1.

Draw the Lewis structure of ions (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-70);

2. Apply the octet rule in the formation of molecular covalent compounds
(STEM_GC11CBIId-g-76);
3. Write the formula of molecular compounds formed by the nonmetallic
elements of the representative block (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-77);
4. Draw Lewis structure of molecular covalent compounds (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-
78);
5. Describe the geometry of simple compounds (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-81);
6. Determine the polarity of simple molecules (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-82)

In this module, we examine the relationship between the electronic structure

of atoms and the type of chemical bonds they form. Moreover, the role of chemical
bonds and lone pairs on the geometry and polarity of a molecule is discussed.

The following are the lessons contained in this module:

Types of Bonding and their Properties
Lewis Structures and Bond Formation
Molecular Geometry and Polarity

LESSON 1: Types of Bonding and their Properties

Atoms usually interact with other atoms or group of atoms. They might be
connected by strong bonds and formed into molecules or crystals, or they might also
form temporary, weak bonds with other atoms. These bonds hold molecules together
and are essential to the chemistry of our bodies and to the existence of life itself. In
this lesson, we examine the models of chemical bonding and their properties, and
how they influence the behavior of the substances around us.
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Figure 1. Three-dimensional structure of the flavonoid isorhamnetin. The figure

shows bonding of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms to each other.

What Is It

Why do atoms bond at all? The answer is that atoms are trying to reach the
most stable or lowest-energy state that they can. Usually, atoms become more
stable when their orbital of the outermost energy level or valence shell is filled with
electrons, satisfying the octet rule. If atoms don’t have this arrangement, they reach
it by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons via chemical bonds. In chemical bonding,
only valence electrons, electrons located in valence shell of the element, are
involved.

Figure 2. Energy diagram of bonded vs nonbonded atoms

Types of Bonding

1. Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side (Group 1(A) and Group
2(A) of the periodic table and nonmetals on the right side (except noble gases, group
8A) interact. This type of interaction is observed between atoms with large
differences in their tendencies to lose or gain electrons and is achieved via electron
transfer. Once the electrons have been transferred to the non-metal, both the metal
and the non-metal become ions. The metal becomes positively charged and the
nonmetal becomes negatively charged. An ionic compound is formed when the two
oppositely charged ions attract each other. For instance, positively charged sodium
ions and negatively charged chloride ions attract each other to make sodium
chloride, or table salt.
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Ionic compounds tend to have higher melting and boiling points. They are
hard and brittle and conduct electricity when dissolved in water. Some common ionic
compounds are magnesium bromide (MgBr2), magnesium oxide (MgO), and
potassium bromide (KBr).

Figure 3. Common elements that form ionic bonds (Orange = metals; Green =
nonmetals)

2. Covalent Bond
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms reach stability by sharing electrons
(rather than fully gaining or losing them). Covalent bonds are more common than
ionic bonds in the molecules of living organisms. These bonds mostly occur between
nonmetals or between two of the same (or similar) elements. One, two, or three pairs
of electrons may be shared between atoms, resulting in single, double, or triple
bonds, respectively. The more electrons that are shared between two atoms, the
shorter and stronger their bond will be.

Single bond Double bond Triple bond

Figure 4. Structures of some common covalent compounds

Compounds formed through covalent bonding are brittle solid, have relatively
low melting and boiling points, and are poor conductor of heat and electricity.
Several covalent compounds have high vapor pressure, which makes them volatile
and good as fuels. Propane, methane and gasoline are all covalent compounds that
readily undergo combustion, producing energy as a bi-product. Water and almost all
the
biomolecules that govern the chemistry in our body are formed through covalent
bonds.
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Activity 1.1: The Name is Bond… Chemical Bond

Directions: Fill out the table below with correct answers. The first one is done for
you.
Type of Good conductor of High Boiling High Melting
Compound Point? Point?
Bond heat or electricity?
NaCl ionic Yes Yes Yes
CH4
HCl
N2
O2
H2O
KBr
MgCl2
PCl3
CO
CaF2

Activity 1.2: Sketch it!

Direction: On a short bond paper, draw a real-life scenario or situation in which the
concept of ionic or covalent bonding is demonstrated or applied. Below your
illustration, write at least five sentences describing your output and explaining how
the situation is related to the concept of the type of chemical bond you chose. For
example, you choose the concept of covalent bonding and you will draw a scene
where two puppies are sharing a piece of bone and explain why the scenario is
demonstrating the concept of covalent bonding.

