INDU TECH 223

MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT

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Course Overview

Course No.
INDUTECH 223

Course Code BIT 2-C & -1

Descriptive Title MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT

School Year/Term 2023-2024 Second Semester

Mode of Delivery Modular Approach/Asynchronous (On-line)/Synchronous (Face to Face)

Name of Instructor/ Professor EDGAR R. ESCAMIS, LPT/ GENEZA T. SUHILLO, LPT

This course deals in understanding the relationships between properties,

structure, processing & performance of useful material products such as
metals, ceramics, plastics and polymers, which typically have completely
Course Description
different properties. It also includes the production of goods from raw
materials used in technology, to the processing of those materials into ways
that can be used for specific functions.

Knowledge (Think)
1. Recognize the different classifications of materials – its molecular
structure, properties and applications, compute the stress –strain of a
material and analyze the process of fabricating and annealing of metal
alloys.
Course Outcomes Values (Feel)
2. Display interest on the properties of materials classification
Skills (Do)
3. Identify classification of materials based on their structure and
properties.

A high quality corporate University of Science, Technology and

SLSU Vision
Innovation.

SLSU will:
 Develop Science, Technology and Innovation leaders and professionals;
 Produce high-impact technologies from research and innovations;
SLSU Mission  Contribute to sustainable development through responsive community
engagement programs;
 Generate revenues to be self-sufficient and financially-viable.

Grading System

Learning Task - 60%

Performance-based Task - 40%
TOTAL - 100%

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Submission Instructions

1. Answers must be written on a SHORT-SIZED BOND PAPER.

2. Upon submission, the following information should be reflected on every answer sheet.

Name: (i.e) De la Cruz, Juan A. Module & Task No.: _________________

Course & Year: _________________ Date Completed: ____________________
3. All answers on all test type should be written in CAPITAL LETTERS except for the problem solving and multiple
choice.

Personal Information of Faculty Concerned

I am Geneza T. Suhillo, graduate of Bachelor of Science in

Industrial Education Major in Food Trades at Southern Leyte
State University – Main Campus and a duly Licensed Professional
Teacher. A Part-time Faculty at SLSU-DIT and I will be your
instructor for this course.

Email: [email protected]
Contact #: +639664093672
Facebook username: Geneza Jing Telin

Module Guide

This module Materials Technology Management is purposely developed to provide service to students amidst
the challenges brought by the pandemic. Considering that face to face classes and interaction are forbidden, this module is
embedded with different principles of self-paced modular approach of learning process. With this approach, the students
are given wide latitude or greater flexibility and convenience in time and location as they undergo the move along their
learning process and comply to the course-set activities and requirements. Furthermore, this module should be complied
within the period of this semester after accomplishing the required course-set activities and requirements. Despite the
deadline of submissions, this module will responsively benefit the students considering that it will not directly imply time
pressure in answering the activities and complying the requirements. It does not require face to face class sessions yet
online consultations is needed when necessary. This material aids to improve memory, and it is suitable for different
students’ learning styles. The end goal is to develop the historical and critical consciousness of the students so that they
will become versatile, articulate, broad-minded morally upright and responsible citizens.

This module is structured with the following components to assist the students in the learning process and in
ensuring the realization of the intended learning outcomes of the module:

Intended Learning Outcomes. Students are informed on the expected competencies to be achieved after they have
finished the module. This expected competencies or intended learning outcomes are enabling outcomes to realize the
broad course outcomes expected to be achieved after the expiration of the semester.

Pre-Test and Post-Test. Students will be assessed in relation to the realization of the intended learning outcomes.
Pre-test will be facilitated to measure the extent of preparedness among students before proceeding to the new lesson.
While post-test will be facilitated to measure the extent of achievement of the intended learning outcomes. The nature
and extent of the tests are set as representation of the intended learning outcomes.

Learning Plan. Students will be introduced on the outlined subject matters or topics in this module. The subject
matters or topics are enabling contents to achieve the intended learning outcomes. Furthermore, students will be aided
with learning activities which will reinforce or enhance the learning process and prepare them for assessments. The
learning plan ends with a module summary of terms and concepts.

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 References. References are enumerated based on the cited sources of information. This is to provide students
additional means of information to read further for a more detailed and richer knowledge.

Moreover, this module strives to provide the students with a stimulating and well-organized learning
experience. The students are expected to be able to learn despite the self-paced approach depending upon their
convenience in time and location. This is to achieve development or attainment of the intended learning outcomes. The
developer is aware that some of the students, if not the most, are new to this modality, but the same assures the students
for a responsive technical assistance. For any questions, inquiries or clarification that may arise from time to time, contact
information of the concerned faculty are stipulated on this material for your reference.

Pre-Test

General Instructions: Complete the set of exercises. Provide the best answer on the following items below. Refer to the
submission instructions for this module that can be seen on page 3 to have a uniform format for your answers. Please write
your answer legibly and always avoid cheating. These set of practice problems are vital on your learning so take this
opportunity to learn and be equipped on the fundamentals of materials technology management. This Practice Exercise has a
bearing on your final grade so do your best. Enjoy and God bless.

A. Read and reflect on each item. Answer the questions briefly.

1. What is Materials Science? Why do we need to study Materials Science? Was it helpful?
2. How is Basic Science linked to everyday Materials?
3. What is the relationship of Science and Technology?
4. How do materials useful to human life and in the community?

B. Identify the correct answer being described by the statement provided. Choose your answer in the box.

Nickel Quartile Grey Cast Iron Raw Data Non-Ferrous Metals

Plastic Deformation Wrought Iron Interval Elastic Deformation

Nodular Cast Iron Ferrous Metals Composites Metal Alloys

1. It may be termed as one of the most important alloying elements. It improves tensile strength, ductility,
toughness and corrosion resistance.
2. It is the iron which is most commonly used in foundry work. If this iron is machined or broken, its
fractured section shows the greyish colour.
3. Refers to a metallic substance that is composed of two or more elements.
4. These are iron base metals which include all varieties of iron and steel.
5. Composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from metals, ceramics, and polymers.
6. It is the temporary change in length, volume, or shape produced in an elastic substance by a stress that
is less than the elastic limit of the substance.
7. A permanent distortion that occurs when a material is subjected to tensile, compressive, bending, or
torsion stresses and cause it to elongate, compress, buckle bend, or twist.
8. The purest type iron with a small amount of slag forged out into fibres.
9. It is also known as “spheroidal graphite iron” or Ductile iron or High strength “Cast iron”
10. Metals are those which do not contain significant quantity of iron or iron as
base metal.

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C. Discuss the characteristics, uses, and applications of the following:
i. Copper
ii. Aluminium
iii. Zinc
iv. Lead
v. Tin
vi. Nickel
vii. Magnesium
viii. Vanadium
ix. Antimony

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 Module 1: Introduction to Materials Science

 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the time the students finished the learning experience, they should be able to:

1. Discuss the historical view of materials used by early civilization;

2. Recognize the different classifications of materials;
3. Describe advance materials and its contribution to the advancement of technology; and
4. Explain the modern materials in the advancement of new developed technology.

Materials make modern life possible – from the polymers in the chair you’re sitting on, the metal ball-point pen
you’re using, the concrete that made the building you live or work to the materials that make up streets and highways and
the car you drive. All these items are products of materials science and technology. Briefly defined, materials science is the
study of “stuff”. Materials science is the study of solid matter, inorganic or organic.

