GRAMMAR REFERENCE B1

Topic Page
• Present simple and present continuous 1
• Stative verbs 1
• Relative clauses 1
• Past simple and past continuous 2
• Used to 2
• Present perfect simple 2
• Present perfect continuous 3
• Comparatives and superlatives 3
• Present perfect simple and present perfect continuous 3
• Past perfect simple 4
• Past simple and past perfect simple 4
• Future simple 4
• Future continuous 4
• Future perfect simple 4
• Gerunds 5
• Infinitives 5
• Gerunds and infinitives 5
• Can and could 6
• Be able to 6
• May and might 6
• Must and can’t 6
• Must 6
• Should and ought to 6
• Passive voice 7
• Conditional sentences: Zero conditional 8
• First conditional, unless 8
• Second conditional 8
• Third conditional 8
• Wishes 8
• Reflexive pronouns 8
• Reported speech 9
• The causative 10
• Clauses of purpose 10
• Clauses of contrast 10
Grammar Reference B1

GRAMMARPresent simple and present continuous

We use the present simple to talk about: a general truths.
In Peru, people speak Spanish.
things we do regularly.
Do you write in your diary every day?
permanent states.
Cusco is high in the mountains.
timetabled and programmed events in the future.
The train leaves at 9.00 tomorrow morning.
We use the present continuous to talk about:
things that are temporary or are happening now or around now.
I’m not looking at the map. I’m reading a book.
what is happening in a picture or photograph.
In this photo, Jake is standing by the river.
fixed future plans.
Are you leaving tomorrow?
Time expressions
Present simple: every day, on Mondays, at the weekend
Present continuous: now, at the moment, this year, today

GRAMMARStative verbs
There are some verbs that we don’t usually use in continuous tenses. These include verbs of:
a feelings: like, hate, admire, prefer, want b possession: belong to, own
understanding and opinion: believe, remember, understand, know
senses: feel, hear, see, smell

See and think

We can use some stative verbs in the present simple and the present continuous, but the meaning changes.
The doctor is seeing someone at the moment.
(see = have an appointment with)
‘The path to the river goes down there.’ ‘I see.’
(see = understand)
What do you think of the view?
(think = have an opinion)
We’re thinking about going to see the Grand Canyon this year.
(think = consider)

GRAMMARRelative clauses
We use relative clauses to give more information about people, animals and things. A relative clause begins with a relative prono
Is that the boy whose name is Ahmad? Ireland is a place where it often rains.
There are two types of relative clauses: defining and non-defining.
Defining relative clauses give essential information about something or someone. Τhey can’t be separated from the rest of the se
Japan is a country which/that is in Asia.
Non-defining relative clauses give extra information about something or someone. We separate them from the main part of the s
Crete, which is an island, is in Greece.
Tina, who comes from New Zealand, is 16 years old. Santiago, where my grandparents live, is a big city.

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 GRAMMAR Past simple and
past continuous
We use the past simple for actions that started and finished in the past, for actions that happened one after another in the p
We use the past continuous to talk about actions that were happening at a particular time in the past, about two or more a
My dad was fixing my bike and I was helping him.
We can use the past simple and past continuous in the same sentence to:
show that one past action interrupted another one.
I was playing a game when my phone rang.
tell a story in the past.
While we were reading in the library, we heard a strange noise.

GRAMMARUsed to
We use used to to talk about actions that happened often in the past but don’t happen now. We can also use it for states th
I didn’t use to send many messages from my phone.

Note: Use There used to be to talk about past states.

There used to be only two good TV channels when I was young, but there are lots now!

GRAMMARPresent perfect simple

We use the present perfect simple to talk about actions that:
α started in the past and are still happening.
How long have human beings lived on Earth?
have just finished.
I’ve just found a really good website about astronomy.
happened in the past but we don’t say exactly when.
He’s met the famous astronaut, Neil Armstrong.
happened in the past but have a result that affects the present.
Ingrid has washed her hair and it’s still wet.

Note: We use have been when someone went somewhere and has returned. We use have gone when someone went somewhe
Buzz Aldrin has been to the moon.
‘Where’s Kate?’ ‘She’s gone to meet a young inventor.’

