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1. Basics of power electronics

Important Fourier series representations:
S. Signal Fourier series expansion
No
1. 4A
V0 = 
n =1,3,5
n
Sinnt

2. 4A
V0 = 
n =1,3,5
n
Sin(nt − n)

3. 4A  n  n
V0 = 
n =1,3,5
n
Cos 
 2 
 Sin(nt −
2
)

4. 6A
V0 = 
n =1,5,7
n
Sinnt :

Each pulse width of 600 Duration

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• For output of half wave uncontrolled rectifier Fourier series expression is

A A 2A
V0 = + Sin t +
 2  2
n = 2,4,6 (1 − n )
cosnt ; Where A= Amplitude of signal

• For output of Full wave uncontrolled rectifier Fourier series expression is

2A 2A
V0 =

+ (fundamental = 0) + 2  2
n =2,4,6 (1 − n )
cosnt

• Two switching quarter per cycle (topic of inverters):

4A
Fourier series expansion is V0 =
n
(1 − 2 cosn1 + 2 cosn2 )

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2. Power semiconductor devices

S.No Device Features

1 Diode • Uncontrolled device
• Unipolar and unidirectional
2 BJT/MOSFET/IGBT • Fully controlled
• Unipolar and unidirectional (Without body
diodes)

3 SCR and GTO • SCR-Semi controlled

• GTO- Fully controlled
• Both are Bipolar and unidirectionaL
4 TRIAC • Semi controlled device
• Bipolar and Bidirectional

• Conduction losses in BJT is less than MOSFET.

• Switching time in MOSFET is less than BJT.
• Majority carrier devices: MOSFET and Schottky diode are having positive temperature
coefficient property.
• Minority carrier devices: SCR, BJT, GTO, IGBT, Power diode and having Negative
Temperature Coefficient property.
• IGBT was developed in 1988 by combining the advantage of both BJT and MOSFET. IGBT
possesses high input impedance like a MOSFET and has low on-state voltage as in a BJT.
It does not suffer from secondary breakdown problems. The turn-on speed can be
controlled by the rate of change of gate-source voltage.
• The turn-off time of IGBT consists of three intervals: (i) delay time, (ii) initial fall time (iii)
final fall time.
• SIT is a high-power high-frequency solid-state semiconductor device. It is basically n+ n- n
device with a buried grid-like p+ gate structure
• The SIT has been used in audio, VHF/UHF and microwave amplifiers. The reliability, noise,
switching speed and radiation hardness of SIT are claimed to be superior to MOSFET. It
has lower gate-to-source capacitance and resistance.
• SCR is a four-layer, three junctions, p-n-p-n switching device. It has three terminals
namely anode, cathode, and gate. It is called SCR because silicon is used for construction
and its operation is similar to a rectifier i.e., very low resistance in forward conduction
and very high resistance in a reverse direction.
• SCR is a unidirectional device as the current can be low only from anode to cathode and it
is a bilateral switch which means it can block the voltage of either direction. SCR does not
allow conduction in forward direction until its gate terminal gets a proper triggering
signal.
• SCR has three modes of operations:
i. Forward blocking mode
ii. Forward conduction mode
iii. Reverse blocking mode

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• SCR can be turned-on by following methods:

i. Forward voltage triggering
dv
ii. triggering
dt
iii. gate triggering
iv. light triggering
• SCR turn-off means that it has changed from on to off state. SCR turn-off contains two
steps:
(a) Reducing the anode current below holding current
(b) Removal of stored charges from the semiconductor layer
• Circuit turn-off time (tc) is defined as the time between the instant anode current
becomes zero and the instant reverse voltage due to the practical circuit reaches zero.
• For reliable turn-off tc should be greater than tq, otherwise the device may turn on at an
undesired instant, a process called commutation failure.
• For reliable and satisfactory operation of SCR, it must be protected against all abnormal
di
conditions. These conditions are over voltages, over currents, high , false triggering
dt
dv
due to high value of and spurious signal across gate-cathode terminal may lead to
dt
unwanted turn-on.
• By using a small inductor called a limiting inductor in series with the anode circuit can be
di
used for protection.
dt
• If the rate of rise of the suddenly applied voltage across the thyristor is high the device
dv
may get turned on. Such phenomena of turning on a thyristor called turn-on, it must
dt
be avoided as it leads to false operation. False turn-on of an SCR by large change of
voltage even without application of gate signal can be prevented by using a snubber
circuit in parallel with the device.
• To suppress these over voltages, voltage clamping device is used. a voltage clamping
device is a non-linear resistor connected across SCR. Voltage clamping device has falling
resistance characteristic with increasing voltage. Under normal conditions the device has
a high resistance and draws only a small leakage current. When a voltage surge appears,
the voltage clamping device operates in lower assistance region and produces a short
circuit across SCR.
• To protect SCR from overcurrent we can use two devices namely fast acting current
limiting fuse (FACLF), circuit Breakers.
• During conduction power loss occurs in SCR due to
i) Forward conduction loss
ii) gate triggering loss
iii) Switching loss
iv) loss due to leakage current

