MODULE 5: PRIMARY DATA GATHERING –  These external agents define

PARTICIPATORY TECHNIQUES both problems and solutions,

and may modify these in the
Source: Introducing Participatory Approaches,
light of people's responses
Methods, and Tools
 Such a consultative process
Participatory Approaches does not concede any share in
decision making, and
 product of long-lasting interaction professionals are under no
between researchers, development obligation to take on board
workers, government agents and local people's views.
populations. 4. Participation for material benefits
 history of participatory methods in  People participate by providing
development co-operation began in the resources such as labour, in
late 1970s with the introduction of a return for food, cash or other
new research approach called "Rapid material incentives
Rural Appraisal (RRA)", which 5. Functional Participation
immediately became popular with
 People participate by forming
decision-makers in development
groups to meet predetermined
agencies.
objectives related to the
Typology/Levels of Participation project, which can involve the
development or promotion of
1. Passive Participation externally initiated social
 People participate by being told organization.
what is going to happen or has  Such involvement tends not to
already happened. be at early stages of project
 A unilateral announcement by cycles or planning, but rather
an administration or project after major decisions have
management without any already been made.
listening to people's responses. 6. Interactive Participation
2. Participation in information giving  People participate in joint
 People participate by answering analysis, which leads to action
questions posed by extractive plans and the formation of new
researchers using questionnaire local institutions or the
surveys or such similar strengthening of existing ones.
approaches.  It tends to involve
 People do not have the interdisciplinary methodologies
opportunity to influence that seek multiple objectives
proceedings, as the findings of and make use of systematic and
the research are neither shared structured learning processes.
nor checked for accuracy.  These groups take
3. Participation by consultation control/ownership over local
 People participate by being decisions, and so people have a
consulted, and external agents stake in maintaining structures
listen to views. or practices.
 7. Self-Mobilization  they provide flexibility to explore new
 People participate by taking ideas and issues not anticipated during
initiatives independent of planning
external institutions to change  they are inexpensive and simple to
systems. conduct
 Such self-initiated mobilization
Disadvantages of KII
and collective action may or
may not challenge existing  they are not appropriate if quantitative
inequitable distributions of data are needed
wealth and power.  they may be biased if informants are
not carefully selected
Source: USAID
 they are susceptible to interviewer
Key Informant Interviews biases
 it may be difficult to prove validity of
 qualitative, in-depth interviews of
findings.
15 to 35 people selected or their
first-hand knowledge about a topic Steps in Conducting KIIs
of interest.
1. Formulate study questions
 Loosely structured
 relate to specific concerns of
 resemble a conversation among
the study
acquaintances, allowing a free flow
 limited to 5 or fewer
of ideas and information.

When are KIIs applicable? 2. Prepare a short interview guide

 guide should list major topics
 When qualitative, descriptive
and issues to be covered under
information is sufficient for decision-
each study question.
making.
 limited to 12 items
 When there is a need to understand
motivation, behavior, and perspectives
3. Identify key informants
of our customers and partners.
 The number should not
 When a main purpose is to generate
normally exceed 35
recommendations.
 Key informants should be
 When quantitative data collected
selected for their specialized
through other methods need to be
knowledge and unique
interpreted.
perspectives on a topic.
 When preliminary information is
 Identify the groups and
needed to design a comprehensive
organizations from which key
quantitative study.
informants should be drawn
Advantages of KII  Select a few people from each
category after consulting with
 they provide information directly from
people familiar with the groups
knowledgeable people
under consideration
4. Conduct interviews summary sheet reducing
 Begin with an explanation of information into manageable
the purpose of the interview, themes, issues, and
the intended uses of the recommendations
information and assurances of  Each summary should provide
confidentiality. information about the key
 Except when interviewing informant’s position, reason for
technical experts, questioners inclusion in the list of
should avoid jargon. informants, main points made,
 Start with factual questions. implications of these
Questions requiring opinions observations, and any insights
and judgments should follow. or ideas the interviewer had
 In general, begin with the during the interview.
present and move to questions  Visual displays such as tables,
about the past or future. boxes, and figures can
 Avoid questions that can be condense information, present
answered by a simple yes or no. it in a clear format, and
 Encourage informants to detail highlight underlying
the basis for their conclusions relationships and trends
and recommendations.
 Interviewers should be 7. Check for reliability and validity
sympathetic listeners and avoid  Take a second look at the key
giving the impression of having informant list to ensure no
strong views on the subject significant groups were
under discussion. overlooked.
 Difficulties can be minimized by  Assess informants’
using translators who are not knowledgeability, credibility,
known to the informants, impartiality, willingness to
briefing translators on the respond, and presence of
purposes of the study to reduce outsiders who may have
misunderstandings, and having inhibited their responses
translators repeat the  Check interviewer bias
informant’s comments  Make a conscious effort to look
verbatim. for evidence that questions
preliminary findings
5. Take adequate notes  Ask the key informants for
 Interviewers should take notes feedback on major findings
and develop them in detail
Source: USAID
immediately after each
interview to ensure accuracy. Focus Group Interview