All important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical, electrical,
thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking
different responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include elastic
modulus (stiffness), strength, and toughness. For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric
constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and
thermal conductivity. Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field.
For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are
representative optical properties. Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials. The
chapters that follow discuss properties that fall within each of these six classifications.

One aspect of materials science is the investigation of relationships that exist between the structures and
properties of materials. By structure we mean how some internal component(s) of the material is (are) arranged. In terms
of (and with increasing) dimensionality, structural elements include subatomic, atomic, microscopic, and macroscopic.

With regards to the design, production, and utilization of materials, there are four elements to consider—
processing, structure, properties, and performance. The performance of a material depends on its properties, which in
turn are a function of its structure(s); furthermore, structure(s) is (are) determined by how the material was processed.

I.
II. Lesson 1- Short History of Materials Science

Humans have been using different materials for at least 10,000 years as of recorded in history, but the real
beginning materials’ use were long before recorded history. In the “initial” or “first” material science era, men and women
used materials just as they found them with little or no modification even they had reasons for choosing wood or stone
objects for certain purposes.

In more recent times, during what is called the second era of material history, humans learned enough chemistry
and physics to use heat and chemicals to process natural materials to obtain what they needed. For example, researchers
learned how to separate metals from ore by heat and reduction. These processes made available whole new classes of
materials, most of them metals.

The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that occur naturally; stone,
wood, clay, skins, or so. With time, they discovered techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to
those of the natural ones. These new materials included pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that
the properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by the addition of other substances.

At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved deciding from given rather than
the limited set of materials best suited for application by virtue of its characteristics. It was not until relatively recent

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times that scientists came to understand the relationships between the structural elements of materials and their
properties. This knowledge acquired over approximately the past 100 years has empowered them to modify the
characteristics of materials at a certain degree. Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with rather
specialized characteristics that met the needs of our modern and complex society; these include metals, plastics, glasses,
and fibers.

Initial or First Era

The first materials scientists may well have been Grog or Grogette (a fictional character of
caveman origin) a.k.a “The First Materials Scientist”

8000 BC Hammered Copper Using things as found or with slight

6000 BC Silk Production
adaptation.

Second Era

5000 BC Glass making

3500 BC Bronze Age Changing things with heat or chemicals to
1000 BC Iron Age improve properties.

Third or Final Era

1729 ADElectrical conductivity of metals

1866 Microstructure of Steel
1866 Discovery of Polymers Understanding, making
1871 Periodic Table of Elements new materials
1959 Integrated Circuit
1960 Artificial Diamond
1986 High- Temperature superconductor

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 III. Lesson 2 - Classification of Materials

Figure 1.1. Physical Classification of Materials by State

Materials science and technology is a multidisciplinary approach to science that involves designing, choosing,
and using three major classes of materials—metals, ceramics, and polymers (plastics). Wood also could be used. Another
class of materials used in MST is composites, which are made of a combination of materials (such as in particle board or
fiberglass).

Metals

Materials in this group are composed of a one or more metallic elements (e.g., iron, aluminum, copper, titanium,
gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.
Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner. With regard to mechanical characteristics , these
materials are relatively stiff and strong, yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation without fracture),
and are resistant to fracture.
Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons. For example, metals are extremely good
conductors of electricity and heat, and are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous
appearance. In addition, some of the metals (i.e., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.

Figure 1.2. Familiar objects that are

made of metals and metal alloys

Ceramics

Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides,
and carbides. For example, common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or
silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si 3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics—
those composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic
materials are relatively stiff and strong—stiffness and strengths are comparable to those of the metals. In addition, they
are typically very hard.
Historically, ceramics have exhibited extreme brittleness (lack of ductility) and are highly susceptible to fracture.
However, newer ceramics are being engineered to have improved resistance to fracture; these materials are used for
cookware, cutlery, and even automobile engine parts. Furthermore, ceramic materials are typically insulative to the

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passage of heat and electricity (i.e., have low electrical conductivities,), and are more resistant to high temperatures and
harsh environments than metals and polymers.

Figure 1.3. Familiar objects that are

made of ceramic materials.

Polymers

Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic compounds that are
chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (i.e., O, N, and Si). Furthermore, they have very
large molecular structures. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly (vinyl chloride),
(PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber. These materials typically have low densities, whereas
their mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials—they are not as stiff nor as
strong as these other material types.
In addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily
formed into complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of
environments. One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest
temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are
nonmagnetic.
Figure 1.3. Several objects that are made of
polymeric materials.

Composites

A composite is composed of two or more individual materials, which come from the categories previously
discussed—metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that
is not displayed by any single material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials. A large number of composite types are represented by different combinations of metals, ceramics, and
polymers. Furthermore, some naturally occurring materials are composites—for example, wood and bone. However,
most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic (or human-made) composites.
One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers are embedded within
a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle),
whereas the polymer is more flexible. Thus, fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, and flexible. In addition, it has a low
density. Another technologically important material is the carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite—carbon
fibers that are embedded within a polymer. These materials are stiffer and stronger than glass fiber–reinforced materials,
but more expensive. CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace applications, as well as high-tech sporting
equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and skis/snowboards) and recently in automobile bumpers.

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 Lesson 3 – Advanced Materials

In this lesson we will be dealing with advanced materials – those used in high-technology applications, such as
semiconductors, bio-materials, smart materials and Nano-engineered materials. Advanced materials are typically
traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced, and also newly developed, high-performance materials.
Furthermore, they may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers), and are normally expensive.

Semiconductors

Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical conductors (i.e., metals
and metal alloys) and insulators (i.e., ceramics and polymers). Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these
materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the
concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial regions. Semiconductors have made possible the advent of
integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to mention our lives) over
the past three decades.

Biomaterials

Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body to replace diseased or damaged body
parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause
adverse biological reactions). All of the preceding materials—metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and
semiconductors—may be used as biomaterials. For example, some of the biomaterials are utilized in artificial hip
replacements and steel rod for broken bones.

Smart Materials

Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed that will
have a significant influence on many of our technologies. The adjective smart implies that these materials are able to
sense changes in their environment and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners—traits that are also
found in living organisms. In addition, this “smart” concept is being extended to rather sophisticated systems that consist
of both smart and traditional materials. Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor (that
detects an input signal), and an actuator (that performs a responsive and adaptive function). Actuators may be called
upon to change shape, position, natural frequency, or mechanical characteristics in response to changes in temperature,
electric fields, and/or magnetic fields.

Nanomaterials

One new material class that has fascinating properties and tremendous technological promise is the
nanomaterials. Nanomaterials may be any one of the four basic types—metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites.
However, unlike these other materials, they are not distinguished on the basis of their chemistry, but rather, size; the
nano-prefix denotes that the dimensions of these structural entities are on the order of a nanometer (10 -9 m)—as a rule,
less than 100 nanometers (equivalent to approximately 500 atom diameters).
Prior to the advent of nanomaterials, the general procedure scientists used to understand the chemistry and
physics of materials was to begin by studying large and complex structures, and then to investigate the fundamental
building blocks of these structures that are smaller and simpler. This approach is sometimes termed “top-down” science.
On the other hand, with the development of scanning probe microscopes, which permit observation of individual atoms
and molecules, it has become possible to design and build new structures from their atomic level constituents, one atom
or molecule at a time. This ability to carefully arrange atoms provides opportunities to develop mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, and other properties that are not otherwise possible. We call this the “bottom-up” approach, and the study of
the properties of these materials is termed nanotechnology.

