their classification sys- tems vary widely.
Physiognomic classification is widely used to describe African savanna types. This classification
has the following classes: bushland, woodland, shrubland, bush grassland, wooded grassland,
and dwarf shrub grassland. It is based on the ratio of tree to grass. Read the following
references

• Wikipedia. (2006). Scrubland. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrubland
• Wikipedia. (2006). Savanna. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Savanna

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 Learning Activity 3: Community Ecology

Write a brief essay (600-800 words) titled ‘Types of savannas and classification systems
commonly used’

Reading Internet: Types and distribution of forests in Africa.

To distinguish types of rainforests visit

Rhett, B. (2006). Tropical rainforests. Retrieved September 20, 2006 from Mongaby.Com http://
rainforests.mongabay.com/0103.html Read the sections: rainforests, equatorial evergreen
rainforest vs. moist forest, primary vs. secondary forests, and lowland vs montane

To learn the distribution of forest types in Africa visit

United Nations Environmental Programme. (2002).Forest cover and proctected areas. Retrieved
October 20, 2006 from http://africa.unep.net/forest_Degrad/ index.asp

Question

1. Distinguish primary from secondary forests

2. Distinguish lowland from montane forests

6. Literature search. The distribtution and uses of mangroves in Africa

Visit the site given below to get an understanding of the distribution and their uses

United Nations Environmental Programme. (2003). Mangroves of East Africa. Retrieved

October 20, 2006 from http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publica- tions/ss1
WCMCMangrovesv11_1.pdf

Read pages 4-5

7. Writing assignment; Zonation of mangrove swamps

Different mangrove species have various adaptations to environmental constrains. Differing

adaptations in mangrove tree species leads to their occurrence in fairly distinct zones
depending on such factors as the amount of water in the mud, the salinity and the ability to
tolerate shade. Review this zonation and write a brief essay (600-800 words)

United Nations Environmental Programme. (2003). Mangroves of East Africa.

Retrieved October 20, 2006 from www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/ publications/ss1/
WCMCMangrovesv11_1.pdf (read pages 4-5)

Florida Museum of Natural History. (2006). Aquatic environments: Man- groves. Retrieved
October 20, 2006 from http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/ SouthFlorida/mangrove/Zonation.html

3. The State of Queensland. (2005). Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries: Mangrove
Physiology and Zonation. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/
fishweb/2623.html

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 Ecology and Environment

Self test

1. How do the factors tidal flooding, land elevation, and soil and water
salinity influence zonation (Tip: consider plant adapations)

2. What other factors influence zonation in mangroves

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 Learning Activity 4 : Ecosystem Ecology

Learning Activity 4 : Ecosystem

Ecology
Specific Objectives
1. Articulate factors that influence terrestrial and aquatic primary produc- tion

2. Explain the concept of trophic levels in ecosystems

3. Describe the process of nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems

Summary of the learning activity

In this learning activity you will first be introduced to the subject of primary production. We will
then look at how the energy captured in primary production flows through the ecosystem. We
conclude by studying biogeochemical cycles. To help you understand the unit better you will
do the following activities

1. Introduction to the content

• Factors that influence terrestrial and aquatic primary production

• Efficiency of primary production
• Trophic levels
• Nutrient cycling

2. Knowledge application: Differences in the distribution of C3, C4 and CAM

plants

3. Comprehension: Compare terrestrial and aquatic production

4. Comprehension: Ecological pyramids

5. Case study : Nitrogen and Carbon cycles

6. Knowledge application: calculating nutrient budgets

7. Comprehension: Self test for the unit

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 Ecology and Environment

Key concepts
Terrestrial primary productivity is mainly influenced
by the photosynthetic type, environmental factors and
herbivory. Herbivory at moderate levels stimu- lates
primary production.

Key constrains to aquatic production are Light

attenuation and nutrient availability. Primary production
is accomplished in the euphotic zone. Nutrient limitation
is due sinking of phytoplankton below the euphotic zone
and thermal stratification.

Trophic level is a functional classification of organisms

based on food acquisition.

The trophic structure can be described in terms of

numbers, biomass or energy.

Ecological pyramids show graphically the trophic

structure. The pyramid of energy gives the best overall
picture of the functional relationship of commu- nities.

Biogeochemical cycles show the movement of nutrients

in the biosphere. Nu- trients enter or leave the ecosystem
through geologic, meteorological or biologic pathways
and are held temporarily in reservoirs or pools.

A nutrient budget shows the source, fluxes and lossses of

a nutrient in an eco- system

Key words

Primary production, euphotic zone, food chain, trophic level, plant nutrient

List of compulsory readings

1. Wikipedia. (2006). Primary production. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_production

2. Wikipedia. (2006). Crassulacean acid metabolism. Retrieved October 20,

2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crassulacean_acid_metabolism

3. Wikipedia. (2006). C4 plants Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4_plants

4. Wikipedia. (2006). C3 carbon fixation. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation

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 Learning Activity 4 : Ecosystem Ecology

5. Wikipedia. (2006). Ecological pyramid. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_pyramid

6. Wikipedia. (2006). Biogeochemical cycles. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from

http://n.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle

7. Wikipedia. (2006). Nitrogen cycle. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle

8. Wikipedia. (2006). Carbon cycle. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cycle

List of optional reading

• Baronmark, C. & L. Hansson. (1998). The biology of lakes and ponds. Oxford
University Press
• Beeby, A. & A. Brennan. (2003). First ecology. Oxford University Press Barbour,
M.G., J.H. Burk & W.D. Pitts. (1980). Terrestrial Plant Ecology. The Benjamin/
Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.
• Chapman, J.L. & M.A. Reiss. (1999).Ecology: principles and applications.
Cambridge University Press.

