Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agri-

culture and the Energy Transition

A Guideline for Germany | April 2022

Publishing notes

Published by Special thanks to

Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach
Heidenhofstrasse 2 Solar Consulting GmbH
79110 Freiburg, Germany Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH
Phone +49 761 4588-0 inter 3 — Institute for Resource Management
www.ise.fraunhofer.de Leibniz-Zentrum für Agrarlandschaftsforschung (ZALF) e. V.
Hilber Solar GmbH
Authors AMA FILM GmbH
Max Trommsdorff (Fraunhofer ISE)
Simon Gruber (Fraunhofer ISE) Design and typesetting
Tobias Keinath (Fraunhofer ISE) netsyn, Freiburg
Michaela Hopf (Fraunhofer ISE)
Charis Hermann (Fraunhofer ISE) Note
Frederik Schönberger (Fraunhofer ISE) This guideline provides information on the potential of
Adj. Prof. Petra Högy (University of Hohenheim) ­agrivoltaics, including the latest technologies and ­regulatory
Dr. Sabine Zikeli (University of Hohenheim) frameworks in this area. It also offers practical tips on how
Andrea Ehmann (University of Hohenheim) agrivoltaics can be used by farmers, municipalities and
Axel Weselek (University of Hohenheim) ­companies. This guideline is not intended to be exhaustive. All
Prof. Ulrich Bodmer (Weihenstephan-Triesdorf University of the application methods presented in this document should
Applied Sciences) be taken as examples. Great care has been taken in preparing
Dr. Christine Rösch (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, KIT) this guideline; nevertheless, those involved in its preparation
Dr. Daniel Ketzer (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, KIT) assume no liability for its contents. Each agrivoltaic project
Nora Weinberger (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, KIT) must be examined on a case-by-case basis during its planning
Stephan Schindele (BayWa r.e.) and implementation stages, with technical, economic and legal
Jens Vollprecht, attorney, graduate of forest management advice sought if needed.
studies
(Becker Büttner Held, attorneys at law, BBH) © Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE,
Freiburg, 2022
APV-RESOLA project advisory board
Hans-Josef Fell (Energy Watch Group),
Chair APV-RESOLA project advisory board
Sylvia Pilarsky-Grosch (Bund für Umwelt-
und Naturschutz, BUND)
Franz Pöter (Solar Cluster Baden-Württemberg e. V.)
Prof. Adolf Goetzberger (Fraunhofer ISE, Director; retired)
Ralf Ries (GLS Gemeinschaftsbank eG)
Manfred Oetzel (State Farmers’ Association
Baden-Württemberg)
Dr. Florian Brahms (attorney, energy law)
Dr. Winfried Hoffmann (Applied Solar Expertise, ASE)
Prof. Daniel Buhr (University of Tübingen) Second edition, April 2022
Foreword

Dear readers,

Crops need the sun, and so do photovoltaic systems. We are As the German Federal Government, we are helping to expand
all aware that the exploitation of renewable energies needs agrivoltaics with improved methods of support. In April 2022
to be expanded at a much faster rate if we are going to meet there is an innovation tender which will establish Germany’s first
our climate targets. We need to produce six to eight times feed-in tariff specifically for agrivoltaic systems in ­accordance
more solar power than we do at present, both on roofs and with the German Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG).
on open land. In the past, this usually meant having to choose Our support also includes the update CAP Direct Payments
between agriculture and renewable energies, but now we ­Ordinance. It enables farms that install agrivoltaic systems to
have an ­innovative solution to this dilemma: agrivoltaics. With continue receiving 85 percent of the payments granted for
this promising approach, solar panels mounted above a field agricultural land use.
can generate electricity while grain, fruit and vegetable crops
grow underneath. This eneables the dual use of land. Clever Although many of the basic issues around this new t­ echnology
technological expertise enables us to expand photovoltaics have now been addressed, some questions remain ­unanswered:
without depriving farmers of valuable land. What’s more, these Can agrivoltaic systems be effectively combined with the
special photovoltaic systems offers them an additional source ­cultivation of specialty crops, such as berries? Are there
of income. And they boost resilience. ­solutions for greenhouses? How do we establish broad public
support for agrivoltaics? A key research project run by the
Farmers have been dealing with the effects of climate change Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE and its
for many years now. The rise in increasingly extreme weather ­partners starts in mid-2022 and will look at these issues.
has a far more radical impact on agriculture than on almost
any other economic sector, with conditions at times too hot Other countries have also recognized the opportunities
and dry or at others characterized by sudden hailstorms. This ­presented by agrivoltaics. Dual land use for agriculture and solar
is where photovoltaic systems can help. They shiled crops from power generation is now an established part of the landscape
too much sunand dehydration as well as from hailstones by in some Asian countries, while France is prominet in driving this
breaking their fall. These are the benefits that one research technology in Europe. In Germany, we too are focusing on the
project has already documented. potential of innovations like agrivoltaics. After all, the principle
behind it is as simple as it is compelling. Productive arable land
This updated guide gives you the latest insights into remains productive arable land, while the photovoltaic system
this ­technology from research and practice. It outlines is mounted above it, safeguarding our future. In this way, the
the ­opportunities for agrivoltaics and reviews current German Federal Government is helpin to create a ­win-win-win
­developments. In this way, key progress has been made situation: for the climate, for nature and for our farming
towards standardizing these systems and thus to ensuring ­industry. Prepare to be inspired!
quality.

