ICT130 - Networking Essentials

Tutorial 10
Practical Analysis
1. Discuss Metropolitan Area Network. What are the different forms of MAN available.
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of network that covers a larger geographical
area than a Local Area Network (LAN) but is smaller than a Wide Area Network (WAN). It
typically spans a city or metropolitan area, connecting various LANs, buildings, and other
network elements within that area. MANs are designed to provide high-speed connectivity
and data transmission for businesses, organizations, and institutions within a specific urban
or suburban region.
Different Forms of MAN:
I. Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (Wireless MAN): This form of MAN uses wireless
technology, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), to connect
users and network nodes within the metropolitan area. Wireless MANs offer flexibility,
scalability, and mobility, making them suitable for urban environments where laying
physical cables may be impractical or costly.
II. Fiber Optic Metropolitan Area Network (Fiber MAN): Fiber optic cables are used to
create high-speed, reliable connections between different network nodes within the
metropolitan area. Fiber MANs offer extremely high bandwidth, low latency, and are capable
of transmitting data over long distances without signal degradation. They are commonly
used by telecommunications companies, ISPs, and large enterprises for interconnecting data
centers, office buildings, and other facilities.
III. Ethernet Metropolitan Area Network (Ethernet MAN): Ethernet technology is widely
used for creating MANs, especially in urban areas. Ethernet MANs utilize Ethernet switches
and routers to connect various LANs and network devices within the metropolitan area.
They offer high-speed data transmission, scalability, and cost-effectiveness, making them
suitable for businesses, educational institutions, and government agencies.
IV. Cable Metropolitan Area Network (Cable MAN): Cable-based MANs use coaxial cables
or hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) cables to provide high-speed internet and data connectivity to
users within the metropolitan area. Cable MANs are commonly deployed by cable TV
operators to deliver broadband internet services, digital television, and VoIP (Voice over
Internet Protocol) telephony to residential and commercial customers.
V. Hybrid Metropolitan Area Network (Hybrid MAN): Some MANs combine multiple
technologies, such as fiber optics, wireless, and Ethernet, to create a hybrid network
infrastructure that offers flexibility, redundancy, and optimal performance. Hybrid MANs are
often used in large metropolitan areas where diverse connectivity options are required to
meet the needs of different users and applications.
In summary, Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) play a crucial role in providing high-speed
connectivity and communication services to businesses, organizations, and residents within
a specific urban or suburban region. Various forms of MANs, including Wireless MANs, Fiber
MANs, Ethernet MANs, Cable MANs, and Hybrid MANs, offer different advantages and
capabilities, catering to diverse requirements and applications in metropolitan areas.

2. Discuss in detail the circuit switched networks and packet switched networks?

Certainly! Let's delve into the details of both circuit-switched networks and packet-
switched networks:
### Circuit-Switched Networks:
In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated communication path or circuit is established
between two parties for the duration of their communication session. Here's how it works:
I. Connection Establishment: Before data transmission can occur, a circuit must be
established between the sender and receiver. This involves reserving the necessary
resources along the entire path (nodes, links, etc.).
II. Dedicated Communication Path: Once the circuit is established, the entire bandwidth
of the communication path is exclusively allocated to the communicating parties. This
means that resources are dedicated and reserved for the duration of the communication
session, even if no data is being transmitted.
III. Fixed Route and Bandwidth: The route taken by the communication path is
predetermined and fixed for the duration of the session. Additionally, the bandwidth
allocated to the circuit remains constant throughout the session.
IV. Low Latency and Predictable Performance: Circuit-switched networks typically offer
low latency and predictable performance since the dedicated resources ensure that there
are no delays caused by contention with other users.
V. Examples: Traditional telephone networks (PSTN - Public Switched Telephone
Network) and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) are examples of circuit-switched
networks.
### Packet-Switched Networks:
In a packet-switched network, data is transmitted in discrete units called packets. These
packets are routed independently and can take different paths to reach the destination.
Here's how it works:
I. Packetization: Data is divided into packets, each containing a portion of the original data
along with header information that includes the destination address, source address, and
other control information.
II. Store-and-Forward Routing: Packets are individually routed from the source to the
destination through intermediate nodes (routers or switches) based on the destination
address. Each node receives a packet, stores it temporarily, and then forwards it to the next
node in the path.
III. Dynamic Routing: Unlike circuit-switched networks, where the route is fixed, packet-
switched networks use dynamic routing algorithms to determine the best path for each
packet based on current network conditions, congestion levels, and other factors.
IV. Shared Resources: Resources (bandwidth, links, etc.) in packet-switched networks are
shared among multiple users and sessions. Packets from different sessions can be
interleaved and transmitted over the same network infrastructure.
V. Variable Latency and Throughput: Packet-switched networks can experience variable
latency and throughput since packets may take different paths and encounter varying
levels of congestion along the way.
VI. Examples: The Internet is the most well-known example of a packet-switched network.
Other examples include Ethernet LANs and modern wide-area networks (WANs) based on
technologies like MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) and IP (Internet Protocol).
### Comparison:
- Resource Utilization: Circuit-switched networks dedicate resources for the entire
duration of a session, while packet-switched networks share resources dynamically among
multiple sessions.
- Flexibility: Packet-switched networks offer more flexibility as they can adapt to changing
network conditions and support various types of traffic (voice, video, data) concurrently.
- Overhead: Packet-switched networks have higher overhead due to packet headers and
routing processes, while circuit-switched networks have lower overhead since resources
are pre-allocated.
Both circuit-switched and packet-switched networks have their own advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice between them depends on factors such as the nature of the
application, required quality of service, and cost considerations.

