Petrology, Introduction

Petrology
• The branch of geology dealing with the origin, occurrence,
structure, and history of rocks.

• Petrography: The branch of geology dealing with the

description and systematic classification of rocks, especially
by microscopic examination of thin sections. Petrography is a
subfield of Petrology.

Petrology

Igneous Petrology Sedimentary Petrology Metamorphic Petrology

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Igneous Petrology, Introduction
Igneous rocks
 The term igneous comes from Latin word “ignis”
meaning fire. Igneous rock is one of the three main
rock types that are made from hot molten material
inside the earth called magma or lava when they
formed after reaching to the ground.

 Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of cooled

magma (molten rock). They may form with or without
crystallization, either below the surface or on the
surface.

 This magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-

existing rocks in either the Earht;s mantle or crust.

 In general, the melting is caused by one or more of the

following processes: an increase in temperature, a
decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.
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 Igneous Petrology, Introduction
Igneous rocks
Granite Peridotite

Basalt Andesite

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Igneous Petrology, Introduction
Igneous rocks (contd.)
 Igneous rocks make up
approximately 95% of the upper
part of the Earth's crust, but
their great abundance is hidden
on the Earth's surface by a
relatively thin layer of
sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks.

 The study of igneous rocks is

important because their
minerals and global chemistry
give information about the
composition of the mantle from
where magma erupts. S. Dhakal, 2014
Igneous Petrology, Introduction

Igneous rocks (contd.)

• An igneous rock is any crystalline or glassy rock that

forms from cooling of a magma.

• Magma can cool to either on the surface of the Earth,

beneath the surface of the Earth or below the near surface,
the resulting rocks are respectively known as volcanic or
extrusive igneous rocks, plutonic or intrusive igneous
rocks and hypabyssal rocks.

• A magma consists mostly of liquid rock matter, but may

contain crystals of various minerals, and may contain a gas
phase that may be dissolved in the liquid or may be present
as a separate gas phase. Magma is named as lava when it
erupted through volcanoes. S. Dhakal, 2014
Igneous Petrology, classification
Classification of Igneous rocks
A. Classification based on mode of occurrence
 Extrusive igneous rocks (Volcanic rocks): They have
formed by rapid cooling of magma at the surface of
the earth (from lava), and are fine grained. Typical
example: Basalt.

 Hypabyssal rocks: Rocks that have solidified from

magma below the surface of the earth but not deep
inside it, are called Hypabyssal rocks. They are
medium grained. Typical example: Dolerite

 Intrusive igneous rocks (Plutonic rocks): These rocks

are formed by the slow cooling of great volume of
magma inside the earth surface of significant depth.
The erosion throughout the geological time remove
the overlying rocks and exposed plutonic rocks at the
surface. They are normally coarse grained. Typical
example: Granite. S. Dhakal, 2014
 Igneous Petrology, Introduction
Igneous rocks
Granite Peridotite
(Intrusive rock) (Intrusive rock)

Basalt (Extrusive rock) Dolerite (Hypabyssal rock)

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Igneous Petrology, classification

B. Classification based on Silica contain

Rock Class Amount of silica Minerals

%

Acidic >65 Quartz, orthoclase, Na-plagioclase, muscovite,

biotite (±hornblende). Example: Granite

Intermediate 55-65 Plagioclase, biotite, hornblende, quartz, orthoclase

(± augite). Example: Diorite

Basic 45-55 Ca-plagioclase, augite (±olivine, ± hornblende).

Example: Basalt

Ultrabasic < 45 Ca-plagioclase, olivine (± augite)

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 Igneous Petrology, classification
C. Mineralogical classification
1. Ultramafic rocks: rich in ultramafic minerals like olivine,
pyroxene that are dark colored and have very high specific
gravity. Example: peridotite, dunite and pyroxenite.