Some examples that are made of nanomaterials:

 Catalytic converters for automobiles

 Carbon nanotubes
 Particles of carbon black as reinforcement for automobile tires
 Nanocomposites in tennis balls
 Magnetic nanosize grains that are used for hard disk drives
 Magnetic particles that store data on magnetic tapes

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 Whenever a new material is developed, its potential for harmful and toxicological interactions with humans and
animals must be considered. Small nanoparticles have exceedingly large surface area–to–volume ratios, which can lead to
high chemical reactivities. Although the safety of nanomaterials is relatively unexplored, there are concerns that they may
be absorbed into the body through the skin, lungs, and digestive tract at relatively high rates, and that some, if present in
sufficient concentrations, will pose health risks—such as damage to DNA or promotion of lung cancer.

Lesson 4- Modern Materials Needs

In spite of the tremendous progress that has been made in the discipline of materials science and engineering
within the past few years, technological challenges still remain, including the development of even more sophisticated
and specialized materials, as well as consideration of the environmental impact of materials production. Some comment is
appropriate relative to these issues so as to round out this perspective.
Nuclear energy holds some promise, but the solutions to the many problems that remain will necessarily involve
materials, such as fuels, containment structures, and facilities for the disposal of radioactive waste. Significant quantities
of energy are involved in transportation. Reducing the weight of transportation vehicles (automobiles, aircraft, trains,
etc.), as well as increasing engine operating temperatures, will enhance fuel efficiency. New high strength, low-density
structural materials remain to be developed, as well as materials that have higher-temperature capabilities, for use in
engine components.
Furthermore, there is a recognized need to find new, economical sources of energy and to use present resources
more efficiently. Materials will undoubtedly play a significant role in these developments. For example, the direct
conversion of solar power into electrical energy has been demonstrated. Solar cells employ some rather complex and
expensive materials. To ensure a viable technology, materials that are highly efficient in this conversion process yet less
costly must
be developed.
The hydrogen fuel cell is another very attractive and feasible energy conversion technology that has the
advantage of being nonpolluting. It is just beginning to be implemented in batteries for electronic devices and holds
promise as a power plant for automobiles. New materials still need to be developed for more efficient fuel cells and also
for better catalysts to be used in the production
of hydrogen.
Furthermore, environmental quality depends on our ability to control air and water pollution. Pollution control
techniques employ various materials. In addition, materials processing and refinement methods need to be improved so
that they produce less environmental degradation—that is, less pollution and less despoilage of the landscape from the
mining of raw materials. Also, in some materials manufacturing processes, toxic substances are produced, and the
ecological impact of their disposal must be considered.
Many materials that we use are derived from resources that are nonrenewable— that is, not capable of being
regenerated. These include most polymers, for which the prime raw material is oil, and some metals. These nonrenewable
resources are gradually becoming depleted, which necessitates (1) the discovery of additional reserves, (2) the
development of new materials having comparable properties with less adverse environmental impact, and/or (3)
increased recycling efforts and the development of new recycling technologies. As a consequence of the economics of
not only production but also environmental impact and ecological factors, it is becoming increasingly important to
consider the “cradle-to-grave” life cycle of materials relative to the overall manufacturing process.

 UNIT TEST

General Instructions: Complete the set of exercises. Provide the best answer on the following items below. Refer to the
submission instructions for this module that can be seen on page 3 to have a uniform format for your answers. Please write
your answer legibly and always avoid cheating. These set of practice problems are vital on your learning so take this
opportunity to learn and be equipped on the fundamentals of materials technology management. This Practice Exercise has a
bearing on your final grade so do your best. Enjoy and God bless.

 SELF-REFLECTION

1. What I learn today?

A. 2. Identify
What Ithe
need to learn below
materials further?
according it its category – metals, ceramics, or polymers. Give the rationale for
3. placing
Whatthe
canmaterial
I do improve mycategory
into the learningselected.
experience?

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 1. Tiles
2. Coin
3. Plastic bottles
4. Nails
5. Bricks
6. Cement
7. Frying pan
8. Gun Bullets
9. Glass
10. Stainless steel

B. Answer the following questions or complete the statements by writing the appropriate words in the blanks.

1. Materials science is the study of ___________, __________ or ____________.

2. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of ________________ and _______________.
3. A _____________ is composed of two or more individual materials, which come from the categories
previously discussed—metals, ceramics, and polymers.
4. With regards to the design, production, and utilization of materials, there are four elements to consider
— ______________, _____________, _____________ and ______________.
5. The first materials scientists may well have been ________________ – “The First Materials Scientist”
6. Some of the _______________ are utilized in artificial hip replacements and steel rod for broken bones.
7. __________________ are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed that will have a
significant influence on many of our technologies.
8. _____________________ is a multidisciplinary approach to science that involves designing, choosing, and
using three major classes of materials— ______________, _______________, and ______________.
9. __________________ are typically traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced, and also
newly developed, high-performance materials
10. Ceramics are compounds between _____________ and ______________ elements.

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 Module 2: Mechanical Properties

 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the time the students finished the learning experience, they should be able to:

1. Understand the concept of stress and strain of materials;

2. Differentiate the relationship between material stress and strain for elastic deformation; Calculate and
demonstrate the elastic properties of metals; and
3. Explain the concept of plastic deformation

I. Lesson 1- Stress and Strain

Basically, stress is defined as the component that describe the intensity of the
internal force acting a specific plane or area passing through appoint. (the arrows
shown in the figure are the different stresses acting on a certain plane).

There are certain types of stress that could act on a plane, one of which is the normal
stress. Normal stress is the intensity of the force acting perpendicular to the plane or
surface of action. This certain type of stress could be classified as tensile of
compression. Tensile stress are forces that pull or acts away from the point of action
and compression is the opposite of which.

In a numerical view of stress, stress could be represented as the force per unit area. It is typically denoted as
sigma ℴ and is expressed in Newton per square meter of in Pascals. The concept of stress could be correlated in the
principle of pressure where we take the forces acting on a certain area.

In order to describe the deformation of a body by changes in length of line segments and the changes in the
angles between them, we will develop the concept of strain. Strain is measured by experiments, and once the strain is
obtained, we can correlate it to the concept of stress to render the principle of deformation.

The same with the stress, strain has also a normal force or called as normal strain. This force is acting
perpendicular to the plane and typically dimension less for it only quantifies the ratio of two lengths.

Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate or contract, but they also cause them to change direction.
If we select two-line segments that are originally perpendicular to one another, then the change in angle that occurs
between these two-line segments is referred to as shear strain.

THE STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the body’s shape
and size. These changes are referred to as deformation. To understand the concept of deformation we can take the stress-
strain diagram to be our basis to define the various regions that will behave as we take deformation as our variable.

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Deformation of a body can occur depending on different external factors such as its elasticity, thermal adaptability,
pressure and even because of the material itself.

Elastic Behavior. Elastic behavior of the material occurs when the strains in the specimen are within the light orange
region shown on the figure above. Here the curve is a straight line throughout most of this region, so that the stress is
proportional to the strain. The material in this region is said to be linear elastic. The upper stress limit to this linear
relationship is called the proportional limit. If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend
and flatten out as shown. This continues until the stress reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching this point, if the load is
removed the specimen will still return back to its original shape. Normally for steel, however, the elastic limit is seldom
determined, since it is very close to the proportional limit and therefore rather difficult to detect.

