PMP26W1- PESTICIDES AND APPLICATION

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PESTICIDES

At the end of this chapter you should be able to Explain pesticide usage as a pest control
strategy ( LO1)
Your explanation would be guide by the following assessment criteria:

AC1: Relevant terms and concepts in the context of pest control are identified.
AC2: Ways of naming and classifying pesticides are identified and described.
AC3: Advantages, limitations and health implications of pesticide usage are identified and
explained.
AC4: Pesticide usage in south Africa is critical assessed.
AC5: Ways for the proper and environmental usage of pesticides are recommended.
 PMP26M1/PMP21M2-PESTICIDES AND APPLICATION
Unit 1
Tutorial 1 –Questions Total marks = 90
1) What is a pest? (2)
2) Explain why each of the following organisms are considered a pest. (9)
2.1) Bacteria
2.2) Parasites
2.3) Fungi
2.4) Rodents
2.5) Weeds
2.6) Snails
2.7) Insects
2.8) Birds
2.9) Rabbits
3) Potatoes are considered a pest in a cabbage farm. Do you agree?
Elaborate (2)
4.1) What is a pesticide? (3)
4.2) With examples, briefly describe 5 types of pesticides. (10)
5) Identify and explain 7 criteria used in the classification/grouping of
pesticides. (14)
6) On the basis of their chemical structure, major pesticides are grouped
into chemical classes. Briefly describe 8 chemical pesticide classes (16)
7) Describe advantages of pesticides in modern agriculture (8)
8) Identify and explain limitations of pesticide usage in agriculture and
health (14)
9.1) Briefly explain the idea of integrated pest management (4)
9.2) Suggest what could be done to reduce over-dependence on pesticides
for agricultural production. (4)
10) Critically assessed pesticide usage in south Africa. (10)
Resources needed:

1) Yu (2015:31-100) Library

2) Pedigo & Rice (2009:368-390) Library

3) Pesticide booklet (1-8) : Pesticide Booklet. Directorate of communication. Department of Labour.

www.labour.gov.za. (Found online)

4) Rother and Jacobs. (1-16):Pesticides health risks for South African emerging farmers. Cape town, Surplus
project. (Found online)
5) Dent (1993:81-86) Library

6) Source has been attached on WhatsApp

7) Google
 Tutorials forms 50% of the test mark
Your written test contributes 50% of the test mark
Unit 1-3=Test 1 (100%)
Tutorial 1-3=50%
Written test =50%
Total for test 1=100%
1.1 Pesticide Names
What is a pest?

 A pest is any kind of living organism causing annoyance and undesirable effects to
humans and his property.

 undesirable effects (crops, structures, health, livestock, reduces aesthetic and recreational
value

 Pests include organisms in the following groups: Bacteria, Parasites, Fungi, rodents,
weeds, slugs and snails, Insects, mites, birds, certain forms of wildlife (e.g., moose,
rabbits) etc

 Unwanted potatoes in a cabbage crop is considered a pest. (Some plants or animals may
be desirable in one location and a pest in another).
What is a pesticide?

 A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing,

destroying, repelling, or lessening the damage of any pest.

 Pesticides also include products used to manage the growth of plants (e.g.,
growth regulators).
 A pesticide may be a
• chemical substance,
• biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria),
• antimicrobial agent
• disinfectant or
• device
How chemical pesticides are named?
There are three ways of naming pesticides:
• by trade name
• by common name
• by chemical name

 Trade names refer to the names given to

pesticide products by their manufacturers.
They appear prominently on pesticide labels
with the first letter or all letters capitalized. (
plate 1- LAMBDA)

 The product will usually be a mixture containing

one or more active ingredients and several
additives.
 Common names refer to the names of the
active ingredients in pesticide products. They
appear on pesticide labels in lower-case letters.
(Plate 2- Dimethoate)

 The same active ingredient can be made into

several different pesticide products. (Explain
why????)