Time expressions
ever, never, already, just, for, since, yet

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 GRAMMARPresent perfect continuous GRAMMAR Comparatives and
We use the present perfect continuous to talk about:
things that started in the past and continue into the present.
We use the comparative form to compare two or more people, animals o
He’s been working really hard all summer. We add -er to short adjectives and adverbs.
recent actions that have happened repeatedly. They’ve Mybeen communicating
computer is slower thanwithyours.
firefighters in recent
Jan can weeks.than Mick.
cycle faster
to say how long something has been happening from the Wepast
useupthetoword
now.more
We often uselong
before for and since in
adjectives these
and sentences.
adverbs.
We’ve been watching the fire burn for two hours. They’ve been helping
Exploring ice cavesout
is in the forests
more difficultsince
than2008.
exploring ordinary caves.
We make the present perfect continuous with Some nights you can see the Northern Lights more easily than others.
have/has been and the -ing form of the verb. We can use (not) as + adjective/adverb + as to compare two things.
Time expressions The bus is as quick as the car in traffic.
all day / night / week The bus drives as quickly as a car in traffic.
for years / a long time / long lately, recently, since We use the superlative form to compare a person, an animal or a thing w
Lily is the oldest girl in my class. We worked the hardest.
Note: We use How long …? in questions and for (very)We longuseinthe word most
questions before long
and negative adjectives
sentences. andlong
How adverbs.
have you been wo
Science is the most interesting lesson.
Helen works the most carefully of all my students.
The comparative and superlative forms of these adjectives and adverbs

GRAMMARPresent perfect simple and

present perfect continuous
ow much, how many or how many times (for an action that has finished).

Adjective/Adverb Comparative Superlative

good/well better the best
bad/badly worse the worst
far further the furthest
many/much more the most
little less the least

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 GRAMMARPast perfect simple
We use the past perfect simple to talk about actions that happened:
before other actions in the past.
Rebecca had read a book about mysteries at sea, so she enjoyed the film about the Bermuda Triangle.
before a specific time in the past. We often use
by to mean before or not later than.
By 1950, several boats had disappeared.
We make the past perfect simple with had and the past participle of the verb. It is the same for all subjects.

GRAMMARPast simple and

past perfect simple
When we talk about two (or more) actions that happened in the past, we use the past perfect simple to show that one actio
The plane crashed because it had run out of fuel. They had just landed when the storm began.

GRAMMARFuture simple GRAMMARFuture continuous

We use the future simple: We use the future continuous to talk about things that will be in progr
for predictions. This time tomorrow, we will be travelling to South Africa.
There will be more students at university next year. Will you be studying during the trip? No, I won’t. They won’t be worki
for decisions we make now for the future. Time expressions
I won’t phone Kim until this evening. in a few hours/days/weeks
for offers, promises and warnings. (this time) tomorrow, next week/month/year during the weekend/tri
I’ll help you write the letter. soon
I promise I‘ll finish the work tonight. Stop talking or I’ll tell the teacher.
to ask someone to do something or to ask for help.
Will you tell me your name and address?
for opinions about the future, usually after
think, hope, and be sure.
Dylan thinks he’ll be famous one day.
Be going to
We use be going to:
to talk about future plans and intentions.
I’m going to be a teacher.
to predict something when we have some proof or information.
He’s going to pass the test because he’s clever.

GRAMMARFuture perfect simple

We use the future perfect simple to talk about something that will be completed before a time in the future. We make the fu
all persons.
By the time you get home, I will have fallen asleep. By the age of 30, she will have become a doctor.
Time expressions
by the time/the age of
by tomorrow/next week/month/year

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GRAMMARGerunds
We can use gerunds:
as the subject or object of a sentence.
Collecting fossils is my hobby. I like collecting fossils.
after prepositions.
He’s interested in studying biology.
after the verb go to describe activities.
We often go walking in the mountains.
after these verbs and phrases: admit, be used to, can’t stand, deny, dislike, enjoy, feel like, finish, keep, look forward to, (do
They feel like exploring nature.

Note: Don’t confuse be used to + gerund (something isn’t new or strange) and used to + bare infinitive (past habit).

Infinitives
We can use the full infinitive after these verbs: afford, allow, arrange, ask, decide, encourage, hope, invite, learn, manage, ne
The scientist managed to do the experiment.
We also use the full infinitive after these adjectives: amazed, disappointed, excited, happy, proud, sad, sorry, surprised.
We were sorry to hear the bad news.