 SELF-REFLECTION

1. What I learn today?

2. What I need to learn further?
3. What can I do improve my learning experience?

Lesson 2. Elastic and Plastic Deformation

Elastic deformation is basically the change or the reaction of the material under a certain factor (an external load
for example). The material reacts because of the loads being subjected to it but the reaction is relatively within the reach
of the material thus having no noticeable change in the material itself. If we take the stress-strain diagram, under elastic
deformation, the reaction exhibited by the material did not reached the elastic limit making it more conclusive that there
should no noticeable changes that could be seen in the material for under this region, if certain changes occur, the
material will still go back to its original state without physical change.

Under plastic deformation, if we take the diagram above, the elastic limit of the material was reached, and the
material starts to yield. When a material reached its yielding point, changes in its physical state could be felt internally. At
this point the material has a permanent deformity that cannot be reverse, if the external factor continues to disturb the
equilibrium state of the material it will continue to react until it reaches its point of rupture creating a permanent damage
on the general state of the material that cannot reversed.

 UNIT TEST

General Instructions: Complete the set of exercises. Provide the best answer on the following items below. Refer to the
submission instructions for this module that can be seen on page 3 to have a uniform format for your answers. Please write
your answer legibly and always avoid cheating. These set of practice problems are vital on your learning so take this
opportunity to learn and be equipped on the fundamentals of materials technology management. This Practice Exercise has a
bearing on your final grade so do your best. Enjoy and God bless.

 SELF-REFLECTION

1. What I learn today?

2. What I need to learn further?
3. What can I do improve my learning experience?

A. TRUE or FALSE. Determine whether the statement is true or false. Write TRUE if the statement corresponds to
the correct concept of the idea being presented and write FALSE if otherwise. If false, provide the correct idea
that will support your answer. 2 Points each.

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 1. A conventional stress–strain diagram is important since it provides a means for obtaining data about a material’s
tensile or compressive strength without regard for the material’s physical size or shape.
2. Stress and strain are calculated using the original cross-sectional area and gauge length of the specimen.
3. Important points on the stress–strain diagram is the proportional limit, elastic limit, yield stress, ultimate stress,
and fracture stress.
4. The elastic deformation of a material exhibits permanent damage on its physical state.
5. If the material is subjected by an external load, the material will react and eventually reach its proportional limit
and will create a noticeable change on it.
6. Normal strain is a force acting parallel to the surface of action.
7. Stress-strain diagram is the conventional way of showing the material reaction under certain factor.
B. Written Exercise. Answer the question below based on your own learning of the topic. Express your answer in
paragraph for. Limit your composition to 2 paragraphs only with 5 sentences each. Your answer will be graded
under certain criteria, make it on point and relevant.

1. In your own understanding, why do we exactly determine the material property or the behavior of a
certain material under a certain external factor? Does it necessary in the advancement of material
management? Support your answer.

Module 3: Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys

 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the time the students finished the learning experience, they should be able to:

1. Describe some form of ferrous and nonferrous alloys;

2. Differentiate the types of steel and cast irons composition, distinctive properties and their typical uses;
3. Discuss the process of fabricating metals;
4. Classify different methods of casting metals; and
5. Describe the three stage of annealing process;

Often a materials problem is really one of selecting the material that has the right combination of characteristics
for a specific application. Materials selection decisions may also be influenced by the ease with which metal alloys may be
formed or manufactured into useful components.
Alloy properties are altered by fabrication processes, and, in addition, further property alterations may be
induced by the employment of appropriate heat treatments. Therefore, in the latter lessons of this module we consider
the details of some of these treatments, including annealing procedures, the heat treating of steels, and precipitation
hardening.

IV. Lesson 1 – Types of Metal Alloys

Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes—ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous
alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steels and cast irons. These alloys and their characteristics
are the first topics of discussion of this section. The nonferrous ones—all alloys that are not iron based—are treated next.

 Ferrous Materials

Ferrous materials/metals may be defined as those metals whose main constituent is iron such as pig iron,
wrought iron, cast iron, steel and their alloys. The principal raw materials for ferrous metals is pig iron. Ferrous materials
are usually stronger and harder and are used in daily life products. Ferrous material possesses a special property that

15
their characteristics can be altered by heat treatment processes or by addition of small quantity of alloying elements.
Ferrous metals possess different physical properties according to their carbon content.

Iron and Steel

The ferrous metals are iron base metals which include all varieties of iron and steel. Most common engineering
materials are ferrous materials which are alloys of iron. Ferrous means iron. Iron is the name given to pure ferrite Fe, as
well as to fused mixtures of this ferrite with large amount of carbon (may be 1.8%), these mixtures are known as pig iron
and cast iron. Primarily pig iron is produced from the iron ore in the blast furnace from which cast iron, wrought iron and
steel can be produced.

Classification of Carbon Steels

Plain carbon steel is that steel in which alloying element is carbon. Practically besides iron and carbon
four other alloying elements are always present but their content is very small that they do not affect physical properties.
These are sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and manganese. Although the effect of sulphur and phosphorus on properties of
steel is detrimental, but their percentage is very small. Sulphur exists in steel as iron sulphide which produces red
shortness or manganese sulphide which does affect its properties.

Likewise, for production of cold chisels, punches and dies. Springs, broaches and reamers can be produced for
steel containing carbon. As the percentage of carbon further increases, it can be used for production of milling cutters,
anvils, taps, drills, files, razors, metal cutting tools for lathes, shapers, planner and drawing dies.

 CAST IRON

It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon content in cast iron varies from 1.5 to 4 per cent. Small
amounts of silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus are also present in it. Carbon in cast iron is present either in free
state like graphite or in combined state as cementite. Cast iron contains so much carbon or its equivalent that it is not
malleable. One characteristic (except white cast iron) is that much of carbon content is present in free form as graphite.
Largely the properties of cast iron are determined by
this fact.
Melting point of cast iron is much lower than that of steel. Most of the castings produced in a cast iron foundry
are of grey cast iron. These are cheap and widely used. The characteristics of cast iron which make it a valuable material
for engineering
applications are:

 Very good casting characteristics.

 Low cost
 High compressive strength
 Good wear resistance
 Excellent machinability

The main limitation of this metal is brittleness and low tensile strength and thus cannot be used in those
components subjected to shocks. The varieties of cast iron in common use are:
 Grey cast iron
 White cast iron
 Malleable cast iron
 Nodular cast iron

Grey Cast Iron

It is the iron which is most commonly used in foundry work. If this iron is machined or broken, its
fractured section shows the greyish colour, hence the name “grey” cast iron. The grey colour is due to the fact
that carbon is present in the form of free graphite. A very good characteristic of grey cast iron is that the free
graphite in its structure acts as a lubricant. This is suitable for those components/products where sliding action
is desired.
The other properties are good machinability, high compressive strength, low tensile strength and no
ductility. In view of its low cost, it is preferred in all fields where ductility and high strength are not required.

16
The grey cast iron castings are widely utilized in machine tool bodies, automobile cylinder blocks and flywheels,
etc.

White Cast Iron

It is so called due to the whitish colour shown by its fracture. White cast iron contains carbon
exclusively in the form of iron carbide Fe 3C (cementite). From engineering point of view, white cast iron has
limited applications. This is because of poor machinability and possessing, in general, relatively poor mechanical
properties. It is used for inferior castings and places where hard coating is required as in outer surface of car
wheels. Only crushing rolls are made of white cast iron. But it is used as raw material for production of malleable
cast iron.