6. Analyze interview data  an inexpensive, rapid appraisal

technique that can provide managers
 At the end of each interview,
with a wealth of qualitative information
prepare a 1-2 page interview
 on performance of development  specific services or outreach
activities, services, and products, or approaches have to take into account
other issues customers’ preferences
 A facilitator guides 7 to 11 people in a  major program implementation
discussion of their experiences, feelings, problems cannot be explained
and preferences about a topic. recommendations and suggestions are
 The facilitator raises issues identified in needed from customers, partners,
a discussion guide and uses probing experts, or other stakeholders
techniques to solicit views, ideas, and
Steps in Conducting FGIs
other information.
 Sessions typically last one to two hours. 1. Select the team
 Conducting a focus group
Advantages of FGI
interview requires a small team,
 Low cost and provides speedy results with at least a facilitator to
 allows the facilitator to explore guide the discussion and a
unanticipated issues and encourages rapporteur to record it.
interaction among participants
 participants provide checks and 2. Select the participants
balances, thus minimizing false or  identify the types of groups and
extreme views. institutions that should be
represented in the focus groups
Disadvantages of FGI
 identify the most suitable
 The flexible format makes it susceptible people in each group.
to facilitator bias, which can undermine  Each focus group should be 7 to
the validity and reliability of findings. 11 people to allow the smooth
 Discussions can be sidetracked or flow of conversation.
dominated by a few vocal individuals.  Participants should be
 generate relevant homogenous, from similar
 qualitative information, but no socioeconomic and cultural
quantitative data from which backgrounds.
generalizations can be made for a  They should share common
whole population. traits related to the discussion
 the information can be difficult to topic.
analyze; comments should be
interpreted in the context of the group 3. Decide on timing and location
setting  Discussions last one to two
hours and should be conducted
When are FGIs applicable? in a convenient location with
 program activities are being planned some degree of privacy
and it is important for managers to
understand customers’ and other 4. Prepare the discussion guide
stakeholders’ attitudes, preferences or  The discussion guide is an
needs outline, prepared in advance,
 that covers the topics and implications of the information
issues to be discussed. for the study.
 The guide provides the  Discussion should be reported
framework for the facilitator to in participants’ language,
explore, probe, and ask retaining their phrases and
questions. grammatical use.

5. Conduct the interview 7. Analyze results

 It is helpful for the facilitator to  Read summaries all at one time
outline the purpose and format  Highlight sections that
of the discussion at the correspond to the discussion
beginning of the session and set guide questions and mark
the group at ease. comments that could be used in
 Participants should be told that the final report.
the discussion is informal,  After reviewing all the
everyone is expected to responses to a question or
participate, and divergent views topic, write a summary
are welcome statement that describes the
 Open-ended questions are discussion.
more useful because they allow  Weigh the meaning of words
participants to tell their story in participants used.
their own words and add details  Consider the circumstances in
that can result in unanticipated which a comment was made
findings. (context of previous
 When participants give discussions, tone and intensity
incomplete or irrelevant of the comment).
answers, the facilitator can  Figure out whether shifts in
probe for fuller, clearer opinions during the discussion
responses were caused by group pressure.
 To minimize group pressure the  Decide which responses were
facilitator can probe for based on personal experience
alternate views. and give them greater weight
than those based on vague
6. Record the discussion impersonal impressions.
 Tape recordings in conjunction  Pinpoint major ideas. Allocate
with written notes are useful. time to step back and reflect on
 Notes should be extensive and major findings.
reflect the content of the  Consider the objectives of the
discussion as well as nonverbal study and the information
behavior needed for decisionmaking.
 Shortly after each group
Source: YouTube
interview, the team should
summarize the information, the Delphi Method
team’s impressions, and
  Involves surveying a group and helping o Geographic location of
the group reach consensus around a participants
topic
Source: Praxis
 Anonymity is maintained between each
of the participants Nominal Group Technique
 Starts with a leader contacting a group
1. Introduction - In the first step the
of experts across a variety of fields
facilitator explains the purpose of the
 Experts are sent a survey of questions
session and describes the way it will
to respond to
work.
 After answering the survey, they will
send it back to the leader and the
2. Silent Generation - Each participant
leader will analyze the responses, look
silently lists all their ideas relating to the
for common themes, and viewpoints
matter in hand. Team members may list
 Report containing the inputs of all
their top risks and possible responses,
experts will be sent to the group again
stakeholders may make observations
and each expert can comment on
about the relative value of benefits or
others’ thoughts or modify their
technical experts may comment on
opinions based on new information
different solutions to a problem.
Keys to Success of Delphi Method
3. Sharing - Each participant shares their
 Maintaining anonymity of experts
ideas in turn and the facilitator records
 Collection/structure of initial data
them. There is no discussion at this
 Cyclical feedback until consensus stage and additional ideas should be
 Statistical structure allows for quietly noted by the participants.
quantitative analysis