Introduction to the content

Factors That Influence Terrestrial And Aquatic Primary Production.

Terrestrial Primary Production

In this section you will be introduced to some factors that influence terrestrial primary
productivity namely; Photosynthetic type, Canopy structure, environ- mental variables (water,
temperature, and nutrients) and herbivory.

Photosynthetic type:

There are three fundamentally different types of photosynthesis. which are dis- tinguished
mainly by the initial biochemical products of photosynthesis.This are C3 plants, C4 plants
and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) plants. C3 is the most widely distributed type of
photosynthesis occurring all algae and most vascular plants. The C plants generally exhibit
high rates of photosynthesis and have high optimal temperatures for photosynthesis and
require high light inten- sities for photosynthetic saturation. CAM plants have unusual property
in that they can assimilate carbon dioxide at night because the stomata close during the day
and open at night.

Environmental factors.

In learning activity 1.0 we looked at environmental factors can influence plant distribution. The
key variables namely light, water, temperature and soil nutrients also influence photosynthesis.

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 Ecology and Environment

Herbivory:

Herbivory to the extent of overgrazing lowers primary production. However ef- fects of
herbivory on primary productivity and individual plants are not always detrimental, moderate
levels of grazing may a stimulatory effect on primary productivity in what is referred as grazing
optimization.

Aquatic primary production

Unlike terrestrial production where production is accomplished through macro- phytes, aquatic
production is accomplished by phytoplankton e.g. diatoms, scenedesmus, chlorella e.tc. The
key factors that affect primary production in these conditions include;

Light:

All primary production is accomplished on a lighted vertical zone called the Euphotic Zone. As
light penetrates the water body it undergoes attenuation. This means that as depth increases
light is reduced both and intensity. This tells us that photosynthesis will consequently reduce
with depth. At a certain depth photosynthesis just balances respiration at about where light
is 1% of full light. This depth is called the compensation point and above this point is the
euphotic zone.

Nutrients:

Phytoplankton just like the plants in terrestrial ecosystems hold a large proportion of nutrients
in their skeletons and protoplasm. phytoplankton do constantly sink below the euphotic zone,
taking away nutrients which reduces production. The loss of nutrients from the euphotic zone is
intensified by the presence of stratifi- cation or layering of water due to differential temperature
especially in tropical waters. The upper warm layer referred to as the epilimnion and is denser
than the lower layer known hypolimnion as the this prevents up welling or mixing of water
which would bring nutrients to the lighted more productive zone. This explains why temperate
waters are more productive than tropical waters

Efficiency Of Primary Production

We often ask the question how efficient is a plant or community in primary production. Only
a small fraction of incoming solar radiation is converted into primary production. Much of
the radiant energy is in the ultraviolet and infra- red portions of the spectrum which are not
effective in photosynthesis. Only about 45% of the total radiant energy lies in the spectrum
(400-700mm) which can be absorbed photosynthetic pigments. This leaves about 55% of total
energy unusable

This brings us to the concept of efficiency of primary production. This is the ratio of rate of
production of organic matter to the rate of input of solar radiation.

Estimates of efficiency of primary production under field conditions vary but generally always
low about 2% or less. These low efficiencies are attributed to the fact that much of the solar
energy striking the earth’s surface is not available for primary production. For example some of
the solar radiation incident on the earth’s surface heats up the surface, air and soil below the
surface.In terrestrial ecosystems significant amounts of energy go into evaporation

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 Learning Activity 4 : Ecosystem Ecology

Now let us look at a practical case and calculate the production efficiency of Cy- perus papyrus.
Papyrus is a very productive plant and has been known to attain growth rates of 125 g m-2 day
-1. We can estimate net efficiency of solar energy conversion by papyrus by relating the energy
content of papyrus biomass to the incident global radiation in the swamp.

The coefficient of solar energy conversion ( ) on yearly basis is calculated as follows

The solar radiation received above papyrus canopy is 18.2 MJ m-2 day -1 or the coefficient of
solar energy conversion

The coefficient of solar energy conversion is therefore calculated as

=(132.2 MJ m-2 yr. -1 / 6643 MJ m-2 yr.-1 )X 100

=2.0% (of global radiation)

The above coefficient when corrected for energy receipt in the wavelengths of
photosynthentically active radiation (PAR), 400-700ìm which represents 45% of the global
radiation is 4.4% (2 x100/45)

hence (PAR)=4.4%

Trophic Levels

You can study organisms in their surrounding using several approaches, in this section we
will take the perspective of feeding relationships. Here we group spe- cies into autotrophs or
producers, herbivores, carnivores, decomposers etc. Each of this is called a trophic level. Lets
look at of the trophic levels;

Autotrophs: This are organisms that do not require organic compounds as their source of
energy. Autotrophs can be divided into 2 groups (i) Photoautrophs or photosynthetic organisms
who obtain their energy from the sun (ii) Chemoauto- trophs: this can defined as organisms in
which energy is obtained solely from the oxidation of inorganic electron donors without the use
light (Chapman and Reiss, 1999). Chemosynthentic organisms are restricted to one kingdom,
the prokaryotae. E.g. Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus.