 Chemical names refer to the names of the

chemical structures of the active ingredients
in pesticide products. They do not usually appear
on pesticide labels. (Plate 2: O,O-Dimethyl S-L
N-methylcarbamoylmethyl phosphoro-dithioate)
TYPES OF PESTICIDES
Pesticides are of several types depending upon the types of pests killed or
controlled.
These are fungicides, weedicides/herbicides, nematicides, rodenticides,
insecticides, and biopesticides.
1) Fungicides: These are substances used to eliminate the fungal infection on
crops and destroy fungal pathogens.
 Inorganic fungicides examples Bordeaux mixture, Burgandy Mixture, sulphur,
mercury chloride, etc.
 Organic fungicides examples are dithane S-21, dithane M-22, dithane Z-78 (all
carbamates),
 Phytochemical extraction such as Neem oil containing Azadirachtin and
Nimbin are antifungal in properties.
2) Weedicides/Herbicides: Herbicides and weedicides are used to kill the unwanted plants or weeds
in agricultural land.

 Depending upon the mode of action, there are selective and nonselective herbicides, contact
herbicides, translocated herbicides, foliage applied and soil applied herbicides.

 Herbicides can be triazines (e.g., atrazine, simazine), carbamates (e.g., thiocarbamates, phenyl
carbamates), auxin derivatives (e.g., 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) etc.

3) Nematicides They kill or repel nematodes.

 Examples Aldirab is used to kill the nematodes which infects the

 Methyl bromide (MB), ethylene dibromide (EDB), chloropicrin are also nematicides.

 Soil steam sterilization (SSS) or soil steaming technique is used to disinfect the soil from

nematode/pathogen by enzyme inactivation using heat treatment

4) Rodenticides It is commonly known as rat poison

Examples: warfarin, red squill, Zinc phosphide etc

5) Insecticides. Kill or repel insects. Insecticides are stomach/alimentary canal poisons

(poisonous on ingestion), contact poisons or fumigants (inhaled) to the insects.

 Natural insecticides include Azadirachta indica (Margosa/Neem), Chrysanthemum

(pyrethrum) etc.

 Insect growth regulator (IGR) are used as insecticide. These are substances that inhibits
the exoskeleton development or chitin synthesis,

 Synthetic insecticides are organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and

pyrethroids,
1.2 Grouping/ classification of Pesticides
Most commonly pesticides are grouped according to the following criteria:
 Their target (the pests they control/)
 Their mode of entry into target (contact and systemic-stomach)
 Mode of action (effect on the target pest)
 The time application (Pre-sowing, pre-emergence, post-emergence, postharvest
treatments.
 On the basis of their selectivity (non-selective and selective treatments)
 Their chemical structure (OP, SP, Carbamates, Amidines, etc)
 Origin/ Source (Inorganic pesticides and Organic pesticides)
 On the basis of their toxicity (WHO classes)
 On the basis of their use(Domestic, restricted, commercial use
 Based on the chemical formulation (Gaseous, liquid, solid)
 Based on environmental persistence/biodegradability (short to long term residual
effect)
 1.2.1 Grouping by Target

Pesticides are often grouped according to the pest they control.

Pesticide Target
Fungicide fungi (molds)
Herbicide weeds
Insecticide insects
Miticide or mites
Acaricides ticks
Nematicide nematodes ( eg roundworms,hookworms etc )
Rodenticide rodents
Molluscicide slugs and snails
Avicide birds
Ixodidicides Ixodides
 1.2.2 Grouping by Mode of entry into
target pest
Two examples in this category
 contact and
 systemic pesticides.
 Contact pesticides control their targets by
direct contact.
 Systemic pesticides control their targets by
being translocated into the target system
within the target.
 Some insects may be killed as they feed on
the juices which carry systemic insecticides
through a plant.
 1.2.3 Grouping in relation to time of application and stage of crop development
Both Foliar and soil herbicides treatments may be classified according to of time application and stage of crop
development:

1.Pre-sowing treatment: applied before the crop is sown

2.Pre-emergence treatment: applied between crop sowing and emergence
3. Post-emergence treatment: applied after crop emergence

1.2.4 Grouped on the basis of their selectivity.

Mostly on herbicides

 Total or non-selective herbicides treatments aim to kill all vegetation so they are used before sowing a crop or
immediately pre-harvest

 Selective treatment is designed to weeds without seriously affecting crops which are being cultivated.

 Selectivity may be due to: differences in retention, uptake, movement, metabolism and biochemical action
between crop and weed, or in timing and method of application.
 1.2.5 Grouping by Chemical Structure

 Pesticides in the same chemical family have similar chemical structure and usually have
a similar mode of action as well as similar poisoning symptoms, persistence, first aid,
clean-up and safety guidelines.