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GRAMMARGerunds and infinitives
These verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive with no change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, like, love, start.
They continued waiting for hours. = They continued to wait for hours.
These verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive but with a change in meaning: go on, remember, forget, stop, try.
They went on talking until midnight. (= continued) He told us his name first and then went on to talk about the competition. (= c
She will remember to give the message to John.
(= not forget to do something)
I remember seeing a famous athlete many years ago.
(= remember that something happened)
You forgot to lock the door! (= forget to do something)
They forgot meeting me at the gym.
(= forget that something happened)
We stopped talking in the museum.
(= end an activity)
Why don’t we stop to have something to eat?
(= end one activity to do something else)
I tried to get the gymnast’s autograph.
(= make an attempt to do something)
Try looking online to learn about that athlete.
(= do something as an experiment)

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GRAMMARCan and could GRAMMARMay and might
We use can for the present and the future to: We use may and might to talk about possibility. We use a bare infinit
talk about ability. I might buy some new trainers.
I can ride a bike. Trainers may not always be best for hiking.
ask for and give permission.
Can I go home because I don’t feel well? You can go out when
Note:you’ve finished
Be careful withyour homework.
maybe (perhaps) and
talk about what is possible. may be (modal verb + bare infinitive).
You can keep fit by walking every day.
ask somebody to do something for you.
Can you go to the supermarket? Must and can’t
We use could to talk about ability in the past. We use must to talk about something we are sure is true and can’t wh
Could you walk when you were one year old? Exercising must help people to relax.
That can’t be Helen’s racket. She doesn’t play tennis.
Note: We use a bare infinitive after can and
could.

Be able to
We use be able to to talk about ability. We can use it in all tenses except for continuous tenses. We use a bare infinitive after
She is able to run faster than him.
You will be able to get out of bed in two days. They have been able to get fit with yoga.
We use was/were able to to talk about what someone managed to do on a specific occasion in the past. Could is usually used
He didn’t feel well, but he was able to eat dinner.
Were they able to get to the hospital in time?
GRAMMARMust
Note: The negative forms couldn’t and wasn’t/weren’t able usecan
We to be to
must used forabout
talk both obligation
general andin specific ability
the present andinfuture.
the past.
We us
The boy couldn’t/wasn’t able to walk after the accident. They mustn’t be late for school.
Have to
We can use have to to talk about obligation in the present. We use a
You have to go to bed early tonight.

Note: There is an important difference in meaning between mustn’t a

You mustn’t park here. = You aren’t allowed to park here.
You don’t have to dress up. = It isn’t necessary.

Should and ought to

We use should to ask for and give advice. We use a bare infinitive aft
You should brush your teeth twice a day.
We use ought to to give advice. We use a bare infinitive after ought t
You ought to look after your health more.

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GRAMMARPassive voice
We use the passive voice:
when we are more interested in the action than the person doing it.
This mural was painted in 1936.
when we don’t know who does the action.
Gardening tools aren’t sold in that shop.
when it is obvious who does the action.
Television is watched all over the world.
We use by to talk about the person doing the action. This mural was painted by Diego Rivera.
Present simple passive
We make the present simple passive with am, are
or is and the past participle of the main verb.
Past simple passive
We make the past simple passive with was or were
and the past participle of the main verb.
That artist’s work was shown in the town square.

GRAMMARPassive voice
As well as the present simple and past simple, we can use other tenses in the passive voice.
Present continuousFuture simple
Music is being played.Music will be played. Music isn’t being played.Music won’t be played. Is music being played?Will mus
Past continuousModals
Music was being played.Music can be played. Music wasn’t being played. Music mustn’t be played. Was music being played
Present perfect simple Music has been played. Music hasn’t been played.
Has music been played?

Note: Other continuous tenses, apart from the present continuous and past continuous, are not used in the passive voice.

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GRAMMARConditional sentences GRAMMARSecond conditional
Conditional sentences have got two clauses, an if clause and
We auseresult
the clause. It doesn’t matter which clause comes first, but if
second conditional:
to talk
If you run a lot, your legs will become strong. Your legs will aboutstrong
become something
if youthat
run won’t
a lot. happen or is unlikely to happen in
We can use the negative form in one or both clauses of a Ifconditional sentence,
he didn’t have so muchbut work,
the question form
he would gois only used in the result
If you don’t run a lot, your legs won’t become strong. skiing.
If I run a lot, will my legs become strong? If I went on an activity holiday, I would go
Zero conditional skydiving.
We use the zero conditional to talk about facts and generalto give advice.
truths. We use the present simple in both clauses.
If you rent skis, they cost 20 euros a day. If I were you, I would wear a helmet.
First conditional The if clause uses if followed by the past simple, and the result claus
We use the first conditional to talk about something which He will
would go rafting
probably happenif heinwere older. or in the future. The if clause u
the present
If they won a holiday, where would they go?
Note: We can use modal verbs like can, must
and may instead of will. Note: We sometimes use were instead of was
If he doesn’t follow the safety rules, he may be injured. after the first and third person singular. He would go bungee jumping

Unless
We can use unless in first conditional sentences. It means if not.
You won’t get wet unless you go rafting.
= You won’t get wet if you don’t go rafting.