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 Ecology and Environment

Decompsers: Decompsers are next to producers in importance because without them

nutrients including carbon, nitrates would accumulate in dead remains and run out. The
simplest self-perpetuating community would therefore consist autotrophs and decomposers.
Litter decomposition is important in terrestrial ecosystems. Breakdown of litter is dependent on

physical and biological factors.

Its faster in the tropical forests because they are hot and humid conditions suitable for
decomposers.

Herbivores and carnivores: Even though the distinction between the two terms is clear the
limitations may not be very clear e.g. some ecologists will consider a herbivore to be predator
if it consumes all the plant (Chapman and Reiss, 1999). Predators are taken to be one of the
factors that regulate prey population size.

Omnivores: this are organisms that feed on both plants and animals and are be definition
generalists e.g. humans.

Learning tip:

Trophic literally means feeding hence trophic level is a feeding level.

Food chains and food webs

The linear one-way directional passage of energy through the ecosystem is known as
energy flow. Energy flow in the ecosystem is traced through food chains. Producers form
the beginning of the food chain, while herbivores and omnivores obtain energy from the
producers. At the end of the food chain are the decomposers. At each transfer a large amount
or proportion of energy is lost as heat (80-90%) as such the number of links is limited. Food
chains are simple and very rarely occur.

A food web depicts an inter-connected collection of food chains demonstrating the flow of
energy throughout the community. Food webs unlike food chains are more realistic and show
the positions of parasites and omnivorous organisms. Even though food webs are realistic a
major disadvantage is that they fail to show the relative importance of different food chains.

Trophic structure and ecological pyramids

The interaction of food chain phenomena and size-metabolism rela- tionship results in
communities having a definite trophic structure. This structure varies with the type ecosystem
e.g that of lakes differs from forests. Trophic structure may be measured and described either
in terms of standing crop or energy fixed per unit area per unit time at successive trophic levels.

Ecological pyramids: This the depiction of trophic structure and function graphically whereby
the first or producer level forms the base and succes- sive levels the tiers which make up the
apex. Ecological pyramids may of three general types; (i) Pyramid of numbers (ii) Pyramid of
biomass and (iii) Pyramid of energy.

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 Learning Activity 4 : Ecosystem Ecology

1.Nutrient Cycling

Out of the 100 or so elements found on the earth’s crust , 30-40 are required by the organism
for their normal metabolism Out of the 100 or so elements found on the earth’s crust , 30-40
are required by the organism for their normal meta- bolism. Elements tend to circulate in the
biosphere in characteristic pathways are referred to as biogeochemical cycles. A general model
of nutrient cycling has 3 important characteristics

Within the ecosystem a nutrient is found in compartments or pools/rese- voirs such the
atmosphere, soil or organic pool.

b. Nutrients flow between compartments along characteristic pathways such as nutrient uptake,
decomposition of organic matter

c. A nutrient cycle in a particular ecosystem is connected to the larger biogeochemical cycles

by meteorologic, geologic, and biologic vectors that move nutrients across ecosystem
boundaries.

Input and output processes

Here we describe there are three ways in which nutrients are added to the eco- system, namely.

Geologic-Dissolved or particulate matter may be carried into an ecosystem by moving water.

That is either by runoff or seepage

Meteorologic- Nutrients do enter an ecosystem through atmosphere. This invol- ves addition
of: gaseous material dissolved or particulate matter in precipitation, and f dust particles.

Biologic: It includes the importation of materials gathered elsewhere as fecal material. This
pathway is particularly important in African savannas characte- rised by frequent concentration
of wildlife and livestock around permanent water sources, the inflow of nutrients through fecal
material to such systems is highly significant

The output of nutrients follows similar pathways.

2.Nutrient Budgets

We have seen that in any biogeochemical cycle there is movement of nutrients from one pool
to another. Pools do not release nutrients at the same rate some nutrients may get bound
in a pool for long periods of time and are therefore not available for circulation. In order to
understand the nutrient cycle better we need to know the source of the nutrients, their fluxes
(exchange rate) and their loss. When such an arrangement is done it is referred to as Nutrient
budget.

Before going further let define some terms used describing nutrient budgets

Flux rate describes the quantity of material passing from one pool to the next per unit time per
unit area or volume

Turnover rate: - this is the fraction of the total amount of a substance in a pool which is being
released in a given time interval

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 Ecology and Environment

Turnover time:- This is the time required to replace the total amount of the substance in a
pool

Now let us look at a simple example of an ecosystem and build a nutrient budget, lets take a
pond measuring 4Ha

In this lake the quantity of phosphorus in the lake water is one pool. The quan- tity of
phosphorus in the sediments constitutes another pool. There is also a phosphorus pool in
the producers such as phytoplankton and heterotrophs such Zooplankton. All these pools are
interrelated by the processes that transfer nutrients from one pool to another.