 1.2.6 Inorganic pesticides and Organic pesticides

 Inorganics pesticides: Compounds of toxic elements

 Organic pesticides: Chemical pesticides comprise either synthetic or natural products.

Naturally plant-derived products = botanical insecticides.
 Products that have no natural analogues = synthetic insecticides.
Some major chemical families of Pesticides
Inorganics pesticides
Compounds of toxic elements such as:
1 -Sodium Chlorate (herbicide)
Used in the total weed control in non-crop areas. Most effective when applied to foliage of actively growing plants.
2- Sodium monochloroacetate (herbicide)
A contact herbicide used post-emergence to control a wide range of seedling annual weeds in leeks, onion and fruit.
3-Trichloro-acetate (herbicide)
A soil-acting herbicide used pre-planting or pre-emergence mainly to control grasses.
4- Sulphur and Arsenic (insecticides)
Organic pesticides: Generally Extracted from plants/ plant products

1-Alkanoic Acids (Herbicide)

They exert both growth regulator and hormone type of activity on most broad-leaved species, both annual and
perennial. Alkanoic acids can enter both roots and shoots, and are readily translocated in herbaceous plants.
2-Carbamates (herbicides, insecticides, acaricides)
Carbamate herbicides are mainly soil-acting, used to control grass and broad-leafed weeds.
Carbamates also used to control insects and ticks
3-Ureas (herbicides)
Active through the soil and kills seedlings of most annual weeds soon after they begin to photosynthesize.
4-Sulphonylureas (herbicides)
Control a wide range of annual broad-leaved and some grass weeds in small grain cereals, rice and soya bean.
They are remarkable for their high effectiveness, with a wide margin of selectivity.
They can enter through both roots and aerial parts so can be used pre or post-emergence.
5-Organophosphate compounds (herbicides, insecticides, acaricides)
The most important organophosphorus herbicide is glyphosate.
Organophosphates insecticides and acaricides are Diazinon, Chlorfenvinphos, Caoumaphos etc .
6-Organochlorines (insecticides and acaricides) eg
Advantage of having a high kill rates & persistence were negated by problems of residual effects,
bioaccumulation in mammalian body fat & broad spectrum resistance.
7- Synthetic Pyrethroids (insecticides and acaricides) eg Deltamethrin, Cypermethrin. Flumethrin, Alpha-
cypermethrin etc.
• Based on natural pyrethrins & more stable than plant extracts.
8- Botanical insecticides (insecticides)
much safer than synthetic products. Some examples include
 Alkaloids (e.g. nicotine from tobacco)
 Neem extracts (from neem tree = Azadirachta indica) also Syringa tree in SA; a weed which is related to
neem tree).
 Pyrethrins (from Chrysanthemum pyrethrum flowers , grown as crops in many countries for extraction of
pyrethrins.

9) Formamidines ( acaricides) eg Amitraz

10) Macrocyclic lactones (Acaricides) eg Ivermectin, Avermectins
11) Triazines
1.3 Advantages of using pesticides in pest management
1.3.1 Eradication/control of pests
a) Pesticides afford the only practical control measure for pest populations
approaching or at economic threshold level.
o In integrated pest management, the economic threshold is the density of
a pest at which a control treatment will provide an economic return.
o An economic threshold is the insect's population level or extent of crop
damage at which the value of the crop destroyed exceeds the cost of
controlling the pest.
b) Pesticides have rapid curative action in preventing economic damage.
c) Pesticides offer a wide range of properties, uses and methods of application.
properties: from fumigants gases e.g. Methyl Bromide through short-lived
contact action e.g. acephate and long-term residual persistence e.g.
Endosulfan.
Uses: fumigants, smokes, aerosols, sprays, dust granules to oil, residual
fumigants, baits, and seed treatment, impregnated into cloth, timber and paper,
and administered as systemics to plants and animals.
1.3.2 Benefit :cost ratios for Pesticides use are generally favourable.

A farmer that has little amount of production due to crop losses will have to
raise its prices in order to continue in business.
Obviously, by using pesticides, farmers increase production. As such,
farming and pesticides make a good combination for lower prices.
1.3.3 Local and worldwide food supply is plentiful (Food security)
 There’s no argument that a reliance on pesticides permits farmers to increase
overall crop production.
 Pesticides can prolong the life of crops and prevent post-harvest losses.
 Currently, about 1 billion people around the world – one in seven of us – are
going hungry. To reduce hunger, we need to increase food productivity.
Pesticides help farmers do that.
 Pesticides enable farmers to produce safe, quality foods at affordable prices.
Abundance of nutritious, all-year-round foods, which are necessary for
human health.