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron. The white cast iron is brittle and hard. It is,
therefore, unsuitable for articles which are thin, light and subjected to shock and vibrations or for small castings
used in various machine components. The malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron by suitable heat
treatment, i.e., annealing.
The malleable cast iron is ductile and may be bent without rupture or breaking the section. Its tensile
strength is usually higher than that of grey cast iron and has excellent machining qualities. Malleable cast iron
components are mainly utilized in place of forged steel or parts where intricate shape of these parts creates
forging problem. This material is principally employed in rail, road automotive and pipe fittings etc.

Nodular Cast Iron

It is also known as “spheroidal graphite iron” or Ductile iron or High strength “Cast iron”. This nodular
cast iron is obtained by adding magnesium to the molten cast iron. The magnesium converts the graphite of cast
iron from flake to spheroidal or nodular form. In this manner, the mechanical properties are considerably
improved. The strength increases, yield point improves and brittleness is reduced. Such castings can even
replace steel components.
Outstanding characteristics of nodular cast iron are high fluidity which allows the castings of intricate
shape. This cast iron is widely used in castings where density as well as pressure tightness is a highly desirable
quality. The applications include hydraulic cylinders, valves, pipes and pipe fittings, cylinder head for
compressors, diesel engines, etc.

Compacted Graphite Iron

A relatively recent addition to the family of cast irons is compacted graphite iron. As with gray,
ductile, and malleable irons, carbon exists as graphite, whose formation is promoted by the presence of silicon.
Silicon content ranges between 1.7 and 3.0 wt%, whereas carbon concentration is normally between 3.1 and 4.0
wt%.
The mechanical properties of CGIs are related to microstructure: graphite particle shape as well as the
matrix phase/ micro constituent. An increase in degree of nodularity of the graphite particles leads to
enhancements of both strength and ductility.
Compared to the other cast iron types, desirable characteristics of CGIs includethe following:
 Higher thermal conductivity
 Better resistance to thermal shock (i.e., fracture resulting from rapid
temperature changes)
 Lower oxidation at elevated temperatures
Compacted graphite irons are now being used in a number of important applications, including diesel
engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, gearbox housings, brake discs for high-speed trains, and flywheels.

Figure 3.1. Microstructures of Cast Irons

17
 Source: Material Science & Technology, 8th Edition by William D. Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch

 STEELS

Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying elements; there are
thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat treatments. The mechanical properties are sensitive to
the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0 wt%. Some of the more common steels are classified according to
carbon concentration—namely, into low-, medium-, and high carbon types.

Low-Carbon Steels

Of all the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall within the low-carbon
classification. These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are unresponsive to heat treatments
intended to form martensite; strengthening is accomplished by cold work. these alloys are relatively soft and
weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable, weldable, and, of all steels,
are the least expensive to produce.

Another group of low-carbon alloys are the high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels. They contain
other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in combined concentrations as high
as 10 wt%, and possess higher strengths than the plain low-carbon steels. Most may be strengthened by heat
treatment, giving tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa (70,000 psi).

Tables 3.2a and 3.2b present the compositions and mechanical properties of several plain low-carbon
steels. In normal atmospheres, the HSLA steels are more resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon steels,
which they have replaced in many applications where structural strength is critical (e.g., bridges, towers,
support columns in high-rise buildings, and pressure vessels).

Figure 3.2.a Compositions of Four Plain Low-Carbon Steels and Three High-Strength,
Low-Alloy Steels

Source: Material Science & Technology, 8th Edition by William D. Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch

Figure 3.2.b Mechanical Characteristics of Hot-Rolled Material and Typical

Applications for Various Plain Low-Carbon and High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels

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 Source: Material Science & Technology, 8th Edition by William D. Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch

Medium-Carbon Steels

The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%.
These alloys may be heat-treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their
mechanical properties. They are most often utilized in the tempered condition, having microstructures
of tempered martensite. These heat-treated alloys are stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a
sacrifice of ductility and toughness.
Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts, and other machine parts
and high-strength structural components calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance,
and toughness.

High – Carbon Steels

The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%, are the
hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They are almost always used in a hardened
and tempered condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp
cutting edge.
High-carbon alloys, usually containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum.
These steels are utilized as cutting tools and dies for forming and shaping materials, as well as in
knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wire.

*Classified as high – carbon steels

Source: Material Science & Technology, 8th Edition by William D. Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch
Figure 3.3. Typical Applications and Mechanical Property Ranges for Oil-Quenched
and Tempered Plain Carbon and Alloy Steels

 Stainless Steels

The only material known to engineers which possesses a combination of various properties such as: wide range
of strength and hardness, high ductility and formability, high corrosion resistance, good creep resistance, good thermal
conductivity, good machinability, high hot & cold workability and excellent surface finish is stainless steel.
Alloy steels have been developed for a specific purpose. We shall study them as follows: They are known as stainless
since they do not corrode or rust easily in most of environment and media. Stainless steels can be further divided into the
following three categories:

1. Ferritic stainless steel: It is that steel when properly heat treated and finished, resists oxidation and corrosive
attacks from corrosive media. Ferritic stainless steels contain 12–18% chromium, 0.15 to 0.2% carbon besides
iron and usual amounts of manganese and silicon. The steels are stainless and relatively cheap. They are
magnetic in nature. Structure of these steels consist of ferrite phase which cannot be hardened by heat

19
 treatment. These steels are actually iron-chromium alloys and cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Such type
of steel is utilized in manufacture of dairy equipment food processing plants, etc.

2. Martensitic stainless steel: These steels contain 12–18% chromium and 0.1 to 1.8% carbon. These steels can
be hardened by heat treatment but their corrosion resistance is decreased. Steels with 12 to 14% chromium and
0.3% carbon are widely used for table cutlery, tools and equipment. Steel with little less carbon percentage and
higher percentage of chromium are used as springs, ball bearings and instruments under high temperature and
corrective conditions.

3. Austentic stainless steels: These are the costliest among all stainless steels. In these steels besides chromium,
nickel is also added. Nickel is a very strong austenitic stabilizer and therefore the microstructure of these steels
is austentic at room temperature. These steels contain 12 to 21% chromium and 8 to 15% nickel and carbon less
than 0.2%. The most familiar alloy of this group is known as 18:8 stainless steel i.e. 18% chromium and 8%
nickel plus other. Other elements like carbon, manganese and silicon in very small quantities.

 Tool Steels

Tool steels are specially alloyed steels designed for high strength, impact toughness and wear resistance at room
and elevated temperatures. They are normally used in forming and machining of metals. So the requirements in a tool
steel are that it should be capable of becoming very hard and further that it should be able to retain its hardness at high
temperatures normally developed during cutting of materials. This property is known as “red hardness”. Further, tool
steel should not be brittle for smooth working.

Figure 3.4. Designations, Compositions, Mechanical Properties, and Typical Applications for
Austenitic, Ferritic, Martensitic, and Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels

Source: Material Science & Technology, 8th Edition by William D. Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch

20
 NON-FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS

Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain significant quantity of iron or iron as base metal. These
metals possess low strength at high temperatures, generally suffer from hot shortness and have more shrinkage than
ferrous metals. They are utilized in industry due to following advantages:
1. High corrosion resistance
2. Easy to fabricate, i.e., machining, casting, welding, forging and rolling
3. Possess very good thermal and electrical conductivity
4. Attractive color and low density
The various non-metals used in industry are: copper, aluminum, tin, lead, zinc, and nickel, etc., and their alloys.