2. Mafic rocks: also rich in mafic minerals with high specific

gravity. They are black, dark gray or dark green in color, and
composed primarily of olivine, feldspar and pyroxene.
Example: Basalt, Gabbro

3. Intermediate rocks are medium-gray color, and composed of

amphibole and feldspar together with some pyroxene and
biotite. Example: Andesites, Diorite

4. Felsic rocks: composed of light colored minerals, rocks

themselves are light-colored, composed of quartz, potassium
feldspar, biotite and amphibole. Examples: Rhyolite, Granite
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Igneous Petrology, classification

D. Chemical classification

• 4 American petrologists: Cross, Iddings, Pirssonand

Washington formulated this (CIPW Classification)

• It is based on chemical analysis of igneous rocks where

standard sets of minerals called Norm (Normative
minerals) is selected

• The relative abundance of different groups of norm

minerals is then taken as basis for classifying the rocks
into classes (or subclasses)

• The norm minerals are divided into 2 groups: Salic

minerals and Femic minerals S. Dhakal, 2014
Igneous petrology, Classification

Chemical classification (contd.)

• Salic minerals: Quartz, Orthoclase, Plagioclase, Corundum,

Zircon etc

• Femic minerals: Pyroxenes, Olivine, Magnetite, Hematite,

Pyrite etc.

• Nomenclature: In CIPW classification, igneous rocks are

divided into 5 classes based on Salic-Femic mineral ratio.

• The name iclude prefixes: Per: when the domination of one

over other is very high; do when it is moderate but no prefix
is used when 2 groups are equally represented.
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 Igneous petrology, Classification

Chemical classification (contd.)

I II III IV V
Sal/Fem > 7.0 7-1.6 1.66-0.6 0.6-0.14 < 0.14
ratio

Class Persalic Dosalic Salfemic Dofemic Perfemic

Limitations: It is regarded as more elaborate but less

accurate. Rocks of identical chemical composition may
have entirely different minerals. Most of the normative
minerals are less important as rock forming minerals.
Donot refelect any cooling history of magma, and within
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a single there can be many types of igneous rocks
 Igneous petrology, Classification
IUGS Classification (or Triangular classification)

• This is initially formulated by Albert Streckeisen, and later

International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) elaborated
this so that there exist an internationally accepted
comprehensive system of classification.

• Steps of classification: 1) First distinguished the rocks based on

grain size: Phaneritic rocks (coarse grained) are classified as
Plutonic, and Aphanitic (fine grained) are classified as Volcanic

2) Within each group of these broad categories, the rocks are

named based on the basis of mineral percentages of 3 minerals:
Quartz or Foid minerals, Alkali Feldspar and Plagioclase

3) Other mafic minerals are to be discarded so that only the 3

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minerals make 100 %
 Igneous Petrology, Classification

IUGS Classification (contd.)

• Foid minerals (feldspathoids): These are group of Na and K

aluminosilicates that appear when an alkali rich magma is
deficient in Silica. Example: Leucite: KAlSi2O6, Nephelene
(Na,K)AlSiO4 :

• Some of the plutonic rocks are low in silica and contain

feldspathoids rather than quartz. Quartz and such minerals never
found together because they are chemically incompatible and
react to form feldspar

• Limitations: The rock must contain at least 10 % of Q, A, P or

feldspathoids, mafic minerals discarded

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Igneous Petrology, Classification

IUGS Classification (contd.)

• If rock contains small amout of mafic minerals it can be

indicated by leuco (like leuco granite), with large amount
of mafic minerals the prefix is mela (like mela granite)

• If mafic minerals are abundant, they can be denoted in

the name like hornblende biotite granite

Q F

A P A P
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Igneous Petrology, Classification

IUGS Classification (contd.)

• Ultramafic rocks (>90 % mafic minerals) are classified

differently by alternate methods:

1) Peridotite: rock containing 40-100 % Olivine,

remainder Pyroxene and/or hornblende
2) Dunite: Peridotite containing 90-100 % Olivine.
Remainder mostly Pyroxene, or less common
hornblende
3) Pyroxenite: Major is pyroxene, remainder Olivine
and/or hornblende
4) Hornblendite: Major is hornblende, remainder
Pyroxene and/or Olivine

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Igneous Petrology, Classification

Classification based on Texture with mineral content

as secondary considerations

1) Pegmatite: very coarse grained (> 1 cm) interlocking

grains. Composition: usually granitic and usually
contains abundant rare minerals
2) Tuff: A compacted deposit of volcanic ash and dust
that contains upto 50% sedimentary materials
3) Breccia: Similar to Tuff but containing large angular
fragments (>2 mm) in a finer matrix
4) Obsidian: Black or dark colored, essentially no
vesicular volcanic glass usually of rhyolitic
composition