Follow-up Question: (Write your answer at the back of your drawing)

‘’What is the importance of chemical bonding in chemistry and in our life?’’

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LESSON 2:
Lewis Structures and Bond Formation
In lesson 1, we have learned that atoms transfer or share their electrons to
other atoms to become more stable, thus forming new substances. In this lesson,
the bonding models will be represented through Lewis dot symbols and structures
and the bond formation of atoms will be illustrated. Furthermore, we will learn how
to predict bonding and formula of molecular compounds though Lewis structures and
the application of the octet rule.

Activity 2.1: Meet the Nobles

Directions: Study the table below and answer the questions that follow.

1. To what group in the periodic table do the elements listed in the table belong?
2. Why are these elements called the noble gases? What is their common
characteristic?
3. Why are light bulbs filled with argon gas rather than oxygen gas?
4. How many valence electrons do noble gases have? Draw the Lewis dot symbol of
the noble gas Xe?
5. Can we relate the number of valence electrons with the stability of the element?

Lewis Dot Symbols

Valence electrons of an atom are better represented with Lewis dot symbols.
From the previous module, the number of valence electrons of a main block element
is usually equivalent to its group number. For instance, Carbon is a Group 4(a)
element, thus it has 4 valence electrons. The number of valence electrons of
Fluorine is 7 because it is in Group7(a). Magnesium has 2 valence electrons
because it belongs to Group2(a).
Lewis dot symbol is very useful when learning about chemical bonding, and
chemical reactions. It consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each
valence electron in an atom of the element. The dots are placed on the four sides of
the symbol—top, bottom, left, and right—and each side can accommodate up to two
electrons.
The choice on which sides to place two electrons rather one electron is
arbitrary since all four sides are equivalent. It is recommended that we spread out
the dots as much as possible. In general, we cannot write simple Lewis dot symbols
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for the transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides because they all have
incompletely filled inner shells.

Figure 1. Lewis dot symbols of some main block elements

The Octet Rule and Bond Formations

The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain, lose or share electrons
to have eight electrons in the valence shell or attain the same number of electrons
as the noble gas nearest to them in the periodic table. Noble gases are known as
stable elements as evidenced by their general lack of reactivity. All the noble gases
except Helium have eight valence electrons, that is why many atoms undergoing
reactions end up with eight valence electrons.

Octet rules does not generally apply to the d or f electrons. Only the s and p
electrons are involved in the octet rule, making it useful for the main group elements
(elements not in the transition metal or inner-transition metal blocks). Main group
elements have an octet which corresponds to an electron configuration ending with
s2p6. However, there are some exceptions to the octet rule: boron and aluminum
readily form compounds in which they have six valence electrons, rather than the
usual eight predicted by the octet rule. Sulfur, phosphorus, silicon, and chlorine are
common examples of elements that form an expanded octet or form compounds in
which they have more than 8 valence electrons. Moreover, in some cases, having an
odd number of electrons in a molecule guarantees that it does not follow the octet
rule.
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For instance, table salt or NaCl is the result of Na+ ions and Cl- ions bonding
together in an ionic bond. If sodium metal and chlorine gas react under the right
conditions, they will form salt. Since sodium is a metal, it loses an electron, becomes
positively charged and the chlorine gains that electron and becomes negatively
charged. The resulting salt is mostly unreactive — it is stable. It will not undergo any
explosive reactions, unlike the sodium and chlorine that it is made of. (Note that
each line that connects two atoms represents two bonded electrons.)

Figure 2. Ionic bond formation of sodium chloride

Referring to the octet rule, sodium has one valence electron, so giving it up
would result in the same electron configuration as neon. Chlorine has seven valence
electrons, so if it takes one it will have eight (an octet) and achieve an electron
configuration as argon. It is also important to consider that atoms are more stable
when they have smaller charge or no charge at all.
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Generally, the stoichiometry of a product of an ionic bond formation of a metal

and a non-metal is equal to the exchange of their charges. For instance, when
magnesium reacts with nitrogen at elevated temperatures, a white solid compound,
magnesium nitride (Mg3N2) is formed. Magnesium will lose 2 valence electrons to
achieve an electron configuration as neon, thus becoming Mg 2+. Nitrogen will then
need 3 more electrons to become stable since it has only 5 valence electrons.
Consequently, nitrogen will become N3- for gaining 3 more electrons.