Copper

The crude form of copper extracted from its ores through series of processes contains 68% purity
known as Blister copper. By electrolytic refining process, highly pure (99.9%) copper which is remelted and
casted into suitable shapes. Copper is a corrosion resistant metal of an attractive reddish brown colour.

Properties and Uses

1. High Thermal Conductivity: Used in heat exchangers, heating vessels and appliances, etc.
2. High Electrical Conductivity: Used as electrical conductor in various shapes and forms for various
applications.
3. Good Corrosion Resistance: Used for providing coating on steel prior to nickel and chromium plating
4. High Ductility: Can be easily cold worked, folded and spun. Requires annealing after cold working as it
loses its ductility.

Alloys of Copper

Copper alloys are among the best conductors of heat and electricity and they have good corrosion
resistance. The common types of copper alloys are brasses and bronzes. The various alloys of copper are
discussed as follows:

Brass
All brasses are basically alloys of copper and zinc. Commercially there are two main varieties
of brasses:

 Alfa brass: Contains upto 36% Zn and rest copper for cold working.
 Alfa-Beta brass: Contains 36 to 45% Zn and remainder is copper for hot working.

Aluminium

Aluminium is white metal which is produced by electrical processes from clayey mineral known as
bauxite. However, this aluminium ore bauxite is available in India in plenty and we have a thriving aluminium
industry.

Properties and Uses

1. Like copper it is also corrosion resistant.

2. It is very good conductor of heat and electricity although not as good as copper.
3. Possesses high ductility and light weight so widely utilized in aircraft industry.
4. Needs frequent annealing if cold worked since it becomes hard after cold
working.
5. In view of its ductility and malleability it has replaced copper in electrical
transmission and appliances to some extent.
6. It is used in manufacturing of household utensils including pressure cookers.

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 Alloys of Aluminium

Aluminium may be alloyed with one or more alloying elements such as copper, manganese,
magnesium, silicon and nickel. The addition of small quantities of alloying elements converts the soft and weak
aluminium into hard and strong metal, while it retains its light weight. The main alloys of aluminium are:
Duralumin, Y-alloy, Magnalium and Hindalium which are discussed as follows:

1. Duralumin: A famous alloy of aluminium containing 4% copper, 0.5% manganese, 0.5% magnesium
and a trace of iron with remainder as aluminium is known as duralumnin. It possesses high strength
comparable with mild steel and low specific gravity. However, its corrosion resistance is much lower as
compared with pure aluminium. Due to light weight and high strength this alloy may be used in
automobile industry.
2. Y-Alloy: It is also known as copper-aluminium alloy. The addition of copper to pure aluminium
improves its strength and machinability. Y-alloy contains 93% aluminium, 2% copper, 1% nickel and
magnesium. This alloy is heat treated as well as agehardened just like duralumin. A heat treatment of
Y-alloy castings, consisting of quenching in boiling water from 510°C and then aging for 5 days
develops very good mechanical characteristics in them. Since Y-alloy has better strength at elevated
temperature than duralumin therefore it is much used in aircraft cylinder heads and piston. It is also
used in strip and sheet form.
3. Magnalium: It is produced by melting the aluminium 2 to 10% magnesium in a vacuum and then
cooling it in vacuum or under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres. About 1.75% copper is also added
to it. Due to its light weight and good mechanical characteristics, it is mainly used for aircraft and
automobile components.
4. Hindalium: It is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium with small quantity of chromium. It is
manufactured as rolled product in 16 gauge mainly used in manufacture of anodized utensils.

Magnesium

Principal ores of magnesium are magnesite, carnallite and dolomite. Magnesium is

extracted by electrolytic process.

Properties and Uses:

1. It is the lightest of all metals weighing around two-thirds of aluminium.

2. The tensile strength of cast metal is the same as that of ordinary cast aluminium,
i.e., 90 MPa.
3. The tensile strength of rolled annealed magnesium is same as that of good quality
cast iron.
4. Magnesium can be easily formed, drawn forged and machined with high accuracy.
5. In powdered form it is likely to burn, in that situation adequate fire protection
measures should be strictly observed.
6. Its castings are pressure tight and achieve good surface finish. Magnesium castings
include motor car gearbox, differential housing and portable tools.

22
 Lesson 2 – Fabrication of Metals

Figure 3.5. Classification scheme of Metal Fabrication Techniques

Metal fabrication techniques are normally preceded by refining, alloying and often heat-treating processes that
produce alloys with the desired characteristics. The classifications of fabrication techniques include various metal-
forming methods, casting, powder metallurgy, welding, and machining; often two or more of them must be used before a
piece is finished. The methods chosen depend on several factors; the most important are the properties of the metal, the
size and shape of the finished piece, and, of course, cost.

 Forming Operations

Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by plastic deformation; for
example, forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing are common forming techniques. Of course, the deformation must be
induced by an external force or stress, the magnitude of which must exceed the yield strength of the material. Most
metallic materials are especially amenable to these procedures, being at least moderately ductile and capable of some
permanent deformation without cracking or fracturing.

Hot & Cold working

When deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at which recrystallization occurs, the process is
termed hot working; otherwise, it is cold working. With most of the forming techniques, both hot- and cold-working
procedures are possible. For hot-working operations, large deformations are possible,
which may be successively repeated because the metal remains soft and ductile.
Also, deformation energy requirements are less than for cold working. However, most metals experience some
surface oxidation, which results in material loss and a poor final surface finish. Cold working produces an increase in
strength with the attendant decrease in ductility, because the metal strain hardens; advantages over hot working includes
a higher-quality surface finish, better mechanical properties and a greater variety of them, and closer dimensional control
of the finished piece.

Source: Material Science & Technology, 8th Edition by William D. Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch

23
 Figure 3.6. The Forming Operation: Metal deformation during (a) forging, (b) rolling, (c) extrusion, and (d)
drawing.

Forging

Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a normally hot metal; this may be accomplished
by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing. Forgings are classified as either closed or open die. For
closed die, a force is brought to bear on two or more die halves having the finished shape such that the metal is deformed
in the cavity between them (Figure 11.8a). For open die, two dies having simple geometric shapes (e.g., parallel flat,
semicircular) are employed, normally on large work pieces. Forged articles have outstanding grain structures and the
best combination of mechanical properties. Wrenches, automotive crankshafts, and piston connecting rods are typical
articles formed using this technique.

Rolling

Rolling, the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal between two rolls; a
reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted by the rolls. Cold rolling may be used in the production
of sheet, strip, and foil with a high-quality surface finish. Circular shapes as well as I-beams and railroad rails are
fabricated using grooved rolls.

Extrusion

For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is applied to a ram; the
extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-sectional area. Extrusion products include rods
and tubing that have rather complicated cross-sectional geometries; seamless tubing may also be extruded.

Drawing

Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a tensile force that is
applied on the exit side. A reduction in cross section results, with a corresponding increase in length. The total drawing
operation may consist of a number of dies in a series sequence. Rod, wire, and tubing products are commonly fabricated
in this way.

 CASTING

Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is poured into a mold cavity having the desired
shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but experiences some shrinkage. Casting techniques
are employed when (1) the finished shape is so large or complicated than any other method would be impractical, (2) a
particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold working would be difficult, and (3) in comparison
to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical. Furthermore, the final step in the refining of even ductile
metals may involve a casting process.

A number of different casting techniques are commonly employed, including sand, die, investment, lost foam,
and continuous casting. Only a cursory treatment of each of these is offered.