Bettina Stark-Watzinger Cem Özdemir

Member of the German Federal Bundestag Member of the German Federal Bundestag
Federal Minister of Education and Research German Federal Minister for Food and Agriculture
Photo: © German federal government / Guido Bergmann Photo: © BMEL / Janine Schmitz / Phototek

1
Content

1 Resource-efficient land use with agrivoltaics ������������������������������������������������������������ 4

2 Agrivoltaics facts and figures �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8

2.1 Agrivoltaics: A new approach to mitigate competing demands for land use �������������� 9
2.2 Precipitation and global radiation �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
2.3 Definition and potential of agrivoltaics �������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
2.4 Research sites in Germany �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
2.5 Operational sites in Germany �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
2.6 International development ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 21

3 Agriculture ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 24
3.1 Results from the APV-RESOLA research project ������������������������������������������������������ 25
3.2 Crop selection and cultivation �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 26
3.3 Reports from farmers �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31

4 Profitability and business models ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 32

4.1 Capital expenditure ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 33
4.2 Operating costs ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 34
4.3 Levelized cost of electricity ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 35
4.4 Self-consumption and revenue from power generation ������������������������������������������ 35
4.5 Business models ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36

5 Technology ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 38
5.1 Approaches to agrivoltaic system construction ������������������������������������������������������ 39
5.2 Module technologies �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
5.3 Substructure and foundation ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
5.4 Light management ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 43
5.5 Water management ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
5.6 Size of the PV system �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
5.7 Approval, installation and operation ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 45

2
6 Society ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 48
6.1 Engaging citizens and stakeholder groups ������������������������������������������������������������ 49
6.2 Context-specific acceptance ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
6.3 Two examples for dialogue and engagement ���������������������������������������������������������� 50
6.4 Success factors ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 52

7 Policy and legislation ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 54

7.1 Regulatory framework ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 55
7.2 Recommendations for policy-related action ������������������������������������������������������������ 61

8 Promoting agrivoltaics ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64

9 Bibliography and sources ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 66

9.1 Sources ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 66
9.2 List of figures �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
9.3 List of tables ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
9.4 Acronyms �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
9.5 Links to further information ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 72

3
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

1 Resource-efficient land use

with agrivoltaics

The global population is growing — and demand for food is Dual use of agricultural land
growing along with it. At the same time, land for installing Agrivoltaics could mitigate the future competition for space
more ground-mounted PV systems is urgently needed to tackle with the dual use of land. It offers the possibility of installing
the climate crisis.[1] There is growing competition for space, large PV systems on open land while keeping the ground clear
especially in densely populated areas. for food production. This dual use of land for agriculture and
photovoltaics can be particularly beneficial for areas that are
The demand for space to build ground-mounted PV systems good for farming due to their fertile soil and temperate climate
is becoming an increasingly decisive factor as falling costs and are a suitable location for ground-mounted PV systems
have now made them economically viable, even without because they receive high levels of solar radiation.
state ­subsidies. The climate crisis is also presenting ever more
challenges for farming water scarcity, extreme weather and Solar energy is becoming an integral pillar of the energy supply
overall rising temperatures necessitate new measures to ­protect for the future alongside wind power, so there is seemingly an
crops and soils from adverse conditions. Many farms are urgent need to integrate PV systems effectively into different
already under strain from regulatory frameworks and economic areas of human activity with good public backing. Calculations
­uncertainty. This significantly limits the scope for protecting by the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE show
water and wildlife on the one hand and stabilizing or even that the installed PV capacity in Germany needs to be increased
increasing crop yields on the other. by a factor of six to eight by 2045 if the country’s energy
system is to become climate neutral[2].

Fig. 1: Agrivoltaic research site at Lake Constance.