As an example let us describe the transfer of phosphorous from the water pool to the
producers i.e. water producers

(a) Absolute flux rate= 20unit day-1/4 ha =5 Units ha-1 day-1

Turnover rate= 20unit day-1/1000 = 0.02

Turnover time = 1000 units/20unit day-1 =50 days

The influence of the hydrologic cycle on nutrient budgets

Nutrient budgets in terrestrial ecosystems are strongly influenced by the hydro- logic cycle
simplified below as: P=E+T+R+I

P=precipitation, E=evaporation, T=transpiration, R=runoff, I=infiltration (downward entry

of into the soil). Nutrient budgets are strongly correlated with the hydrologic cycle in that
precipitation carries nutrients in solution, runoff and infiltration remove nutrients from the
system or move them down the soil column, and evapotranspiration of water concentrates and
conserves nutrients. We know that several land use factors such erosion, vegetation removal,
overgrazing etc influence the hydrologic balance hence they also influence nutrient budgets

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 Learning Activity 4 : Ecosystem Ecology

Knowledge application: Distribution of C3, C4 and CAM plants

The type of photosynthensis governs conditions in which the plant is most adapted hence
distribution. Further material on type photosynthesis can be obtained at:

Wikipedia. (2006). Crassulacean Acid Metabolism. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crassulacean_acid_metabolism

Wikipedia. (2006). C4 plants. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

C4_plants

Wikipedia. (2006). C3 carbon fixation. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation

Question

Given the properties of C3 plants, C4 plants and CAM in what type climatic conditions do
expect to find each of this catergory plants in Africa. Explain

Comprehension: Compare terrestrial and aquatic production

Review

Wikipedia. (2006). Primary production. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Primary_production

Write a brief essay (600-800 words) : A comparison of aquatic and terrestrial production

Comprehension; Ecological pyramids

The three types of ecological vary in their usefullness and effective description of the functional
nature of communities. Review their comparison

Wikipedia. (2006). Ecological pyramid. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Ecological_pyramid

Self test

• Why is the three pyramids of number considered the least descriptive (Tip;
compare a forest and an aquatic ecosystem)
• Which of three pyramids best describes the functional relationship in ecosystems

Case study : Nitrogen and Carbon cycles

You have been introduced to the general nutrient cycling model and its key com- ponents.
Here you will review internet resources and write a brief essay (600-800) on two important
nutrients namely nitrogen and carbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cycle

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 Ecology and Environment

Self test

1. Briefly discuss the ways in which carbon is taken from the atmosphere and
released back to the atmosphere.

2. How is carbon transerred within the biosphere

3. Describe ways in which atmospheric Nitrogen is converted to chemically

active nitrogen

Knowledge application: calculating nutrient budgets

Using the above example complete the table by describing the transfer phospho- rous
between the following pools; Heterotrophs sediments and Sediments water fluxes and
fill in the table below.

1. The mass of organic matter on forest floor of the tropical Congo forest was
found to 2tons/ha while that of shrub tundra was found 85tons/ha, explain

2. What are the differences between energy flow and nutrient cycling

3. Briefly outline the nutrient cycling model

4. Outline 3 pathways of nutrient input and output

5. Differentiate flux rate from turnover rate.

6. How can man influence nutrient budgets

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 Learning Activity 5: Natural Resource Conservation

Learning Activity 5: Natural

Resource Conservation
Specific Objectives
1. a. Define biodiversity and enumerate its measurement indices

2. b. Outline common forms of habitat degradation in Africa

3. c. Outline the processes of desertification and global warming

Summary of the learning activity

In this learning activity you will first be introduced to the natural resource conser- vation,
including the concepts of biodiversity, species and habitat conservation, and degradation of
key habitats in Africa. You also conduct a number activities to aid your understanding of the
topic.

1. Introduction to the content

• Biological diversity
• Principles of conservation
• Habitat degradation

2. Writing assignment: Biodiversity its definition, measurement and distribution

3. Case study

4. Self assessment

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 Ecology and Environment

Key concepts
Species diversity measurement and expression of is
commonly based on two important components namely
species richness and eveness

Biodiversity is a wider term that encompasses genetic

diversity, species, sub- species, communities and
ecosystems.

Conservation is the management of natural resources

aimed at restoration and maintenance of balance between
human demands and requirements of other species.
Conservation can focus on individual species, ecosystems,
biomes or even the biosphere.

Risk of extinction of species can be categorised into rare,

vulnerable, endangered or extinct.

Destruction of habitats is the most important threat to

bidiversity today

The savannah an important biome in Africa is largely

used for pastoralism which has both positive and negative
impacts but is clearly sustainable land use form.

Threats to the intertidal marine communities of Africa

are largely from overexploitation, human and industrial
waste disposal and improper location of hotels, houses
and other structures.

Key words

Species diversity, conservation, habitat degradation, pastoralism, marine com- munities

List of compulsory readings :

1. Wikipedia. (2006). Simpson index. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson_index

2. Wikipedia. (2006). Shannon index. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon_index

3. United Nations Environmental Programme. (2002). Forest cover and

protected areas. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from http://africa.unep.net/
forest_Degrad/index.asp

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 Learning Activity 5: Natural Resource Conservation

List of optional readings :

1. Chapman, J.L. & M.A. Reiss. (1999). Ecology: principles and applications.
Cambridge University Press.

2. Wiens, J.A. and M.R. Moss . (2005). Issues and perspectives in landscape
eco- logy. Cambridge University Press 404pp.

3. Pullin, A.S. (2002). Conservation biology. Oxford University Press pp358.

Biological Diversity
What is biodiversity

The term biodiversity generally refers to biological diversity. From the onset you should know
that the meaning of the term diversity has had varied, so have been methods of measurement
and interpretation.

Species diversity strictly speaking refers to the number of different species in a particular area
(species richness) weighted by some measure of abundance such as number of individuals.

Currently biodiversity is an all inclusive term that refers to the totality of the richness of
biological variation ranging from population based genetic variation through sub species and
species, to their communities, and ecosystem. Genetic diversity here refers the number of
gene alleles within a population.