Sand Casting

With sand casting, probably the most common method, ordinary sand is used as the mold material. A two-piece
mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern that has the shape of the intended casting. Furthermore, a gating system
is usually incorporated into the mold to expedite the flow of molten metal into the cavity and to minimize internal casting
defects. Sand-cast parts include automotive cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and large pipe fittings.

Die Casting

In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a relatively high velocity and allowed
to solidify with the pressure maintained. A two-piece permanent steel mold or die is employed; when clamped together,
the two pieces form the desired shape. When the metal has solidified completely, the die pieces are opened and the cast
piece is ejected. Rapid casting rates are possible, making this an inexpensive method; furthermore, a single set of dies may
be used for thousands of castings. However, this technique lends itself only to relatively small pieces and to alloys of zinc,
aluminum, and magnesium, which have low melting temperatures.

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Investment Casting

For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is made from a wax or plastic that has a low
melting temperature. Around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry, which sets up to form a solid mold or investment;
plaster of paris is usually used. The mold is then heated, such that the pattern melts and is burned out, leaving behind a
mold cavity having the desired shape. This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy, reproduction of fine
detail, and an excellent finish are required—for example, in jewelry and dental crowns and inlays. Also, blades for gas
turbines and jet engine impellers are investment cast.

Lost Foam Casting

A variation of investment casting is lost foam (or expendable pattern) casting. Here the expendable pattern is a
foam that can be formed by compressing polystyrene beads into the desired shape and then bonding them together by
heating. Alternatively, pattern shapes can be cut from sheets and assembled with glue. Sand is then packed around the
pattern to form the mold. As the molten metal is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern, which vaporizes. The
compacted sand remains in place, and, upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold. With lost foam
casting, complex geometries and tight tolerances are possible.
Furthermore, in comparison to sand casting, lost foam is a simpler, quicker, and less expensive process, and
there are fewer environmental wastes. Metal alloys that most commonly use this technique are cast irons and aluminum
alloys; furthermore, applications include automobile engine blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine engine blocks,
and electric motor frames.

Continuous Casting

At the conclusion of extraction processes, many molten metals are solidified by casting into large ingot molds.
The ingots are normally subjected to a primary hot-rolling operation, the product of which is a flat sheet or slab; these are
more convenient shapes as starting points for subsequent secondary metal-forming operations (i.e., forging, extrusion,
drawing). These casting and rolling steps may be combined by a continuous casting (sometimes also termed strand
casting) process. Using this technique, the refined and molten metal is cast directly into a continuous strand that may
have either a rectangular or circular cross section; solidification occurs in a water-cooled die having the desired cross-
sectional geometry. The chemical composition and mechanical properties are more uniform throughout the cross sections
for continuous castings than for ingot-cast products. Furthermore, continuous casting is highly automated and more
efficient.

 MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES

Powder Metallurgy

Yet another fabrication technique involves the compaction of powdered metal, followed by a heat treatment to
produce a denser piece. The process is appropriately called powder metallurgy, frequently designated as P/M. This
method is especially suitable for metals having low ductility, because only small plastic deformation of the powder
particles need occurs. Metals with high melting temperatures are difficult to melt and cast, and fabrication is expedited
using P/M. Furthermore, parts that require very close dimensional tolerances (e.g., bushings and gears) may
be economically produced using this technique.

Welding

In a sense, welding may be considered to be a fabrication technique. In welding, two or more metal parts are
joined to form a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient. Both similar and dissimilar metals
may be welded. The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some diffusion) rather than just mechanical, as with riveting
and bolting. A variety of welding methods exist, including arc and gas welding, as well as brazing and soldering.
A relatively modern joining technique is that of laser beam welding, wherein a
highly focused and intense laser beam is used as the heat source. The laser beam melts the parent metal, and, upon
solidification, a fusion joint is produced; often a filler material need not be used. Some of the advantages of this technique
are as follows: (1) it is a noncontact process, which eliminates mechanical distortion of the work pieces; (2) it can be rapid
and highly automated; (3) energy input to the work piece is low, and therefore the heat-affected zone size is minimal; (4)

25
welds may be small in size and very precise; (5) a large variety of metals and alloys may be joined using this technique;
and (6) porosity-free welds with strengths equal to or in excess of the base metal are possible. Laser beam welding is used
extensively in the automotive and electronic industries, where high quality and rapid welding rates are required.

Lesson 3 – Thermal Processing of Metals

Earlier chapters have discussed a number of phenomena that occur in metals and alloys at elevated
temperatures. These are effective in altering the mechanical characteristics when appropriate heat treatments or thermal
processes are employed. In fact, the use of heat treatments on commercial alloys is an exceedingly common practice.
Therefore, we consider next the details of some of these processes, including annealing procedures, the heat treating of
steels, and precipitation hardening.

 Annealing Process

The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for an
extended time period and then slowly cooled. Ordinarily, annealing is carried out to (1) relieve stresses; (2) increase
softness, ductility, and toughness; and/or (3) produce a specific microstructure. A variety of annealing heat treatments
are possible; they are characterized by the changes that are induced, which many times are microstructural and are
responsible for the alteration of the mechanical properties.
Any annealing process consists of three stages: (1) heating to the desired temperature, (2) holding or “soaking”
at that temperature, and (3) cooling, usually to room temperature. Time is an important parameter in these procedures.
During heating and cooling, temperature gradients exist between the outside and interior portions of the piece; their
magnitudes depend on the size and geometry of the piece. If the rate of temperature change is too great, temperature
gradients and internal stresses may be induced that may lead to warping or even cracking. Also, the actual annealing time
must be long enough to allow for any necessary transformation reactions. Annealing temperature is also an important
consideration; annealing may be accelerated by increasing the temperature, because diffusional processes are normally
involved.

Process Annealing

Process annealing is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work—that is, to soften and
increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal. It is commonly utilized during fabrication procedures that
require extensive plastic deformation, to allow a continuation of deformation without fracture or excessive energy
consumption. Recovery and recrystallization processes are allowed to occur. Ordinarily a fine-grained microstructure is
desired, and therefore, the heat treatment is terminated before appreciable grain growth has occurred. Surface oxidation
or scaling may be prevented or minimized by annealing at a relatively low temperature (but above the recrystallization
temperature) or in a non-oxidizing atmosphere.

The various types of annealing process are described below:

Full annealing:

During this process, heating phase results in fine grained austenite and thus, fine grained structure is
obtained on cooling. This results in improvement in mechanical properties, high ductility and high toughness. It
is the process where hypoeutectoid steel is heated 30–50°C above the critical temperature, holding it for some
time at that temperature which heats the metal thoroughly and phase transformation takes place throughout.
This is followed by slow cooling in furnace. Heating rate is usually 100°C/hr and holding time is 1 hr/ton of
metal, cooling rate is kept from 10°C–100°C for alloy steels and can be 200°C/hr for carbon steels.

Partial annealing:

It is a process where steel is heated slightly above lower critical temperature and this annealing is
applied for hypereutectoid steels only. It is also applied to hypoeutectoid steels where hardness is to be reduced
while improving machinability. In this operation, pearlite is transformed to austenite and ferrite is partially
deformed into austenite. Heating and holding period is followed by slow cooling.

Isothermal Annealing:

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 Steel is heated in the same way as it is treated in full annealing and then it is rapidly cooled from 500°C
to 100°C below critical temperature. This is followed by keeping steel at this temperature for a long period
which results in complete decomposition of iron. Then this is cooled in air.