© Fraunhofer ISE

4
 3 2

Fig. 2: Illustration of
an agrivoltaic system.
1
© Fraunhofer ISE

Technical self-consumption in future Direct marketing in local Power fed into electricity
incl. energy storage system residential neighborhoods grid and gas networksystem

Prof. Adolf Goetzberger, founder of Fraunhofer ISE, and The system on the Heggelbach site is installed on arable land
Dr. Armin Zastrow were the first to propose this kind of covering one third of a hectare and features 720 bifacial PV
dual land use with their 1981 article “Kartoffeln unter dem modules with a 5 m clearance, providing an installed capacity
­Kollektor” (potatoes under the collector), which appeared in of 194 kilowatt peak (kWp). The project showed that with the
the “Sonnenenergie” journal[3]. In 2014, the innovation group PV system, land-use efficiency rose 60 to 86 percent, and crops
­APV-RESOLA (“Agrivoltaics: contribution to r­ esource-efficient adapted more effectively during dry spells in 2017 and 2018.
land use”) took this idea and expanded on it with further Further research on the site is ongoing.
research. The German Federal Ministry of Education and
Research (BMBF) funded the project as part of the FONA The purpose of this guideline
research program, which looks at sustainable development. This guideline is based on the key outcomes from the
This resulted in a pilot project at Heggelbach farm near Lake ­APV-RESOLA research project, and this second edition
Constance. The project investigated the economic, technical, ­incorporates results from other studies and research projects.
social and environmental aspects of agrivoltaic technology in It provides information on the benefits and opportunities
real-world conditions, with the aim of demonstrating its basic presented by agrivoltaics, gives an overview of its potential and
feasibility. current state of the art, and offers practical advice for farmers,
municipalities and companies on how to use the technology.
The project partners were: Fraunhofer ISE (management and
coordination), the University of Hohenheim, the Institute for It also presents case studies from successful projects, outlines
Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis (ITAS)[4] based the challenges in using agrivoltaics in Germany and proposes
at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), BayWa r.e. Solar ways to promote agrivoltaics in Germany in future.
Projects GmbH, Regionalverband Bodensee-Oberschwaben,
Elektrizitätswerke Schönau, and Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach.

Fig. 3: Partners in the

APV-RESOLA project.

5
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

A brief history of agrivoltaics

Agrivoltaic technology has developed rapidly over the last
few years and is now available in most parts of the world. Its
installed capacity has increased exponentially from around
5 megawatt peak (MWp) in 2012 to at least 14 gigawatt peak
(GWp) in 2021. Government funding programs in Japan (since
2013), China (around 2014), France (since 2017), the USA
(since 2018) and most recently in South Korea have made
these advances possible[5].

The first agrivoltaic systems First large agrivoltaic Over 14 GWp of

in France and Italy systems > 10 ha installed capacity
2011 2015 2021

2010 2013 2017 2022

Germany Japan France

Government funding Fig. 4: How agrivoltaics has developed
EEG reform First government
funding program for agrivoltaics since 2010. © Fraunhofer ISE

Opportunities for agrivoltaics Agrivoltaics can create added value locally and benefit
In addition to increasing land-use efficiency, agrivoltaics can rural development. It also gives farms the opportunity to
boost resilience and crop yields if the systems have the right ­produce green, solar-generated electricity for their own local
technical design. Research has demonstrated such effects, such ­consumption, reducing the need to purchase expensive
as in the APV-RESOLA project. Fruit and specialty crops that are ­electricity from the grid and cutting their overall expenditure on
being increasingly damaged by hail, frost and drought can also power. ­Agrivoltaics also enables farms to create another source
benefit from the protection offered by the PV modules, which of income if they sell the electricity that they generate.
partially cover the crops[6].

More potential synergies between PV and agriculture can be Challenges: barriers to implementing agrivoltaics
harnessed, including: Although many countries have demonstrated the technical
and economic feasibility of agrivoltaics, there are still ­obstacles
Reducing irrigation demand by up to 20 percent[7]; ­preventing its widespread use in Germany. For instance,
Collecting rainwater for irrigation; ­current German legislation does not explicitly state which steps
Reducing wind erosion; must be taken to gain approval for construction. The possible
Using the PV system’s substructure to attach protective funding available as part of the innovation tenders, provided
nets or sheets; for by EEG 2021, is unlikely to create adequate incentives.
Optimizing the available light for crops by using solar More detailed information on the legal framework in Germany
tracking PV systems, for instance; can be found in section 7.1.
Increasing PV module efficiency through improved
convective cooling; Public backing for agrivoltaics is another hurdle for this
Increasing the efficiency of bifacial PV modules, which t­ echnology in some regions. As a result, one of the key areas
use light from both sides to generate electricity, thanks to for action is engaging stakeholder groups and citizens who live
­greater distances between the PV modules, the ground and in the municipalities where an agrivoltaic system is planned for
the adjacent PV module rows. construction. Section 6 discusses this aspect in more detail.