Alpha and Beta diversity

You also find the terms alpha and beta diversity. Alpha diversity is the number of species
within a selected area or community. While Beta diversity is the difference in species
diversity between different areas or communities. Beta diversity is also referred to as habitat
diversity because it represents the differences in species composition between two different
communities (Kent and Coker, 1992).

Measurement of diversity

Diversity contains to principle notions

• That of richness or number of species

• That of evenness of distribution or the relative abundances of the indi- viduals
within each species

The number of species in a sample is generally called species richness and is important in
characterising a biological community. Species richness alone is not sufficient since the pattern
of distribution within the community is also impor- tant. ‘Evenness’ is the term used to describe
relative distribution. The number of species and eveness of relative abundance are two
statistical properties used to quantify species diversity (Diversity indexes).

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 Ecology and Environment

The common diversity indexes include;

Simpson’s index (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson_index)

Shannon-Weiner index (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon_index)

Principles Of Conservation

Why conserve

Conservation is the management of natural resources in such a way as to maintain the balance
between the needs of human beings and other species. What are natural resources ? natural
resources include soil, water, wild animals and plants.

Today man enormously utilizes the earth’s physical resources and biological resources. In many
occasions the processes of extraction used by man or the by-products are harmful to the
environment and biological communities. Today the number of people alive and their demands
on the Earth’s resources continue to increase.

The continued exploitation places species, ecosystems and even biomes under pressure and
leading to reduction in biological diversity. This has led international, National, local and group
efforts to conserve biodiversity

Species conservation

Fossil record shows that in geological species are continually becoming extinct and new ones
evolving. The records also indicate there are events that lead to major extinctions such as
changes in climate, loss of habitat or giant meteors. During this extinction events it is estimated
that only about 15-30 species went extinct per year, from a geological perspective the events
appear instantaneous.

In conservation we are concerned with impacts of man on species extinction. The rate of
species extinctions as a result of human activity has been increasing. The human evolved as a
hunter and gatherer and in last 10000 a number prey animals including the wholly mammoth,
flightless birds and predators have gone extinct. In the last 400years some 150 extinctions
have been recorded. Since for every recorded extinction there many unrecorded ones it now
estimated that there 4000 to 300000 extinctions per year (Chapman and Reiss, 1999).

Four categories of risk are recognised by the world conservation Union (IUCN)

Rare: Species have small populations usually within restricted areas and are in danger of
becoming rarer not extinct.

Vulberable: These are under threat or decreasing in number or popula- tions that have not
recovered from past depletion

Endangered: species have very low population sizes and are in consi- derable danger of
becoming extinct.

Extinct: species are believed to no longer exist and cannot be found in its habitats.

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 Learning Activity 5: Natural Resource Conservation

Conservation measures should be taken when the population of a species is declining rather
than wait until it is threatened with extinction. This is often hindered by

• It is difficult at times to detect declining population trends in natural communities

because a population can undergo considerable fluctuation in size and it can not
be readily determined whether the population is declining or increasing.
• The time-scale required to conclusively determine whether a population is
increasing or decreasing may be longer than the species has left if it is severely
depleted.
• Monitoring population trends is costly and requires adequately trained personnel

Some of the methods applied to conserve endangered species include

a. Captive breeding programmes in zoos and botanic gardens. These are sometimes taken
as a last resort to conserve the species. However the biggest challenge is that no one zoo or
botanic garden can hold popula- tions that are large for the maintenance genetic diversity.

b. Re-introductions involve re-introducing the species to the wild. The major challenge is that
species habitat may not exist any more due to land use changes. Re-introductions are also
attempted to boost numbers in an area or where local extinction has occurred.

Conservation of ecosystems

Destruction of existing natural ecosystems is the most important threat to species diversity
today (Chapman and Reiss, 1999). An ecosystem contains populations, communities
their genes, and the physical environment. If a habitat is disappearing and with it whole
communities then the best form of conservation is to protect the whole habitat. This preferred
means of biodiversity conservation in Africa.

When setting up a nature reserve there a number of important considerations;

The reserve should be large enough to hold viable populations of the target species so as to
maintain genetic variation. The shape of the reserve in addition to the size is also important

If the species is migratory then consideration for more than one reserve should be given with
breeding and feeding sites in mind.

Habitat Degradation In Africa

In this section we shall look at the influence of man on key habitats in Africa. The study of
the impacts of man on the environment is very wide field of study and we can only browse it
briefly. We saw in unit 1.0, that both plants and animals interact among themselves and their
environment. It follows that the alteration in any of the component affects the other. Each
organism has its own limit of tolerance of various environmental factors and alteration of these
factors affects the ability of the species to survive.

The major impacts of man on African ecosystems include deforestation, unsus- tainable
agriculture, overgrazing, pollution and eutrophication.

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 Ecology and Environment

We will look some of these impacts briefly;

Impacts of pastoralism on savannas

• Pastoralism is a very old form of land use, e.g. in East Africa it goes back 4000
or 5000 years. Pastoralism is mainly a subsistence production system, that is, the
goal is survival of the pastoralist and his livestock. Let us now look at the effects of
pastoralism
• Pastoralism almost always alters plant community structure. For example the
Ngisoyoka pastoralists of South Turkana keep large number of goats and camels,
which are browsers this tends to decrease woody species in favour of grasses.
Grazing can also convert perennial grasslands into annual grasslands
• A traditional view is that grazing lowers productivity by removing leaves and
causing an increase an increase in woody plants however as we saw in learning
activity 4.1 low to moderate levels of grazing may increase net productivity.
• Because pastoralists move their livestock often, this leads to transporta- tion
of nutrients in the ecosystem (that is, through fecal deposits). This has effect of
altering spatial patterns of soil fertility with concentration around watering points
and bomas. This favours increase in plant diver- sity.
• Areas that are repeatedly overgrazed become degraded (see pictures).
Overgrazing generally leads to circle of events characterised by reduction in
herbaceous cover, reduction in palatable plant species, increase soil compaction,
increase soil erosion and eventually decline in productivity. However its been
shown that degradation is not a universal and una- voidable consequence of
subsistence pastoralism.