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Igneous Petrology, Texture
Texture
 Texture is defined as the size, shape and arrangement
of the grains of crystals in a rock
a. On the basis of degree of crystallization: All of the
minerals present in the rock may be distinctly
crystallized and may be easily recognized by unaided
eye or they may be very poorly crystallized or even
glassy (i.e. non crystallized):
• Polycrystalline (Phaneric/Phanerocrystalline): when
all the minerals are distinctly crystallized.
• Holohyaline (Aphanitic): when the component
minerals are very fine in size and glassy or non-
crystalline in character.
• Merocrystalline: intermediate type of texture i.e. some
minerals are crystallized and others are of glassy
characters.
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Igneous Petrology, Texture

b. On the basis of granularity: Granularity defines the

grain size of rocks taking account the average
dimensions of different component minerals. The rock
is described as:

• i) Coarse grained: if the average size of the minerals

of the rock is >5 mm.

• ii) Medium grained: if the average size of the mineral is

in between 1-5 mm.

• iii) Fine grained: if the average grain size of the

mineral is <1mm.:

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Igneous Petrology, Texture

c. On the basis of fabric:

Fabric describes the relative grain size of different

minerals within the same rock as well as the degree of
perfection in the form of the crystals of the individual
minerals:

• i) Equigranular: if all the minerals are of approximately

equal dimensions e.g. granite.

• ii) Inequigranular: when some of the minerals in rock

are exceptionally larger or smaller than the others.

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 Igneous Petrology, Texture
c. On the basis of fabric (contd.): Inequigranular textures
can be further divided into the following types:
• Porphyritic texture: if few conspicuously large sized
crystals (phanocrysts) are found in a fine-grained
groundmass e.g. Basalt, Diorite, Rhyolite.
• Poikilitic texture: if fine-grained crystals are
embedded within the body of large sized crystals e.g.
Syenite, Peridotite etc.
• Ophitic texture: Similar to poikilitic texture, but when
the host mineral is Augite and the inclusion is of
Plagioclase mineral e.g. Dolerite.

Figure. Porphyritic texture

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 Igneous Petrology, Texture
c. On the basis of fabric (contd.):
• Similarly, on the basis of degree of perfection of the
individual minerals in the form of crystals as observed
under microscope, the texture may be:

• i) Panidiomorphic: if majority of the constituent

minerals occur in perfect crystal shape (euhedral
crystals) e.g. Syenite.

• ii) Allotriomorphic: when most of the crystals are

irregular in shape (anhedral crystals) e.g. Gabbro.

• iii) Hypidiomorphic: if the rock consist of mixture of

anhedral, subhedral and euhedral crystals. E.g.
Granite.
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 Igneous Petrology, Texture
Common igneous textures without any basis
• Phaneritic texture: where individual mineral
grains are visible with the naked eye. It is
typical of intrusive rocks.

• Aphanitic texture: where individual mineral

grains can't be seen with unaided vision. It
indicates rapid cooling, and is typical of
volcanic rocks.
• Vitric or glassy texture indicates rapid cooling or
quenching of the magma, best example: Obsidian.

• Vesicular texture describes an aphanitic rock

characterized by preservation of cavities (vesicles)
originally filled by escaping gases. E.g. Vesicular
Basalt S. Dhakal, 2014
 Igneous Petrology, Texture
Common igneous textures without any basis
• Porphyritic texture: describes a rock in which large
crystals (phenocrysts) are surrounded by a fine-grained
matrix (groundmass). The texture indicates non-uniform
cooling (slow cooling followed by a period of rapid
cooling).

• Pyroclastic texture denotes a rock made up of broken

volcanic particles (pyroclasts) that are fused by heat or
cemented together by finer grained material into a rock.

• Pegmatitic texture indicates that the igneous rock is

characterized by an extremely coarse-grained texture.
Abnormally large (>=1 cm) crystals are formed from
water-rich magmatic solutions (hydrothermal fluids).
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