6
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Funding and market development for more research ­projects Requirements

are recommended so that researchers can draw firmer Zoning plan: Classify agrivoltaic systems as “special area:
­conclusions about the possible synergies and acceptance issues agrivoltaics” instead of an “electrical facility/commercial
for the different approaches to agrivoltaics. This will also enable area” on zoning plans to avoid them being wrongly
them to examine the non-technical, social success factors and recorded as areas covered with an impervious surface
the economic and ecological risks and opportunities in greater Extend areas that are classified for agrivoltaics use to
detail. At the same time, these projects can make investors include all agricultural land as part of the EEG
more willing to invest and encourage stakeholders, citizens Establish statutory feed-in tariffs in line with the EEG for
and commercial enterprises to develop creative solutions. small, overhead agrivoltaic systems (< 1 MWp) that are
­Section 7.2 discusses possible areas for action in policymaking. not subject to tendering (based on criteria)
Establish a separate tender segment for large, ­overhead
agrivoltaic systems (> 1 MWp) that are subject to
Overview of agrivoltaics ­tendering (based on criteria)
Global installed capacity of at least 14 GWp Partial special status in BauBG: Give projects to build
Estimated potential installed capacity just for overhead agri- small PV systems and those in a horticultural context
voltaic systems in Germany is roughly 1,700 GWp with less than 1 MWp capacity a special status in line
with ­section 35 German Building Code (Baugesetzbuch,
BauGB) to simplify the approvals process
Advantages Run an agrivoltaics R&D program for Germany
Combines agriculture and ground-mounted PV systems Engage as many citizens and stakeholder groups as
Offers additional benefits for farming, including protection ­possible at an early stage to analyze the non-technical
against hail, frost and drought damage success factors in building an agrivoltaic system, and
Has a lower levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) compared to identify suitable locations
small rooftop PV systems
Diversifies income for farmers

30 / 70
3,840 (< 1% each)
(13%)

7,000 7,470 17,940

[hectares]
800 (26%) (61%)

6,000
600 5,866
5,397
5,000

3,439
4,000
[hectares]

3,000

2,091
904
2,000
18
1,538 33
27 35 140
1,000 1,100 340 207 140
72 171 467
580 535 795 823 302
669
523 358
0 240 260
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Land-use conversion, misc. physical structure Area used for Fig. 5: Land used for ground-mounted PV systems in Germany
Arable land, less-favored area as of 2016 transportation since 2004; total land used and yearly expansion. © German Fed-
German Institute for Federal Real Estate (BImA) Other eral Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK) [8]

7
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

2 Agrivoltaics facts and figures

Solar PV and wind power will be cornerstones of the future

energy supply. Photovoltaics is now the most affordable
­renewable energy technology, with prices for PV modules
having fallen by around 90 percent between 2009 and 2019.
The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) is currently 4–11 euro
cents per kilowatt hour, depending on the size of the system.

Solar power also enjoys strong backing from the public.

­However, solar PV needs a relatively large amount of space
compared to wind power and fossil fuels, so it is usually
difficult to find the right areas to build large PV systems. One
solution to this problem is integrating PV systems into ­different
areas of human activity, such as on buildings, lakes and land
with impervious surfaces, like areas for transportation. Doing
so can make the areas dual purpose, and in the case of
­agrivoltaics, it significantly reduces land use. It does not have to
I N T E G R AT E D
be a choice between photovoltaics or photosynthesis; the two
PHOTOVOLTAICS
can complement each other well.

Germany had around 59 GWp installed PV capacity by the end

of 2021, 75 percent of which came from rooftop systems, with
the rest from ground-mounted systems[9]. But this is not nearly
enough: Fraunhofer ISE has calculated that Germany needs
between 300 and 450 GWp of installed capacity by 2045.
Integrating PV technology into buildings, vehicles and transport
routes and using it on agricultural land, bodies of water and in
urban spaces could unlock huge yield potential.

Fig. 6: Applications for integrated Several factors determine how much of the technically feasible
photovoltaics. © Fraunhofer ISE potential can be tapped from a practical and commercial point
of view, including regulatory and economic contexts. The LCOE
with integrated PV is likely to be higher than with simple,
large-scale ground-mounted PV systems, but integrated PV
eases competition for land use and can create synergies. For
instance, it can be a substitute for a building facade or use the
existing structure of a noise barrier. It can increase the range of
electric vehicles or make agricultural land dual purpose. With
all scenarios, the bigger a PV system’s added value is, the more
successful its integration will be.