Figure 3. Formation of magnesium nitride

In general, the product of ionic bond formation of the metals and non-metals in the
representative block is:

Figure 4. Formation of ionic bond product (M=metal; N= nonmetal; a and b =

charges)

In covalently bonded atoms, sharing of electrons is being exhibited by all

atoms involved to satisfy the octet rule. For example, two hydrogens share each of
their valence electron with each other to have two electrons in their valence shells
through a single bond. As a result, each hydrogen atom achieves an electron
configuration as helium, the nearest noble gas which has only 2 valence electrons.

2e- 2e-
Figure 5. Covalent bond formation of H2

Several atoms form multiple bonds to satisfy the octet. If two atoms share two
pairs of electrons, the covalent bond is called a double bond. This type of bond is
much stronger and shorter than single bonds. Carbon dioxide (CO 2) is one of the
compounds where double bonds are found.

Figure 6. Electron sharing of CO2 through double bonds

A triple bond arises when two atoms share three pairs of electrons, as in the
nitrogen molecule (N2). This type of bond is much stronger and shorter than single
and double bonds.
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Figure 7. Electron sharing of N2 through a triple bond

For the non-metallic elements (Families 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A), they can accept
a complementary number of shared bonds to reach the octet state. Family 4A can
share 4 covalent bonds (4 + 4 = 8), whereas Families 5A, 6A, and 7A can share 3, 2,
and 1 covalent bond(s), respectively, to achieve the octet state. Usually, the formula
of their product is equal to the exchange of the individual number of lacking electrons
they need to reach octet. As for the reaction of carbon and chlorine, carbon needs 4
more electrons while chlorine needs one more electron to satisfy the octet, hence
CCl4.

CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride)

Writing Lewis Structures

Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a
molecule, and the unbonded electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis
structure can be drawn for any covalently-bonded molecule. Lines are drawn
between electrons that are bonded to one another. Excess electrons that are not
bonded or lone pairs are represented as pair of dots and are placed next to the
atoms on which they reside. According to Brown, these procedures should be
followed when writing Lewis structures:
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Note that the central atom is the least electronegative atom in the molecule.
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons. It
increases from left to right across a period and decreases down a group. Moreover,
check the formal charge of each atom. It is imperative to remember that atoms are
more stable when they have lesser charge or no charge at all. Negative formal
charges should be assigned to more electronegative atoms. The overall formal
charges of the atoms being bonded should be equal to the overall charge of the
compound.

Figure 8. Lewis structures of some common compounds

Example: Lewis structure of phosphorus trichloride or PCl3

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Activity 2.2: Predicting Chemical Products

Directions: The following pairs of atoms form ionic or covalent compounds when
bonded. Complete the table below with the needed details. Two answered rows
serve as examples.

Charge of each Lewis dot

Lewis dot ion after symbol of
Type of
Atoms symbol of electron each ion if Formula of
Bond
involved each atom transfer if ionic ionic bond is the Product
bond is formed formed
Na, Cl ionic Na+ Cl- Na+ NaCl
Not
C, I covalent Not applicable CI4
applicable
Mg, Cl

Ca, F

Na, O

Ca, N

S, Cl
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Activity 2.3: Spotting Mistakes

Directions: The following Lewis structures are incorrect. Give the correct Lewis structure
for the molecule. (Relative positions of atoms are shown correctly.)

LESSON 3: Molecular Geometry and Polarity

The previous lesson helped us understand the compositions of molecules and
their bonds through the Lewis structure theory. However, Lewis structures do not
demonstrate one of the most important features of molecules—their overall shapes.
The size and shapes of molecules are defined by the distances and angles between
the nuclei of the atoms involved. In this lesson, we learn how to portrait a molecule
by writing a two-dimensional structure for it and translating it to a three-dimensional
shape, and we examine the effects of molecular shape on molecular polarity.