3. What are the main characteristics and differences between connectionless

networks and connection-oriented networks?

Connectionless networks and connection-oriented networks are two fundamental

communication paradigms that differ in how they handle communication sessions. Let's
explore their main characteristics and differences:
### Connectionless Networks:
In connectionless networks, also known as datagram networks, each packet is treated
independently, and there is no establishment of a dedicated communication path before
data transmission. Here are the main characteristics:
I. No Connection Establishment: There is no need to establish a connection before
sending data. Each packet is sent individually and is routed independently based on its
destination address.
II. Packet Switching: Data is transmitted in discrete units called packets. Each packet
contains header information with the destination address, source address, and other
control information.
III. Routing Based on Destination: Packets are routed through the network based solely
on the destination address. Each packet may take a different path to reach the destination.
IV. No Resource Reservation: Unlike connection-oriented networks, there is no
reservation of network resources for the duration of a communication session. Resources
are dynamically allocated as needed.
V. Scalability: Connectionless networks are highly scalable and suitable for handling
bursty and unpredictable traffic patterns. They can efficiently handle a large number of
simultaneous communication sessions.
VI. Examples: The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most common example of a connectionless
network. Other examples include UDP (User Datagram Protocol) and Ethernet LANs.
### Connection-Oriented Networks:
In connection-oriented networks, a dedicated communication path or circuit is established
between the sender and receiver before data transmission can occur. Here are the main
characteristics:
I. Connection Establishment: Before data transmission, a connection setup phase is
initiated between the communicating parties. This involves negotiating parameters,
establishing a communication path, and reserving network resources.
II. Dedicated Communication Path: Once the connection is established, a dedicated
communication path or circuit is created between the sender and receiver. This path
remains in place for the duration of the communication session.
III. Fixed Route and Resources: The route taken by the communication path is
predetermined and fixed for the duration of the session. Additionally, network resources
(bandwidth, buffers, etc.) are reserved and dedicated to the connection.
IV. Low Latency and Predictable Performance: Connection-oriented networks typically
offer low latency and predictable performance since the dedicated resources ensure that
there are no delays caused by contention with other users.
V. Examples: The most common example of a connection-oriented network is the circuit-
switched telephone network (PSTN). Other examples include the Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay networks.
### Differences:
- Connection Establishment: Connectionless networks do not require a connection setup
phase, while connection-oriented networks do.
- Resource Allocation: Connectionless networks dynamically allocate resources as
needed, while connection-oriented networks reserve resources for the duration of a
session.
- Routing: Connectionless networks route packets based solely on destination address,
while connection-oriented networks establish a fixed route for the duration of the session.
In summary, connectionless networks offer flexibility and scalability but may experience
variable performance, while connection-oriented networks provide predictable
performance and dedicated resources but may be less scalable and efficient for bursty
traffic. The choice between them depends on factors such as the nature of the application,
required quality of service, and network conditions.