8
 Agrivoltaics: A new approach to mitigate competing demands for land use

2.1 Agrivoltaics: A new approach to mitigate

competing demands for land use

Ground-mounted PV systems can create competition for

the use of agricultural land. Ground-mounted PV systems
­supported by the EEG’s innovation tenders may only be
­constructed on sealed surfaces, converted areas, strips
along highways or railroads, and on land in (agriculturally)
­less-favored regions. However, the huge drop in LCOE for solar
power has led to large-scale PV systems being constructed
outside of EEG-compliant tenders, negating the EEG’s aim to
incentivize the protection of valuable agricultural land.

Considering the limited availability of arable land, the increas-

ing demand for space locally may exacerbate competition for
land use and trigger social, political, economic and environ-
mental conflicts. With this in mind, it would be prudent to
discuss the future importance of rural areas as sites for new
technologies so as to mitigate potential competing goals and
inconsistencies in valuation. Research and development in
­agrivoltaics is a key undertaking with respect to the require-
ments of the High-Tech Strategy 2025 pursued by the German
Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF).

Fig. 7: Typical ground-mounted PV system. © Fraunhofer ISE

9
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

2.2 Precipitation and global radiation

Although long-term precipitation records for Germany starting

in 1880 show an average yearly increase of 8 percent, a clear
downward trend can be observed over the last 30 years. Data
from the Deutscher Wetterdienst (German ­meteorological
service, DWD)[10] shows a yearly decline in precipitation of
0.39 percent since 1991. The average amount of rainfall
has therefore fallen by almost 12 percent between then and
now (see figure 8, blue trend line). Weather conditions in
spring, which are key for crop growth, have f­ undamentally
changed. Over the last 12 years, the amount of rainfall in
April has s­ ometimes been up to 70 percent less than the
historical average for the month. Warm weather in spring is
­increasingly leading to soil moisture deficit early in the year,
which cannot be rectified later in summer[11]. Data analysis also
clearly shows that global solar radiation (the sum of direct and
diffuse radiation) increased by 0.28 percent yearly in the same
period (red trend line), which is a positive development for
PV yields. The combination of decreasing precipitation levels
and i­ncreasing global radiation suggests that as time passes
agrivoltaics will become an increasingly ideal solution to make
agricultural s­ ystems more resilient to climate change and turn
climate impacts to good account.

Fig. 8: Precipitation and global solar radiation in

Germany since 1991. Data: Deutscher Wetterdienst.
Graph: Fraunhofer ISE

1,100 1,300

1,000 1,200
Global solar radiation (kWh / m2a)

900 1,100
Precipitation (mm / a)

800 1,000

700 900

600 800
1990 2000 2010 2020
Precipitation Global solar radiation

10
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

2.3 Definition and potential of agrivoltaics

Agrivoltaics is a technology that allows land to be used Similar to ground-mounted PV systems, agrivoltaic systems can
­simultaneously for farming and generating electricity with be built either with a fixed substructure or a single or dual-axis
photovoltaics[12]. This means that a field can be dual purpose: tilting construction (solar trackers). Tracking systems allow for
to grow crops (photosynthesis) and generate solar power more flexible light management as their PV modules can be
­(photovoltaics). Some PV modules that provide shelter to tilted individually.
animals are counted as agrivoltaics although their features are
similar to those on a conventional PV roof. This guideline mainly looks at overhead PV systems in
­farming (> 2 m) and horticulture (approx. 2.5 m), including
The technical solutions for integrating PV into farming are ­applications for specialty crops such as fruit and v­ egetables
as diverse as farming itself. They can be broadly categorized and ­viticulture. It discusses ground-level, interspace PV
into open and closed systems (see figure 9). Closed systems systems to a lesser extent and touches on their applications
mainly cover PV greenhouses, while open agrivoltaic systems in ­permanent grasslands. The heights given here for each of
can be broken down into ground-level, interspace PV and the applications should only be seen as a trend; they serve to
overhead, overhead PV. PV modules in overhead systems are group the use cases from a technical and economic point of
mounted at least 2.1 meters above the ground (see section view. This ­guideline does not cover closed systems such as PV
on DIN SPEC 91434 below). With overhead systems, the land ­greenhouses. Section 5.1 provides more detailed information
under the PV modules is used for farming, whereas with about the various technical solutions.
­interspace systems, it is usually the land between PV modules
that is farmed.