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1.Static V-I characteristics of SCR:

• Latching Current: Minimum current required for conduction even after the gate pulse is
removed.
• Holding Current: Minimum Current below which SCR is turned off
• Usually Latching current is 1.5 to 3 times of Holding current
2.Thermal equivalent circuit:
JC is the thermal resistance between the junction and case
CS is the thermal resistance between the case and sink
SA is the thermal resistance between the sink and ambiance

TJ – TC T − TS T − TA
Pavg = = C = S
JC CS SA

Rating of thyristor ∝ Pavg

3.Charge stored in depletion region:

Let QR be the charge stored in depletion region of power diode.
1
QR = .I .t
2 RM rr
2QR di
IRM = = ta.
trr dt

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2QR
If ta  trr , trr =
di / dt
di  di 
IRM = trr . = 2QR  
dt  dt 
trr  QR

QR  If
trr  If
IRM  If

4.Design of Snubber circuit:

For Inductor (L ) :
 di  V
  = s
dt
 max L
Vs
L=
( di dt )max
For resistor (R ) :
 dvs   di 
  = R 
 dt max  dt max
L  dvs 
or R=  
Vs  dt max
For Capacitor ( C ) :
2
 2ξ 
C=   L where 0.5 < ξ < 1
R 
5.Series and parallel operation of SCR:
Actual voltage/current rating of string.
• String efficiency =
n×individual voltage/current rating of SCR

Where n is the number of SCR in string.

Derating factor, DRF=1- string efficiency.

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• Series operation:

nVbm − Vs
Static equalizing resistance R = 
(n − 1)Ib

(n − 1)Q
Dynamic equalizing capacitance C = F
nVbm − Vs

• Parallel operation.
When current required by the load is more than the rated current of a single thyristor,
SCRs are connected in parallel.

I1 + I2 1 
String efficiency = = 1 + I2 
2I1 2 I1 

6.Ratings of Thyristors:
1)ITrms Rating: The actual Thyristor rms in a converter must always be less than thyristor
RMS ratings.
ITrms value in a converter < Ifrms rating.
2)ITavg Rating: (average on-state current ratings)
(IT )rms Rating
(ITavg) rating =
Form Factor of thyristor current waveform

Average rating of a thyristor depends on:

• Conduction angle of thyristor increases which decrease the form factor and then
increase the average thyristor rating.
• Type of load: Smoothness of thyristor current waveform increase the FF decreases
and therefore (ITavg)Rating increases.
• Type of converter: because FF of thyristor waveform depends on average value of
converter.

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3)I2t Rating of thyristor: specified to select a proper fuse for overcurrent protection.
I2t current Rating of thyristor > I2t current Rating of Fuse.
4)Surge current rating of thyristor:
General values
(IT)rms = 35A
(IS)rms = 2000A for one cycle and 3000A for 2MW
N-cycle surge current rating: (Im): It is the surge current that the SCR can withstand
for n-cycles.

 nT 
(ISn )2  2
 = I t rating of thy from the equation, we can find the value of ‘Isn’
 2 

One-cycle surge current rating (Is): It is the surge current that the SCR can withstand

for a cycle. I2s1 = (Isn )2 IS1 = n Isn

Sub-cycle surge current rating: It is the surge current that the SCR can withstand for

Is
1/nth period of a cycle. (Is/n )2 = (Isn )2 = n Is1
n

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3. RECTIFIERS
• For n-pulse converter:
Source current has nk  1 Harmonics k=1,2,3…….
Output voltage has nk Harmonics.
1.Single Phase Half Wave controlled rectifier:
R-load:
Vm
Average output voltage Vo,avg =
2
(1 + cos  )
2
Vm  sin2 
RMS output voltage Vo,rms =  ( − ) + 
4  2 

RL-Load:
Vm
Average output voltage Vo,avg =
2
( cos  − cos  )