Activity 3.1: Review on Geometry

Directions: Draw a two-dimensional or three-dimensional illustration of the following
geometries:

Example: Square Pyramidal:

1. Trigonal planar (2D)

2. Square Planar (3D)

3. Octahedral (3D)

4. Trigonal bipyramidal (3D)

5. Seesaw (3D)

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Molecular geometry relates to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a

molecule. The size and shape of a molecule of a substance, together with the strength
and polarity of its bonds, affect the physical and chemical properties of molecules and
play an important role in their interactions especially in the life-sustaining processes in
cells. The angles and distances between each atom, bonding pair, and lone pair of
electrons are determined by the attractive and repulsive forces governing all matter.

Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

The approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell

Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR). This prediction is anchored from the
assumption that all electron pairs in the valence shell around a central atom repel one
another. These valence shell electron pairs are the ones involved in bonding and they
want to stay apart from each other as possible. They want to be in the most stable
orientation and the one with the lowest energy, thus, they assume a geometry or
orientation that will minimize the repulsions. The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:

VSEPR focuses not only on electron pairs, but it also focusses on electron
groups. An electron group can be an electron pair, a lone pair, a single unpaired
electron, a double bond or a triple bond on the central atom. The actual determinants of
molecular shape are classified into two groups: the electron-group and the molecular
geometry. Electron-group geometry is determined by the number of electron groups
or the number of atoms bonded to the central atom. Molecular geometry, on the other
hand, depends on not only on the number of electron groups or the number of atoms
bonded to the central atom, but also on the number of lone pairs or unbonded pair of
electrons on the central atom. When the electron groups are all bond pairs, they are
termed just like the electron-group geometry.

For this lesson, we will adopt the following notation: A denotes to the central
atom and X refers to another atom bonded to it. If there are lone pairs or unbonded pair
of electrons attached to the central atom, this is indicated by the letter E. Hence, AX 3E2
means that A has three atoms of X bonded to it and A also has two lone pairs of
electrons. To picture the three-dimensional shape of a molecule, black wedges are used
to represent chemical bonds coming toward you, while dashed lines are for bonds that
extend back behind the surface. Solid lines or “sticks” are used for the backbone of the
chemical structure and for chemical bonds on the same plane.

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Table 1. Summary of molecular geometry

Tetrahedral

Pyramidal

Bent
Trigonal

Seesaw

Seesaw
T-shape

Linear
bipyramidal
Trigonal

Square Pyramid

Square Planar
Octahedral

Figure 1. Ball-and-Stick representation of electron-group geometry

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Predicting Molecular Geometry

1.

2.

3..

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Molecular Polarity

Polarity is a physical property of compounds which relates other physical

properties such as solubility, boiling and melting points and intermolecular interactions
between molecules. It is a measure of how equally the electrons in a bond are
distributed between the two atoms involved in a covalent bond. Bond polarity increases
with the increasing electronegativity difference between the atoms in a molecule since
there is a shift in electron density towards the more electronegative atom. In a few
cases, a symmetrical arrangement gives rise to a non-polar molecule even though a
molecule may have polar bonds.

The shift in electron density is symbolized by a crossed arrow ( ) with the arrow
pointing toward the direction of the shift. For instance, the shift in electron density points
toward fluorine in the polar HF molecule since it is more electronegative than hydrogen.

Polar molecules exhibit dipole moments while nonpolar molecules do not. In the
presence of an electric field, the positive end of the molecules positions itself towards
the negative plate. The molecular geometry determines whether the molecule is polar or
not. Molecules whose atoms have equal or nearly equal electronegativities are
nonpolar. A molecule with polar bonds, but the molecular geometry is symmetrical
allowing the bond dipoles to cancel each other out like in the molecule C02 is also
nonpolar.

Figure 2. Some common polar compounds

Figure 3. Some common nonpolar compounds

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Activity 3.2: Synthesizing concepts

Directions: Complete the table below with correct answers. The first one is done for
you.

Covalent
Lewis Structure with Geometry
Compoun Polar or Nonpolar?
correct geometry Name
d

CO2 Linear Nonpolar

CH4

NH3

SF4

XeOF4

SF6

Activity 3.3: Modified true or false

Directions: Write T if the statement is true. If the statement is false, underline the word
which makes it wrong and write the correct word on the space provided.

1. H2 is a polar molecule.

2. Water has a trigonal planar molecular geometry.

3. Asymmetric covalent compounds are usually nonpolar.

4. A molecule in which its central atom has 2 lone pairs and 3 bonding pairs
of electrons has a T-shape molecular geometry.

5. The central atom in the compound SF6 should be fluorine.

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