The main benefits of interspace systems are that they have

lower costs and tend to impact the landscape less. Overhead
installations, on the other hand, use the land more ­efficiently
and can give crops greater protection against adverse
­environmental effects.

Fig. 9: Classification of agrivoltaic systems. © Fraunhofer ISE

AGRIVOLTAICS
System
Open Closed

Overhead PV
Classification

Structure Interspace PV PV greenhouse Opaque buildings*

Fixed, single axis,

PV module orientation Fixed, single axis Fixed Fixed
dual axis

Permanent
Common applications Arable farming Horticulture Aquaculture Indoor farming*
grassland

Mushrooms*, meat,
Animal feed, meat
Common agricultural products Staple food Fruit, vegetables Fish, algae
dairy

Open pond
Grazing Annual crops Perennials Barns, stables*
aquaculture
Grain, Closed pond
Examples

Haying Specialty crops Vertical farming*

Common crops or oleaginous crops aquaculture
agricultural activities Use of large Orcharding, Floating PV
Biodiversity PV*
machinery vineyards aquaculture
Protected
Beekeeping* Crop rotation Onshore, offshore
cultivation

*No agrivoltaic application in the strictest sense

11
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Summary of DIN SPEC 91434: “Agri-photovoltaic sys- The previous agricultural usability of the area shall be
tems — Requirements for primary agricultural use” ­maintained, and the planned form of land use shall be set
Fraunhofer ISE and the University of Hohenheim have worked out in an agricultural usage proposal.
with the German Institute for Standardization (DIN) and a Land loss after installing the PV system must not exceed
consortium of partners in research and industry to develop the 10 percent of the total project area for category I and
standard DIN SPEC 91434. By outlining the ­r­equirements for 15 percent for category II.
the primary agricultural use of agrivoltaics, the ­standard aims Light availability, light homogeneity and water ­availability
to clearly distinguish agrivoltaic systems from ­conventional must be checked and adapted to the needs of the
ground-mounted systems, which is likely to be a key ­agricultural products.
­prerequisite for ensuring agrivoltaic systems are successfully Steps should be taken to avoid soil erosion and damage
brought to market. The DIN SPEC provides ­legislators, ­funding caused by PV system design, anchoring in the soil or the
bodies and regulatory authorities with a basis for testing water runoff from the PV modules.
and sets out quality criteria for constructing and ­operating It shall be ensured that the agricultural yield after
­agrivoltaic systems. The DIN SPEC also aims to lay the ­constructing the agrivoltaic system is at least 66 percent of
­groundwork for the further development of a test method and the reference yield. The reference yield is calculated using
the possible certification of agrivoltaic systems. the three-year average of yields from the same a­ gricultural
land or using comparable data taken from the relevant
Fifteen institutions, mostly from the solar PV industry, publications.
­participated in the consortium that drew up the standard. The
DIN SPEC specifications mainly cover the agricultural aspects In addition to these key metrics and specifications, the
of agrivoltaics as the relevant technical standards for solar DIN SPEC lists further recommendations for designing and
PV already exist and can therefore be adopted for this area installing agrivoltaic systems effectively. The DIN SPEC can
of application. Table 1 shows the key areas covered by the be downloaded free of charge here: https://www.din.de/en/
DIN SPEC and how it categorizes agrivoltaic systems. wdc-beuth:din21:337886742

A core tenet that applies to all categories is that the land

used for agrivoltaics must continue to be used for ­agricultural
­purposes. A more detailed description of the ­agricultural
­activities at each agrivoltaic area needs to be recorded in
an agricultural cultivation proposal. The criteria and key
­requirements for the agricultural cultivation proposal are:

Table 01: Overview of categories and forms of land use as set out in DIN SPEC 91434

Agrivoltaic systems Use Examples

Category I: 1A: Permanent and perennial crops Fruits, berries, viticulture, hops

Overhead PV with vertical clearance 1B: Single-year and long-term crops Arable crops, vegetables, alternating grassland,
> 2.1 m fodder

1C: Permanent grassland with mowing Intensive and extensive commercial grassland
Farming under the agrivoltaic system

(Image A) 1D: Permanent grassland with pasture Permanent pasture, pasture rotation (e.g.,
cattle, poultry, sheep, pigs and goats)

Category II: 2A: Permanent and perennial crops Fruits, berries, viticulture, hops

Interspace PV with vertical clearance 2B: Single-year and long-term crops Arable crops, vegetables, alternating grassland,
< 2.1 m fodder

2C: Permanent grassland with mowing Intensive and extensive commercial grassland
Farming between the rows of agrivoltaic
systems
2D: Permanent grassland with pasture Permanent pasture, pasture rotation (e.g.,
(Image B/C) cattle, poultry, sheep, pigs and goats)

12
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Fig. 10: Illustration of

the categories and forms
of land use as set out in

A DIN SPEC 91434.