Normalizing

It is the process of heating the steel to the temperature 50°C or more above the critical temperature 723°C. Then
the steel is held at this temperature for a considerable period which results in complete transformation. This is followed
by air cooling of steel. In normalizing, complete phase recrystallization takes place and fine grained structure is obtained.

Here in cooling, rate of cooling is faster than furnace cooling. During air cooling, austenite transforms into finer
and more abundant pearlite structure in comparison to annealing. Properties obtained by normalizing depend on the size
and composition of steel. As the smaller pieces cool more rapidly because of more exposure area, fine pearlite is formed
and thus they are harder than larger pieces.

The object of normalizing is to refine the structure of steel and remove strains which may have been caused by
cold working. When steel is cold worked the crystal structure is distorted and the metal may be brittle and unrealistic.

Quenching

We have observed that to transform the austenite to martensite efficiently, the cooling must be so rapid that the
temperature of transformation is from about 750° to 300°C. This involves very rapid cooling and invites trouble of
cracking and distortion. The factors which tend to cause the metal to warp and crack are:

(1) When a metal cooled it generally undergoes a contraction which is normally not
uniform, but occurs at the outside surfaces and specially in thin sections of products.
(2) When steel cools through the critical range an expansion occurs.

Now if we would arrange to cool the whole volume of metal suddenly at the same instant, we should not
experience much problem with change in volume, etc. but unfortunately this is not possible. When we suddenly plunge
the metal into water from furnace at annealing temperature, the outer portion of the metal comes in contact with water
and is immediately cooled and undergoes its critical range expansion leading to hard and rigid skin of metal. The inner
portion of the metal, however, has not yet felt the quenching effect and is still red hot. When the quenching effect is
transferred to outer portion through critical range the outer layer does not crack.

The quenching rate, size and shape of the article affects hardening and elimination of
distortion and cracks. A special technique of immersing into the quenching media (may be oil, brine solution or water) is
adopted, as described below:

(1) Long articles are immersed with their axis normal to the bath surface.
(2) Thin and flat articles are immersed with their edges first into the bath.
(3) The curved article’s curved portion is kept upward during the immersion.
(4) Heavy articles are kept stationary with the quenching media stirred around them.

Very rough surface articles do not respond to uniform hardening, therefore this factor should be taken into
account before performing the quenching operation.

Tempering

Martensitic structures formed by direct quenching of high carbon steel are hard and strong but also brittle. They
contain internal stresses which are severe and unequally distributed to cause cracks or even fracture of hardened steel.
The tempering is carried out to obtain one or more of the following objectives:

(1) To reduce internal stresses produced during heat treatment operations.

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(2) To stabilize the structure of metal.
(3) To make steel tough to resist shock and fatigue.
(4) To reduce hardness and improve ductility.

Thus, tempering consists of heating quenched hardened steel in martensitic condition

to a temperature below lower critical temperature, holding it at that temperature for
sufficient time and then cooling it slowly down to room temperature. Tempering is
classified into the following three types:

(1) Low Temperature Tempering: The work is heated between 150 and 250°C for a specific time. The objective of this
procedure is to relieve internal stresses and to increase the ductility with much reduction in hardness. Low temperature
tempering is applied in the heat treatment of carbon and low alloy steel cutting tools as well measuring instrument and
components that have been carburized and surface hardened.

(2) Medium Temperature Tempering: The work is heated between 350 and 450°C for a
specific time before being allowed to cool off in air or quenched in certain media. The martensite is converted into
secondary tristate. The results provide reduction in hardness and strength of metal and improvement in ductility. The
process is utilized in production of laminated springs and coils to ensure toughness.

(3) High temperature tempering: It is done between temperature of 500 to 650°C which
completely eliminates internal stresses and provides toughness.

 UNIT TEST

General Instructions: Complete the set of exercises. Provide the best answer on the following items below. Refer to the
submission instructions for this module that can be seen on page 3 to have a uniform format for your answers. Please write

28
your answer legibly and always avoid cheating. These set of practice problems are vital on your learning so take this
opportunity to learn and be equipped on the fundamentals of materials technology management. This Practice Exercise has a
bearing on your final grade so do your best. Enjoy and God bless.

 SELF-REFLECTION

1. What I learn today?

2. What I need to learn further?
3. What can I do improve my learning experience?

A. Explain/ discuss the following:

1.) Why non-ferrous metals are used in industry in spite of their higher cost in comparison with ferrous
metals?
2.) Which types of metals and their alloys are used in various cutting and machining tools? Give reasons in
brief.
3.) What are alloy steels? Why is alloying done? How are alloy steels classified?
4.) What are the objectives of annealing process?
5.) Why non-ferrous metals are used in industry in spite of their higher cost in comparison with ferrous
metals?
B. Identify what is being described in the following items.

_________________ 1. It is a process where steel is heated slightly above lower critical temperature and
this annealing is applied for hypereutectoid steels only.
_________________ 2. It is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work—that is, to
soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal.
_________________ 3. These are metals whose main constituent is iron such as pig iron, wrought iron,
cast iron, steel and their alloys.
_________________ 4. A fabrication technique with two or more metal parts are joined to form a single
piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient
_________________ 5. A white metal which is produced by electrical processes from clayey mineral
known as bauxite.
C. Cite some advantages and disadvantages of hot working and cold working.

Hot Working Cold Working

Advantage Advantage
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
Disadvantage Disadvantage
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

Name: ___________________________________ Laboratory No: 1

Course, Yr. & Sec.: _____________________ Title: Classification of Materials

29
 This activity involves the student to establish the concepts of materials, their characteristics, and how this
relates to function.

Instruction: List at least 5 materials found in your home according to its category. Give the rationale for placing the
materials into the category selected.

Metals Ceramics Polymers

1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
4. 4. 4.
5 5 5

References

Bolton, W. 1989. Engineering Materials Technology, 2nd Ed. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. Linacre House, Jordan Hill,
Oxford, England

Callister, WD Jr. & Rethwish, DG. 2010. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 8 th Ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. 2008. Materials Science and Technology Teachers Handbook. Richland,
Washington.

Ashby, M. F., and D. R. H. Jones, Engineering Materials 1, An Introduction to Their Properties

and Applications, 3rd edition, Butterworth- Heinemann,Woburn, UK, 2005.

Ashby, M. F., and D. R. H. Jones, Engineering

Materials 2, An Introduction to Microstructures, Processing and Design, 3rd edition, Butterworth-Heinemann,Woburn, UK,
2005.

Ashby, M., H. Shercliff, and D. Cebon, Materials Engineering, Science, Processing and Design,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2007.

Askeland, D. R., and P. P. Phulé, The Science and Engineering of Materials, 5th edition, Nelson, Toronto, 2006.

Fischer, T., Materials Science for Engineering Students, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 2009.

Jacobs, J. A., and T. F. Kilduff, Engineering Materials Technology, 5th edition, Prentice Hall PTR,
Paramus, NJ, 2005.

ASM Handbook, Vol. 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2000.

Bowman, K., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2004.

Boyer, H. E. (Editor), Atlas of Stress–Strain Curves, 2nd edition, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2002.

Chandler,H.(Editor),Hardness Testing, 2nd edition, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1999.

Davis, J. R. (Editor), Tensile Testing, 2nd edition, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2004.

ASM Handbook, Vol. 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys,

ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.

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ASM Handbook, Vol. 2, Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials,

ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.

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