Overgrazing Deep gullies from erosion

From the points we have discussed above it is evident that pastoralism has both positive
and negative effects on plant communities and on the environment howe- ver its 4000 years
existence clearly demonstrates its sustainability

Degradation of African forests

Africa has large expanses of forests, considering all types of moist forest we have
approximately 21% of Africa, closed forest represents 9% of the land co- ver, while open and
fragmented forests represent 12% (Unep, http://africa.unep. net/forest_Degrad/index.asp).

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 Learning Activity 5: Natural Resource Conservation

The forests have the following functions in African ecosystems: temperature regulation, flood
control, regulates nutrient cycling, regulate soil erosion and water cycles. Their extreme
importance is thus evident.

The major threat to African forest is deforestation. Deforestation is carried for the following
reasons;

a. To provide land for agriculture, urbanization and the construction of physical infrastructures.

b. To provide timber for building

c. To provide charcoal and firewood

d. To provide raw materials for paper pulp.

Deforestation can lead to;

• Recurrent floods and disruption of local climatic patterns

• Increased soil erosion and loss of forest soil fertility
• Loss of biodiversity

Threats to African marine communities

In unit 4.0 we looked at the structure and adaptive trends of inter-tidal commu- nities. This
community in recent past has come under great threat due to human activities. The activities
include;

Over exploitation of inter-tidal resources. These include over cutting of mangroves leading
to excessive soil erosion and subsequent loss of habitat

Excessive human and industrial waste disposal. This is mainly to fast growth of coastal
towns of which high concentrations lead to plant and animal death

Improper location of houses, hotels, industries and aquaculture farms increasing

soil erosion and reducing productivity. Hotels are often located too close to the beaches
without regard buffer zones to protect sand dune plants and turtles and birds that they host.

Damming of rivers and estuaries and extraction of water from un- derground
aquifers causes changes in sediment deposition, salinity and erosion patterns leading
ecological stress.

Writing assignment: Biodiversity its definition, measurement and distribution

In the last 2 decades the world has greatly on focused biodiversity and its impor- tance.
Review the sites given below and write a brief essay (800-1000) ‘Biodi- versity its definition,
measuremen, rolet and distribution’.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity

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 Ecology and Environment

Synthesis of the Module

By the end of this module you are expected to differentiate the levels of orga- nization used
in ecology including the individual, population, community, eco- system and biome. You
are also expected to understand the important concept of the ecosystem which consists of
an interacting system of communities and their non-living physical environment. From the
second unit on population ecology you are expected to understand the process of natural
selection which leads to a population adapting to its environment through differences in
reproductive success. Speciation which is due to sections of the population being isolated
as result of a barriers such as geographical barriers. In population ecology you also studied
models of growth namely exponential growth model and logistic model. You should also know
the interactions between populations which include com- petition, predation, ammensalism,
mutualism, parasitism, or commensalism. Unit three was community ecology. Parameters that
are used to define the structure of a community include composition, abundance, dominance,
stratification and tro- phic structure. A community is dynamic and you studied the process of
ecological succession, which proceeds through stages referred to as seres and culminates in a
climax community. You also studied the key vegetation communities of Africa, concentrating
on their adaptive trends and factors that govern their structure and function. This included
afroalpine vegetation, savannas, forests, wetlands and mangroves. In the fourth unit you
studied ecosytem ecology. From this unit you are expected to understand the factors that
influence both terrestrial primary production such as photosynthentic type, environmental
factors and herbivory while those of aquatic systems include light, nutrients and thermal
stratification. You also expected to understand the concept of trophic levels and energy
flow through the ecosystem. Nutrients unlike energy move through the ecosystem through
characteristic pathways called the biogeochemical cycles. The important components of the
biogeochemical cycle include pools, nutrient pathways such as intake and decomposition.
Nutrients enter and leave the biogeochemical cy- cles trough geologic, meteorological and
biologic pathways. In the last unit you studied natural resource conservation. From this unit you
are expected to unders- tand the terms species diversity and biodiversity. We looked at types
of species conservation of including captive breeding programmes and re-introductions. We
also looked at ecosystem conservation through nature reserves and important considerations
in their creation such as size and migration. You also expected to understand patterns of
degradation in key African habitats such savannas, forests and marine communities.

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 Summative Evaluation

Summative Evaluation
Unit 1. Introduction and basic concepts

(a) Define an ecosystem and give an example

(b) Briefly discuss Raunkiar’s system of plant classification

(c) Outline how solar radiation reaching the earth’s troposphere is partitio- ned

(d) Describe the 5 main branches of ecology

(e) Discuss the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and its influence on rainfall
patterns in Africa

Unit 2. Population ecology

(a) What is selection pressure?

(b) State three factors that can lead to population isolation or fragmenta- tion

(c) State the Darwinian theory of natural selection, how does relate to the modern
concept

(d) How does commensalism differ from mutualism?, how do predation and
parasitism differ.