© Fraunhofer ISE
AN
3 Image A: Illustration of a
AL category I setup;

Image B: Illustration
of a category II setup,
1 variant 1;

Image C: Illustration of a
category II setup, variants
1 and 2.

AN B
AL
3

2 C
AN
3
Legend
AL AL Cultivatable agricultural areas
AN Uncultivatable agricultural areas
h1 Clearance height below 2.1 m
h2 Clearance height above 2.1 m
1 Examples of PV modules
2 Mounting structure
3 Examples of crops

13
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

High potential
Out of all the applications for integrated PV, agrivoltaics holds
the greatest land potential. Fraunhofer ISE conducted an initial
assessment to estimate the potential of agrivoltaics and found
that this was around 1,700 GWp in Germany. This installed
capacity would only require approximately 4 percent of
Germany's available farmlands. It based its estimates largely on
Total area in Germany Usable agricultural land ­shade-tolerant crops and those typically used in crop rotation.
Even using just 10 percent of this 1,700 GWp capacity would
almost triple Germany’s current PV capacity. Interspace PV
Residential,
traffic, water, Fodder 60 % modules that are installed close to the ground with wide gaps
surrounding Usable
areas agricultural between rows allow crops to be grown in the ­intervening
7.6 million ha land
strips. One hectare is needed to generate 0.25 MW, so
16.7 million ha
­growing fodder on permanent grassland offers the potential
Forest area Food 22 %
11.4 million ha to support another 1,200 GWp capacity. From the perspective
of ­generating electricity, the dual use of agricultural land with
Energy crops 14 % agrivoltaics is considerably more efficient than growing energy
Industrial crops 2 % crops (e.g., it generates 32 times more power per hectare than
Fallow & resting 2 % growing maize as a biofuel). Energy crop cultivation takes up
14 percent of agricultural land in Germany (see figure 11).

Fig. 11: Land use in Germany. © Fachagentur Nachwachsende

Rohstoffe e.V. (2019)[13]

2.4 Research sites in Germany

There are several agrivoltaic systems in operation in ­Germany

as part of research projects. The key data and research
­questions of five German agrivoltaic systems (listed in Table 2)
are detailed in the following pages along with summaries of
other research projects.

Table 02: Overview of research sites in Germany to date

d
Agrivoltaic Location Installed Year of
Type of Land Use Technology
systems Capacity Commissioning

1 Weihenstephan/Freising, Bavaria Vegetable Growing Tracking PV Array 22 kWp 2013

2 Weihenstephan/Freising, Bavaria Vegetable Growing PV Tubes 14 kWp 2015

Heggelbach, Sigmaringen district, South-West Facing, Fixed PV

3 Arable Farming 194 kWp 2016
Baden-Württemberg Modules

Grafschaft-Gelsdorf, Ahrweiler Tracking and Fixed Semi-Trans-

4 Fruit Orchard 258 kWp 2021
district, Rhineland-Palatinate parent PV Modules

Morschenich, Düren district, North Arable Farming/Vege- Tracking and Fixed, with Water approx.
5 2022
Rhine-Westphalia table Growing Management 300 kWp

14
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Weihenstephan 2013
Researchers at the Institute for Horticulture based in the Varying distances between PV modules in the rows aims to
­University of Weihenstephan-Triesdorf conducted the first help determine how different amounts of shade affect the crop
­preliminary tests on a small, dummy ground-mounted PV yield and thereby identify the optimal row density. Tests with
system (south-facing) in 2011. They used roofing felt to Chinese cabbage showed 29 to 50 percent declines in yields.
­simulate the shade from PV modules and grew crop such The results differ depending on the amount of shade and are
as lettuce underneath. Results showed that the differences shown in table 3.
in shade and soil moisture caused considerable disparities
in crop growth between the more/less shaded areas directly Soil compaction from constructing the PV system and damage
under/north of the dummy PV modules, which would make to crops positioned under the PV modules’ drip edge were
it ­unsuitable for real-world application. The first agrivoltaic possible compounding factors why crops under the agrivoltaic
system with rows of east-west solar tracking PV modules (see system produced reduced yields.
figure 12) was constructed in 2013 as a way of preventing
excess shading on parts of the ground under the system.