 Exam question: Briefly describe the effect of pesticide use on food security
(6).
If pests are allowed to survive and to thrive, crops would be damaged.
Damaged crops means less availability. Less availability means higher
pricing (for example where higher pricing is caused by lower availability
(and more intensive husbandry principles). A farming world that
includes pesticides generates more crops and lower consumer prices.
1.4 Limitations/disadvantages of the use of pesticides (insecticides)
a) The genetically acquired resistance of pests to pesticide toxicity continues to be the most serious barrier to
the successful use of chemical agents.

Acquired resistance: Selection of a specific heritable trait in a pest population as a result of exposure of that
population to pesticides, resulting in a significant increase in the percentage of the population that survives
after exposure a standard dose of that chemical when used as recommended.

b) Development of Resistance(side, cross and Multiple Resistance.)

Side- resistance: decrease susceptibility to more than one chemical within same chemical class eg resistance to
two synthetic pyrethroids.
Cross-resistance: Decrease susceptibility to more than one chemicals within different chemical classes with
similar mode of action
Multiple resistance more serious and extends to a variety of classes of insecticides with differing modes of
action and different detoxification pathways
Phenotypic and genotypic resistance
• A distinction is made between the resistance phenotype and the resistance
genotype

• The resistance phenotype could be considered as how resistant or

susceptible a pest is to the effects of an application of any given acaricide.

• The resistance genotype is the genetic composition of the pest, which leads
to the expression of the resistance phenotype.
c) Resurgence/outbreaks of Secondary pests.
Insect and mite pest resurgence occurs when an insecticide or acaricide treatment destroys the pest
population and kills, repels, irritates or otherwise deters the natural enemies of the pest

d) Adverse effects on non-target species.

Population decline of birds on the higher levels of the food web
Herbicides can be indirectly responsible for the population decline of animals by destroying their plant food source.
Terrestrial invertebrates such as honeybees (pollinators) are extremely susceptible to organophosphorus (OPs)
pesticides.

e) Hazards of pesticide residues. MRLs in trade and exportation of food produce (food poisoning)

f) Direct Hazards from insecticide use.

highly toxic insecticides have caused the poisoning of people and wildlife.

f.1) Biomagnification and bioconcentration

Bio-concentration/ bio-accumulation occurs when a pesticides has a higher concentration in the tissues of an
organism, than in its surrounding environment. This is common in both aquatic and terrestrial
environments.
A pesticide is biomagnified if its concentration rises through the consecutive levels of a food web. This leads to
the highest levels occurring in predators and these levels are much higher, than levels initially applied to
land, crops or a water body.
Pesticides that are persistent to the environment such as
rodenticides, bio-concentrates or bio-accumulates more than
organochlorine insecticides, organophosphorus pesticides and
anticoagulant
f.2) Endocrine disrupting effects

 Pesticides mimic hormones endogenous to animal bodies (mode of action of

some pesticides).
 In doing so, they can activate or inhibit the natural responses to the hormone
causing disruption of the healthy process.

This is described as endocrine disrupting (ED) effects.
 DDT ( Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) has been shown to have
oestrogenic activity in birds.
f.3) Neurotoxic effects

 Pesticides are persistent neurotoxins and affect the transmission of impulses along the axonal membrane
(mode of action of commonly used insecticides).
 They have caused behavioural effects to applicators in the field by affecting the transmission of impulses
along the axonal membrane.
Some common effects are listed below
Assignment 1 (Do your research and read from library) Write about ……

Pesticide usage in south Africa is critical assessed. (100 marks)

1) Compare the total amount of pesticides used in SA to those in other countries.
2) Sector with most of the demand for pesticides in SA (Crop, forestry, built environment
etc).
3) Pesticides that have been banned/no longer used in SA (Provide reasons)
4) MRLs of some major cash crops exported by SA.
AC4: Identified and provide photos of Pesticides labels found within shops around your
community.

AC:6 Discuss how pesticide can be counter-productive in agriculture. Provide

Strategies used to reduce the usage of pesticides