Unit 3. Community ecology

(a) Define the term niche and distinguish between fundamental and realized niche

(b) List the shortcomings of Clements deterministic succession theory

(c) Discuss morphological and physiological adaptations of mangroves

(d) Outline the factors that determine the structure of African grasslands

(e) Outline the adaptations of afroalpine flora to low temperature

(f) To assess the vegetation structure of Ngororo a transect measuring 5m x 10m

was laid out and divided into 5 equal quadrats from which the following data was
collected

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 Ecology and Environment

(Note that each species recording indicates a single individual, also the basal area has already
been calculated)

1. Determine tree density (individuals/ha) of Maerua triphyla - show your

computational procedures clearly.

2. Determine Importance Value of Commiphora baluensis - show your

computational procedures clearly

Unit 4. Ecosystem ecology

(a) Outline the hydrologic cycle in terrestrial ecosystems. How does it influence
nutrient budgets How do humans alter the hydrological cycle?

(b) What is a trophic level in a community of organisms

(c) List and explain the five steps in the nitrogen cycle.

(d) Papyrus in was found to have a calorific value of 20mj/kg, its net primary
production was 6.6kg/m2/yr and solar radiation at the site was 18.2mj/ m2/day.
Determine the efficiency of primary production of papyrus.

(e) In a pond measuring 6ha the producers contained 100 units of Nitrogen while
the water contained 1000units. The transfer rate from the water to the producers
eas 20units/day. Determine the absolute flux rate, turnover rate and turnover time.

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 Summative Evaluation

Unit 5. Natural Resource Conservation

(a) Differentiate between alpha and beta diversity

(b) Describe the four levels of risk to extinction recognised by world conser- vation
union (IUCN)

(c) Outline the impacts of pastoralism on community structure, productivity and

nutrient cycling

(d) What the key functions of African forests and what would be consequen- ces of
deforestation

Answers To Summative Evaluation

Unit 1. Introduction and basic concepts

(a) An ecosystem consists of communities and their environment. Interac- tions at

the ecosystem level include those among the organisms of the community and
those between the organism and the physical environ- ment.

(b) Raunkiar’s system of plant classification: Raunkiaer used the height of the
perennating tissue from the ground surface as an indicator of adaptation to
the environment. The classes obtained include; Phanerophytes , Epiphytes
Hemicryptophytes Chamaephytes Cryptophytes and Therophytes

(c) Partitioning of solar radiation: On reaching the earth’s troposphere 42% is

reflected from clouds and dust particles, 48% reaches the earth’s surface and 10%
is absorbed by the atmosphere.

(d) The 5 main branches of ecology include; Ecophysiology (or Physiological

ecology), Autecology or population ecology, Community ecology or synecology,
Ecosystem ecology, and Landscape ecology.

(e) The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): (1) This is the low-pressure zone
where cold winds from high-pressure belts converge (2) Conver- gence of winds at
the ITCZ brings about precipitation (3) The ITCZ is not confined to the equator it
moves from latitude 15∞S to 15 ∞N following the movement of the sun as moves
from being overhead the tropic of Capricorn to that of Cancer but with a time lag
of one month.

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 Ecology and Environment

Unit 2. Population ecology

(a) Selective pressure: This are factors such environmental conditions that select for
certain characteristics of individuals and selects against those of others.

(b) Factors leading population isolation: lack of compatible partners, geogra-

phical barriers and large differences in temperature or moisture between areas

(c) Darwinian and modern concepts of natural selection: Darwinian concept

emphasizes that well adapted species survive to reproduce and contribute to
the population gene pool while in the modern concept of natural se- lection
emphasizes is on differential reproduction rather than differential survival.

(d) In commensalism one population gains and the other is unaffected while in
mutualism both populations benefit. In parasitism one population, the host, loses
while the other population the parasite gains while predation is the consumption
of one species (the prey) by another (the predator).

Unit 3. Community ecology

(a) The niche: The niche is the functional role of the organism in the eco- system
plus its position and space. The fundamental niche refers to the fraction of the
community hypervolume a species occupies in the absence of competition while
the realized is one occupied in the face of compe- tition from other species.

(b) Short comings of succession theory:

(1) No clear cut stages between stages

(2) The role of site modification is overemphasized

(3) No two patches of vegetation are similar hence succession proceeds

differently

(4) Natural catastrophic events prevent stability

(5) Man’s activities also prevent stability

(c) Morphological and physiological adaptations of mangroves: Adaptations to

high salinity: salt excretion through special glands, tolerance without internal injury,
salt accumulation in leafs and dropping them. Adaptations to unstable substrate:
For seed establishment, mangroves are viviparous developing a long hypocotyl
that lodges itself upright. For aeration and support mangroves have; prop roots,
aerial roots, pneumatophores and knee roots.

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 Summative Evaluation

(d) Determinants of structure of African grasslands:

(1) Physical factors; such as rainfall, soils and temperature

(2) Grazing; factors such as herbivore density, movement, composition

(3) Fire; its frequency and intensity

(4) Cultivation

(e) Adaptations of afroalpine flora to low temperature :Plants have following

adaptations

(1) Giant leaf rosettes whose leaf arrangement protects the primordia

(2) Layers of persistent dead leafs on the stems

(3) Big grass tussocks

(f) a.Density of Maerua triphhyla = 10000 x 4/50 = 800 individuals/ha

b. Importance value of Commiphora baluensis: i. Relative density= 600/1800 x

100 = 33.3%,

ii. Relative dominance= 40/100 x 100= 40%,

iii. Relative frequency= 0.4/(0.4+0.6+0.4)= 42.8%.

iv. Importance Value= Relative density+relative frequency+relative

dominance= 33.3+42.8+40=116.1

Unit 4. Ecosystem ecology

(a) Hydrologic cycle and its influence on nutrient budgets: hydrologic cycle
simplified below as:P=E+T+R+I. Where P=precipitation, E=evaporation,
T=transpiration, R=runoff, I=infiltration (downward entry of into the soil). Nutrient
budgets are strongly correlated with the hydrologic cycle in that precipitation
carries nutrients in solution, runoff and infiltration remove nutrients from the
ecosystem or move them down the soil column, and evapotranspiration of water
concentrates and conserves nutrients.