Vm  1 
RMS output voltage Vo,avg =  ( − ) + (sin2 − sin2 
2   2 

2 − 
Circuit Turnoff time: tc =

For a constant output current refer below table:
1- Full conv. 3  Full conv. 1  Semi conv. 3  semi conv.
Output voltage 2Vm 3Vm,line Vm 3Vm,line

cos 
cos  
(1 + cos  ) (1 + cos  )
 2

Fundamental 2 2 6 2 2  6 

I I I0 cos   I0 cos  
source current  0  0  2  2
RMS ( Is1 )

Source current I0 2 − 2

I I0   600 → I0
RMS ( Is ) 3 0  3
−
  600 → I0


Displacement cos  cos   

cos   cos  
power factor 2 2
(DPF)
➢
I s1
• Distortion factor (DF) =
Is
• Input power Factor= DF*DPF
2
 1 
• Total Harmonic distortion =   −1
 DF 

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For R-Load refer below table:

3  Half wave rectifier 3  full wave rectifier
Continuous   300   600

3Vm,line 3Vm,line
Cos  cos 
2

Hint:
Hint:
Integrate from 30+ to 150+ 
Integrate from 60+  to 120+ 
and Time period T=1200 and
and Time period T=600 and
function take in phase, you will
function take in line, you will
get above formula
get above formula
Like this
1 150 + 

2
  30 + 
Vm,phase Sin t dwt
 3 
 
Discontinuous   300   600

3Vm,phase     3Vm,line    
V0 = 1 + cos   +   V0 = 1 + cos   +  
2   6     3 

Hint: Hint:
Integrate from 30+  to 1800 Integrate from 60+  to 1800
and Time period T=1200 and and Time period T=600 and
function take in phase, you will function take in line, you will
get above formula get above formula

Effect of Source Inductance:

• 1 Half wave:
Vm
V0 =
2
(1 + cos  ) − fL sI0
Vm
I0 =
LS
(cos  − cos( +  )

• 1  Full wave:
2Vm
V0 = cos  − 4fL sI0


Vm
I0 =
2LS
(cos  − cos( +  )
cos  − cos( + )
Regulation =
2 cos 

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 
Displacement power factor: cos   + 
 2

➢ 3 Full Wave:
3Vm,line
V0 = cos  − 6fL sI0

Vm,line
I0 =
2LS
( cos  − cos( +  )
Single Phase Full converter:
Source current waveform:

2 2
Fundamental source current is is1 = I
 0
Single phase half controlled or Semi converter:
Source current waveform:

• In this there are two configurations:

Symmetrical configuration: On one leg one thyristor and one diode
Unsymmetrical configuration: on one leg two thyristors or two diodes
 represents conduction in below table

D- Diode, T-Thyristor, -Firing angle

Symmetrical Unsymmetrical Full converter with
configuration configuration Freewheeling diode
T =  T =  −  T =  − 

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D =  D =  +  D = 2

3-Phase:
3Phase half wave-controlled rectifiers:
• Take phase voltage reference in the integration function for the below mentioned limits for
calculations

• For R-Load   300

  300 : Continuous conduction: 30+  to 150+ 

  300 : Discontinuous conduction: 30+  to 1800

• For current stiff load:

Without Freewheeling diode: 30+  to 150+ 

With Freewheeling diode:   300 :30+  to 150+ 

  300 : 30+  to 1800

• Mentioned limits are useful while calculating output voltage average or RMS values for those
particular conditions. Use phase as reference while doing calculations of average and RMS
3Phase full wave-controlled Rectifiers:
• Take Line voltage reference in the integration function for the below mentioned limits for
calculations
• Limits are 60+  to 120+  for calculating output voltage average or RMS value
• Circuit Turnoff time:

2400 − 
  600 , tc =


1800 − 
  600 , tc =


3Phase semi converter:

  600 it is 6 Pulse converter

  600 it is 3 Pulse converter

• Freewheeling Action Duration:

  600 , Duration = zero (No freewheeling action)

 
  600 , Duration= 3   − 
 3

• Limits for calculating output voltage average or RMS values (Line voltages are reference)
0 0
  600 : 60 +  to 120 → VAB reference

: 1200 to 1800 +  → VAC reference

0 0
  600 : 60 +  to 240 → VAC reference

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4.Commutation Techniques
1) Class A Commutation (Load Commutation/self-commutation)

• For successful Load commutation, circuit must be under damped

• For under damped I = Ip e−t Sin r t

Vs R
Ip = ,  = Dampingfactor = , r2 = 20 − 2
rL 2L

1
r is ringing frequency, 0 = Naturalfrequency =
LC


• Conduction time of thyristor, t c =
r

2) Class B Commutation/Current Commutation/Resonant pulse commutation:

• Voltage across capacitor Vc = Vs cos ω0t

Vab
• Circuit turn-off time for the main thyristor (T1 ); tc = C
I0

Vab = Vs cos 0 (t3 − t2 )

Where t3 = time when the main thyristor is turned off

t2= time when auxiliary thyristor is turned off
I 
0 (t3 − t2 ) = sin−1  0 
I 
 p
• Main thyristor peak current =I0

C
• Auxiliary Thyristor peak current= Vs
L

• Conduction time of auxiliary thyristor=  LC

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I 
• Conduction time of main thyristor =  LC + LC sin−1  0 
 Ip 
 

Minimum Conduction time of main thyristor=  LC

3
Maximum Conduction time of main thyristor =  LC
2
C
• Time for which capacitor current exists = ( V + Vs )
I0 ab

3) Class C Commutation (Impulse/Complementary commutation):

When T1 is turned on at t=0

Vs
• The charging current Is = . e− t /R2 C
Rz

• Voltage across capacitor

Vc (t) = Vs (1 − e−t/R2 C )

When T1 is to be turned-off, T2 is turned-on at T1

2VS −t /R1C
• The charging current Ic (t) = − .e
R1

• The Voltage across capacitor

Vc (t) = Vs[2e−t/R1C − 1]

• Maximum current though thyristor T1

1 2
IT1 (max) = Vs  + 
 R1 R2 
• Maximum current though thyristor T2,

2 1
IT2 (max) = Vs  + 
 R1 R2 

Circuit turn-off time t c1 for thyristor T1

t c1 = R1C ln(2)

Circuit turn-off time t c2 for thyristor T2

t c2 = R 2C ln(2)

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4) Class D Commutation (Voltage commutation):

C
• Maximum thyristor current Peak= I0 + Vs
L

• Auxiliary Thyristor peak current= I0

C
• Capacitor peak current = Vs
L

Vs
• Circuit turn-off time for main thyristor T1 is tc = C
I0

For R-load: tc= RC ln2

• Circuit turn-off time for main thyristor (TA)

tc1 =
20

5. DC-DC Converters
Buck Converter:

In Buck regulator, the average output voltage V 0 is less than the input voltage VS.

I =
( VS − V0 ) TON
L
V0 TOFF
I =
L
TON
V0 = VS = VS 
T
Where ΔI = I2 – I1 is the peak-to-peak current ripple of the inductor L.
VS  (1 −  )
The peak-to-peak ripple current is I =
fL

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VS  (1 −  )
The peak to ripple voltage of the capacitor is VC =
8LCf 2
Condition for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage:
If IL is average inductor current, the inductor ripple current ΔI = 2I L, which gives the

(1 −  ) R
critical value of the inductor LC as L C = L =
2f
If VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage ΔV C = 2V0, which gives
1−
the critical value of capacitor CC as CC = C =
16 Lf 2

Boost Converter:

VS TON ( V0 − VS ) TOFF
I = =
L L
where ΔI = I2 – I1 is peak to peak ripple current of the inductor L.
The average output voltage,
T  1 
V0 = VS = V
TOFF  1 −   S

VS 
The peak to peak current ripple is, I =
fL
I0 
The peak to peak ripple voltage of capacitor, VC =
fC
Condition of continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage:
If VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage ΔV C = 2V0, which gives

the critical value of the capacitor CC as CC =
2fR
If IL is average inductor current, the inductor ripple current ΔI = 2I L, which gives the

 (1 −  ) R
2

critical value of the inductor LC as L C = L =

2f
Buck Boost Converter:

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VS TON −V0 TOFF

I = =
L L
where ΔI = I2 – I1 is the peak to peak ripple current of inductor L.
VS 
The average output voltage is, V0 = −
1−

VS 
The peak to peak current ripple is, I =
fL
I0 
peak to peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is, VC =
fC
Condition of continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage:
If VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage, ΔV C = 2V0, which gives

the critical value of the capacitor CC as CC = .
2fR
If IL is average inductor current, the inductor ripple current ΔI = 2I L, which gives the

(1 −  )
2
R
critical value of the inductor LC as L C =L =
2f

Expression for V0 BUCK BOOST BUCK BOOST

In CCM V0 = Vs Vs Vs
V0 = V0 = −
1− 1−
In DCM  Vs Vs
V0 = V V0 = V0 = −
 s − −

Steady State analysis of Type A Chopper:

Average output voltage

V0 = Vs

Vor =  VS (Rms value of output voltage)

VS 1 − e− Ton /Ta  E
Imax =  −
R  1 − e− T /Ta  R

VS  eTon /Ta − 1  E
Imin =  −
R  eT /Ta − 1  R

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Where, Ta = load time constant

L
Ta =
R
Current ripple,

( I) = Imax − Imin

I =
VS  1 − e

(− Ton /Ta
)(
1 − e− Toff /Ta ) 
R 
 (
1 − e− T /Ta ) 


Ton = αT

Toff = (1 – ) αT

Per unit ripple (or) Ripple is a function of duty cycle 'α'. Ripple is minimum at α = 0,

increases maximum at α = 0.5 and decrease at α = 1.0. For α = 0.5, ripple would be

maximum.