GRAMMARThird conditional
We use the third conditional to talk about something in the past whic
If you had told me about the race, I would have gone to see it.
I wouldn’t have believed there was a sport called ‘extreme ironing’ if I
Would you have taken part in the cheese-rolling competition if you ha

GRAMMARWishes
We use wish or if only followed by the past simple when we want to say that we would like a present situation to be differ
He wishes he was a marine biologist.
If only we weren’t at school today!
We sometimes use were instead of was for the first and third person singular.
If only I were older!
Mum wishes she weren’t at the office today.
We use wish or if only followed by the past perfect simple to say that we would like a past situation to have been different
I wish I had seen the turtle. (I didn’t see the turtle.)
If only we hadn’t dropped our camera in the water. (We dropped our camera in the water.)

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GRAMMARReflexive pronouns
Singular myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural ourselves, yourselves, themselves
We use reflexive pronouns:
when the subject and object are the same. We told ourselves that there wouldn’t be an earthquake.
with some verbs: behave, blame, cut, enjoy, help, hurt.
Behave yourself!
to mean alone or without someone’s help.
She analysed those artefacts (by) herself.

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GRAMMARReported speech GRAMMARReported speech

Statements Questions
We use reported speech when we tell someone what another We useperson has said.
the verb ask to When wequestions.
report use reported
We speech, weanchange
often use objectthe tens
with as
We often use the verbs say and tell with reported speech. Tell is followed
Questions by an object.
with question words
Direct speechReported speech We use the same question word as in the direct question.
present simplepast simple ‘How old is the dolphin?’ she asked. She asked how old the dolphin was.
present continuouspast continuous ‘Where is it from?’ she asked. She asked where it was from.
past simplepast perfect simple present perfect simplepast perfect
‘When did simple
you seefuture simple
it?’ she (will)would
asked. She asked when I saw it.
cancould ‘Why do you like dolphins?’ she asked. She asked why I liked dolphins.
musthad to Questions without question words
‘I often use emojis,’ she said. We use if to report questions without a question word.
She said (that) she often used emojis. ‘Does the dolphin eat fish?’ she asked. She asked if the dolphin ate fish.
‘I’m looking at her website,’ he told me. Commands
He told me (that) he was looking at her website. We report commands using tell. Tell is followed by an object and an infin
‘I sent you a text message,’ I said. ‘Stop talking!’ she said to him. She told him to stop talking.
I said (that) I had sent her a text message. ‘Don’t bring your dog in the house, Sue!’ he said. He told Sue not to brin
‘I’ve seen your photos on social media,’ she told him. She told him (that) she had seen his photos on social media.
Requests
‘We’ll call you,’ he said. We report requests using ask. Ask is followed by an object and an infinit
He said (that) they would call me. ‘Can you look after my pet fish?’ she asked him. She asked him to look a
‘You can use my tablet,’ she told him.
She told him (that) he could use her tablet.
‘I must get a new phone,’ he said.
He said (that) he had to get a new phone.

GRAMMARReported speech

Changes in time and place

These words change in reported speech:
Direct speechReported speech
todaythat day
tonightthat night
tomorrowthe next/following day next week/month/yearthe next/following
week/month/year
yesterdaythe day before
last week/month/yearthe week/month/year
before
a week/month/year agoa week/month/year
before
nowthen
at the momentat that moment
herethere
this/thesethat/those
‘I received your email yesterday.’
He said that he had received my email the day before.

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GRAMMARThe causative
We use the causative to describe an action that someone else does for us. We make the causative with the correct tense of
They have their newspaper delivered every morning. She isn’t going to have her house cleaned next week. Are you havin
We had our kitchen painted yesterday.
You can’t have your car washed today. It’s raining!

GRAMMARClauses of purpose
We use in order to and so that to explain why someone does something.
We only use in order to when the subject of the two clauses is the same. It is followed by the bare infinitive of the verb.
People use credit cards in order to pay more quickly.
We can use so that when the subject of the two clauses is the same or different. It is followed by a subject pronoun (I, you,
People use credit cards so that they can pay more quickly.
My parents give me chores to do at home so that I can earn an allowance.
Clauses of contrast
We use although, in spite of and despite to contrast two opposite ideas in a sentence. We separate the two clauses with a
Although is followed by a subject and a verb.
Although I like shopping, I don’t like spending money.
In spite of and despite are followed by a noun, a gerund or the fact that + subject + verb.
In spite of their weight, coins were the most popular currency for centuries.
Despite their weight, coins were the most popular currency for centuries.
In spite of / Despite having cash, Peter still preferred to pay with a credit card.
In spite of / Despite the fact that he had cash, Peter still preferred to pay with a credit card.

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