(b) Trophic levels: The result of grouping species based on feeding rela- tionships,
the feeding levels include Autotrophs, Decomposers, Herbi- vores and carnivores,
and Omnivores.

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 Ecology and Environment

(c) Steps in the Nitrogen cycle:

(1) Nitrogen fixation; this is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to

chemical compounds (

2) Uptake and protein synthesis: Nitrates are taken by plants from the
soil water solution and subsequently incorporated into protoplasm in the
process of protein syn- thesis

(3) Ammonification: After death plants and animals undergo the process of
decomposition. Ammonia is produced from the amino acids by the action
ammonifying bacteria.

(4) Nitrification: This is the biolo- gical oxidation of ammonia to nitrites and
nitrates.

(5) Denitrification: Nitrogen is returned to its atmospheric form in the

process.

(d) Efficiency of primary production: Energy bound = 6.6kg/m2 x 20mj kg-1;

Energy received per annuam = 18.2mj m-2 day-1 x 365 days; efficiency of primary
production= 132.2/6643 mjm-2 yr-1 = 1.98%

(e) Calculation of flux rates: Absolute flux rate= 20 units day-1/6 ha = 3.3 units
ha-1 day-1; Turnover rate= 20units/1000=0.02; Turnover time= 1000 uints/20units
day-1= 50days

Unit 5.: Natural resource conservation

(a) Alpha and Beta diversity: Alpha diversity is the number of species within a
selected area or community. While Beta diversity is the difference in species
diversity between different areas or communities.

(b) Levels of risk extinction:

(1) Rare; species have small populations in restricted areas and becoming
rarer (

2) Vulnerable; species under threat or population has not recovered from

previous over exploitation

(3) En- dangered; species has a very low population size

(4) Extinct: species no longer exists

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 Summative Evaluation

(c) Impacts of pastoralism: pastorallism has both negative and positive impacts
depending on the grazing intensity

(1) Alters plant community structure because animals graze selectively

(2) Alters productivity; at low to moderate levels of grazing may increase net
productivity while at high grazing intensities productivity is lowered.

(3) Transportation of nutrients in the ecosystem (that is, through fecal

deposits) this alters spatial patterns of soil fertility and favours increase in
plant diversity

(4) When overgrazing occurs it leads to increase soil erosion and eventually
decline in productivity

(d) Key functions of forests and effects of deforestation: Functions include

temperature regulation, flood control, regulates nutrient cycling, regulate soil
erosion and water cycles. Effects of deforestation include; recurrent floods and
disruption of local climatic patterns, increased soil erosion and loss of forest soil
fertility and loss of biodiversity.

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 Ecology and Environment

References
1. Barbour, M.G., J.H. Burk & W.D. Pitts. (1980). Terrestrial Plant Ecology. The
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc

2. Baronmark, C. & L. Hansson. (1998). The biology of lakes and ponds. Oxford
University Press

3. Beeby, A. & A. Brennan. 2003. First ecology. Oxford University Press 352pp.
Chapman, J.L. & M.A. Reiss. (1999).Ecology: principles and applications.
Cambridge University Press.

4. Hedberg, O. (1995). Features of Afroalpine Plant Ecology. AB C O Ekblad &

Co, Västervik

5. Hogarth, P.J. (1999). The biology of mangroves. Oxford University Press

238pp.

6. Pratt, D.J. & M.D. Gwynne. (1977). Rangeland management and ecology in
East Africa. Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company Huntington, New York.

7. Pullin, A.S. (2002). Conservation biology. Oxford University Press pp358.

Ranta, E., P. Lundberg & V. Kaitala. (2006). Ecology of populations.
Cambridge University Press 388pp.

8. Sutherland, W.J. (2006). Ecological techniques: a handbook. Cambridge Uni-

versity Press 448pp.

9. Wiens, J.A. and M.R. Moss . (2005). Issues and perspectives in landscape
eco- logy. Cambridge University Press 404pp.

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 Students Records

Students Records

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 Ecology and Environment

Main Author of the Module

My name is Dr. John K. Mworia (PhD), I am a lecturer at the University of Nairobi, School
of Biological Sciences. I specialize in plant ecology with a keen interest in invasive species,
biogeography and plant animal interactions and medicinal plants. You can reach me using the
e-mail address kjmworia@yahoo. com or [email protected]

88
The African Virtual University Headquarters
Cape Office Park
Ring Road Kilimani
PO Box 25405-00603
Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254 20 25283333
[email protected]
[email protected]

The African Virtual University Regional

Office in Dakar
Université Virtuelle Africaine
Bureau Régional de l’Afrique de l’Ouest
Sicap Liberté VI Extension
Villa No.8 VDN
B.P. 50609 Dakar, Sénégal
Tel: +221 338670324
[email protected]