Limitations/Drawbacks 4. Discussion - The facilitator guides a

discussion that should be as neutral as
 Success depends on quality of possible – i.e. avoiding undue negativity
participants and judgement. Each participant should
 Future forecasting might be affected by be given equal opportunity to present,
paradigm shift question and clarify the list of ideas.
 As a researcher:
o Do not impose preconceptions 5. Ranking - The final step enables the
or own views participants to rank or score the ideas
o Investigate disagreements in as appropriate e.g. rank the identified
coming to consensus risks or score the identified solutions or
o This process does require time prioritize the benefits. The facilitator
 Difficulty in generalizing results to a consolidates the rankings and presents
wider population due to: the result to the group.
o Sample size
o Limited views of participants
Source: Participatory Rural Appraisal in
o Specific agenda of questions
Deliberations of Development Planning
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Key Principles of PRA

 participatory approaches and methods 1. Participation - PRA relies heavily on

which emphasize the local knowledge participation by the communities, as
and allow the society to do their own the method is designed to enable local
appraisal, analysis and planning. people to be involved, not only as
 Uses visualization and exercise to sources of information, but as partners
facilitate information-sharing, analysis with the PRA team in gathering and
and action between the stakeholders analyzing the information.
 has several basic principles such as:
mutual learning and experience sharing, 2. Flexibility - The combination of
the involvement of whole people, the techniques that is appropriate in a
implementation of triangulation and the particular development context will be
continuity of the program determined by such variables as the size
and skill mix of the PRA team, the time
Stages of PRA Implementation and resources available, and the topic
1. searching of the village condition from and location of the work.
time to time
2. registering seasonal calendar based on 3. Teamwork - Generally, a PRA is best
people’s custom conducted by a local team (speaking the
3. visualizing the village area mapping local languages) with a few outsiders
4. transecting present, a significant representation of
5. creating Venn diagram (institutional women, and a mix of sector specialists
relation chart) and social scientists, according to the
6. reviewing the livelihood of the people topic.
7. creating ranking matrix (ratings chart)
8. arranging the specific activities plan in 4. Optical Ignorance - To be efficient in
the village terms of both time and money, PRA
work intends to gather just enough
Source: P.R.A. - Participatory Rural Appraisal information to make the necessary
Concepts, Methodologies, and Techniques recommendations and decisions.
Participatory Rural Appraisal
5. Systematic - As PRA-generated data is
 intended to enable local communities seldom conducive to statistical analysis
to conduct their own analysis and to (given its largely qualitative nature and
plan and take action relatively small sample size), alternative
 requires researchers / field workers to ways have been developed to ensure
act as facilitators to help local people the validity and reliability of the
conduct their own analysis, plan and findings. These include sampling based
take action accordingly. on approximate stratification of the
 based on the principle that local people community by geographic location or
are creative and capable and can do relative wealth, and cross-checking, that
their own investigations, analysis, and is using a number of techniques to
planning investigate views on a single topic
(including through a final community
 meeting to discuss the findings and
correct inconsistencies).

Rapid Rural Appraisal

 quickly collect, analyse and evaluate

information on rural conditions and
local knowledge.
 Tools like mapping, diagramming and
ranking were developed or improved in
order to gather information for
decision-makers in development
agencies
 A main reason for developing RRA was
to find shortcuts in the search for
relevant information on rural
development issues in order to avoid
costly and time consuming research
procedures.