4. What is meant by failover time?

Failover time refers to the duration it takes for a system or network to switch from a failed
or inactive state to a redundant or backup state in order to maintain uninterrupted
operation. In other words, it is the time it takes for a system to recover from a failure and
resume normal operation using backup resources or redundant components.
A shorter failover time is generally preferred as it minimizes downtime and ensures
seamless continuity of service. However, failover time can vary depending on factors such
as the complexity of the system, the redundancy mechanisms in place, and the speed of
detection and recovery processes.

5. What is the difference between a station and a node?

In networking terminologies:
- Node: A node is any device that is connected to a network and is capable of sending,
receiving, or forwarding data. Nodes can include computers, servers, routers, switches,
printers, and other network devices.

- Station: A station specifically refers to an endpoint or a device that originates or

terminates data transmission within a network. It often refers to devices such as
computers, terminals, or user devices that interact directly with the network to send or
receive data.
In summary, all stations are nodes, but not all nodes are stations. Stations are a subset of
nodes and specifically refer to the endpoints or devices that interact directly with the
network for communication purposes.

6. What are the main characteristics of a circuit switched network? What are its
advantages and disadvantages?

Certainly! Here's a concise overview of the main characteristics, advantages, and

disadvantages of circuit-switched networks:
### Characteristics:
1. Dedicated Communication Path: Establishes a dedicated path for each communication
session.
2. Fixed Route and Bandwidth: Utilizes a fixed route and allocates constant bandwidth
for the session.
3. Low Latency and Predictable Performance: Offers low latency and consistent
performance.
4. Connection Establishment and Termination: Requires setup and teardown of
connections for each session.
### Advantages:
1. Predictable Performance: Ensures consistent performance due to dedicated resources.
2. Low Latency: Offers low delay suitable for real-time applications.
3. Quality of Service (QoS): Supports guaranteed QoS for critical applications.
### Disadvantages:
1. Inefficient Resource Utilization: May lead to inefficient resource allocation.
2. Limited Scalability: Can be challenging to scale for growing demands.
3. Complexity and Overhead: Involves overhead in setup/teardown processes.
4. Vulnerability to Failures: Prone to disruption due to single points of failure.
In summary, circuit-switched networks provide predictable performance and low latency
but may suffer from inefficiency and scalability issues. They are best suited for applications
requiring guaranteed QoS and real-time communication.

7. What is Network Congestion. What can cause network congestion? How can
network congestion be avoided?

Network congestion occurs when the demand for network resources exceeds available
capacity, leading to degraded performance and potential packet loss. It can be caused by
high traffic volume, network bottlenecks, misconfigured devices, hardware failures, and
malicious attacks.
To avoid network congestion, strategies include traffic management, load balancing,
capacity planning, traffic engineering, packet prioritization, hardware redundancy, and
monitoring and analysis. These measures help optimize resource allocation, minimize
bottlenecks, and ensure efficient network operation.

8. Discuss the following Terms-

a. Dijkstra’s least cost algorithm
b. Centralized Routing
c. Distributed Routing
d. Adaptive Routing versus Static Routing

### a. Dijkstra’s Least Cost Algorithm:

- Definition: Algorithm to find the shortest path in a weighted graph.
- Application: Used in routing protocols to calculate shortest paths in computer networks.
### b. Centralized Routing:
- Definition: Routing decisions made by a central entity.
- Characteristic: Offers centralized control but may suffer from scalability and single point
of failure issues.
### c. Distributed Routing:
- Definition: Routing decisions distributed across multiple network nodes.
- Characteristic: Enables dynamic routing and adaptability in large-scale networks.
### d. Adaptive Routing versus Static Routing:
- Adaptive Routing:
- Characteristic: Dynamically adjusts routing paths based on changing network
conditions.
- Example Protocols: RIP, OSPF.
- Static Routing:
- Characteristic: Uses manually configured fixed routes.
- Suitability: Simple to configure but lacks adaptability for dynamic networks.
In summary, Dijkstra’s algorithm finds shortest paths, centralized routing involves central
control, distributed routing distributes decision-making, and adaptive routing adjusts
dynamically while static routing uses fixed routes.