(
VS  1 − e
−0.5x
)(
1 − e−0.5x )   T 
( I)max =
R 

1 − e− x 
 Let,
Ta
= x
   

VS  R 
( I)max = R
tanh  
 4fL 

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6. Inverters
Series Inverters: In a series inverter, the commutating elements L and C are connected
in series with the load resistance R. The load resistance R can also be in parallel with C.
The value of L and C are such that those form an underdamped circuit i.e.
4L
R2<
C

 1 
f =  is the frequency of output voltage.
T
 2  + Toff  
  2  

T
Where, is the time period of oscillations.
2
Toff is the time gap between turn-off one thyristor and turn-on of the second thyristor.
T 
=
2  1 R2 
 − 2
 LC 4L 

The period of oscillation

Bridge Inverter: Bridge circuits are commonly used in DC-AC conversion. Moreover, an
output transformer is not essential in a bridge circuit.

2Vs
1 Half Bridge Inverter - The output voltage volt V0 = 
n−1,3,5... n
sin nt

1  Full Bridge Inverter- The output voltage

4Vs


V0 = sin nt
n −1,3,5,...
n
Where, n = order of harmonic
ω=2πf, is frequency of the output voltage in red/sec
Key points:
• The load impedance (Zn) is
1/2
  1 
2

Zn = R 2+  nL − nC  
   

 1 
nL − nC 
• Phase angle, n = tan−1  
R

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3phase Full Bridge VSI:

1800 Conduction 1200 Conduction
Line Voltage RMS 2 1
Vs Vs
3 2

Phase voltage RMS 2 1

Vs Vs
3 6

Fundamental line voltage RMS 6 3

Vs Vs
  2

Fundamental phase voltage 2 1 3

Vs Vs
RMS   2

1800 Conduction:

2Vs
1) Pole Voltages = VA0 = 
n−1,3,5... n
sin nt

 4Vs   
2) Line Voltages =  
n =1,3,5 
n
cos  n   sin(n(t + 300 ))
 6 

When n=3, 9, 15 Line voltage= 0, So Line voltages are free from Triplet harmonics
2Vdc
3) Phase Voltage= 
n = 6k 1
n
sinnt

n = 6k  1 is due to stepped waveform

1200 Conduction:
1) Pole and Phase Voltage are of same waveform
2) Triplet harmonics are absent in Phase and pole voltages

3) Line voltage contains n = 6k  1 Harmonics

Pulse Width Modulation:

Let N= number of pulses per half cycle
2d
Each pulse width =
N
Then Output voltage Expression is

 4Vs nd 
V0 =  N
n =1,3,5 
n
sinn sin  sinnt
N

 − 2d d
Where  = +
N+1 N
fc
• Number of pulses per half cycle N =
2f
f= reference input frequency

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fc= Carrier input frequency

VRe f
• Modulation Index ma=
Vcarrier

• Relation between Pulse width and modulation index

2d 
= (1 − ma )
N N
Amplitude Modulation Depth:

V̂m
m0 =
V̂c

Where Vm, Vc are the modulating and carrier signal voltage peak values
For sinusoidal PWM, the amplitude modulation depth must be less than 1.0
Output Voltages by Sinusoidal PWM:
➢ In single phase half bridge VSI

^ Vs
Fundamental peak output voltage = VAo1 = ma
2
➢ In single phase Full bridge VSI
^
Fundamental peak output voltage = VAo1 = maVs

• In Three phase Full bridge VSI

VDC
Peak Fundamental Phase voltage V̂an1 = ma
2
The fundamental line-line rms voltage is given by

3
VLLO1 = maVDC
2 2
If peak value of carrier input and zero crossing of reference sinusoidal coincidence then,
➢
fc
Number of Pulses per half cycle will be N =
2f
If Zero Crossing of carrier input and reference sinusoidal coincidence then, Number of Pulses
fc
per half cycle will be N = −1
2f
If N is the number of pulses per half cycle then the predominant harmonics in the output is
2N  1

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