Technical data:

Area: 21 x 23 m = 483 m²
PV module rows: 3 rows, 3.2 x 21 m each, with 30 PV mod-
ules of 1.6 m² each
Tracking: East-west; calendar controlled
PV modules: CSG 245 W; 200 W/m² (average; 245 W x 90
= 22 kWp; 45 W/m²)
Yearly production: Approx. 35,000 kWh
Installed capacity: 22 kWp
Use: Self-consumption, no feed-in tariff

3.18
Mover desk PV module

Actuator Steering unit

and inverter
3.60

< West 7.0 East >

Barrier-free soil cultivation

6.50

Fig. 12: Cross-section view of the agrivoltaic system in Weihenstephan.

© 2020 B. Ehrmaier, M. Beck, U. Bodmer

Table 03: Damage to cabbage crops. © 2020 B. Ehrmaier, M. Beck, U. Bodmer

Dense Section of PV
Module Rows: 25 cm between PV 66 cm between PV Grown without a PV
0 cm between PV Modules Modules System, for Comparison
Modules

1,348 g 1.559 g 1,970 g 2,762 g

Average Weight of a
Around 50 Percent of the Around 56 Percent of the Around 71 Percent of the
Head of Chinese Cabbage
Yield Achieved without Yield Achieved without Yield Achieved without
Grown within Agrivoltaic
Agrivoltaics Agrivoltaics Agrivoltaics
Aystem (2014)

15
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Weihenstephan 2015 Heggelbach 2016

Installing rain gutters on the drip edges of the PV modules The third agrivoltaics research site was constructed at the
caused new problems, particularly in winter. As an alternative, Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach farm near Lake Constance
researchers examined how horizontal, overhead tubular PV (Germany) in 2016 as part of the APV-RESOLA project. This
modules affected crop yields. ­biodynamic mixed-farming business has been operating for
more than 30 years with 165 hectares of agricultural land.
In 2015, the Weihenstephan-Triesdorf University of Applied
Sciences constructed a second German research site with Winter wheat, potatoes, celery and clover grass were planted
the company TubeSolar where researchers tested the viability as test crops. Installing the bi-facial double-glass PV modules
of tube-shaped PV modules. This PV system has a capacity with five-meter ground clearance, south-west orientation and
of 14 kWp, and potatoes and varieties of lettuce are grown a larger gap between the rows of PV modules ensures that the
­underneath. A test with lollo rosso lettuce showed that yields crops receive consistent amounts of sunlight. The clearance
for crops under the PV tubes were no more than 15 ­percent height and distance between the supporting structures also
lower than the yields achieved without the agrivoltaic system, enables the farmers to use large machinery, such as a combine
meaning such PV modules offer new opportunities for harvester, without any major restrictions. The rows are 9.5 m
­agrivoltaics in horticulture, at least for shade-sensitive crops. apart with a row width of 3.4 m. The installed capacity of this
For a comprehensive assessment, however, the LCOE needs test system is enough to supply 62 four-person households
to be examined against the contribution margin from crop annually. Due to the increased distances between rows, this
production (referred to as “by products”). installed capacity is around 25 percent lower per hectare com-
pared to conventional ground-mounted PV systems.

Technical data:

Area: 25 m x 136 m = 3,400 m²

PV module rows: 15 rows measuring 136 m in length, each
with 48 PV modules of 1.7 m²
Tracking: None
PV modules: Bi-facial double-glass PV modules, SolarWorld,
270 W
Yearly production: Approx. 256,000 kWh in 2020
Installed capacity: 194.4 kWp
Use: Self-consumption, grid supply, no statutory feed-in
tariff

Results showed that the land-use rate rose to 160 percent

during the first year of the project (2017), demonstrating the
practical viability of agrivoltaics. The yields of crops grown
under PV modules remained over the critical 80 percent mark
8m compared to reference areas without PV modules, allowing
5m them to be marketed as commercially viable.

18.4 The agrivoltaic system generated 1,266 kWh per installed kWp
m 5m
11.7 in the first 12 months (September 2016–September 2017). This
output is a third more than the average for Germany, which
is 950 kWh per kWp. One reason for this is the relatively high
Fig. 13: Illustration of the agrivoltaic system in Heggelbach. solar radiation in the region, while another is the additional
© AGRISOLAR Europe GmbH yields thanks to the bifacial PV modules.

16
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Fig. 14: The agrivoltaic

system at Hofgemeinschaft
Heggelbach enabled the Performance (kW)

farm to cover almost all of

its energy demand in
summer 2017 using the
power generated with the Feed-in from agrivoltaic system kW
system. © BayWa r.e. Grid supply Heggelbach kW

Self-consumption Heggelbach kW

Hours

The electricity generated over the day suits the farm’s load The research group believes that the crops were better able
profile, meaning that the farm consumes around 40 percent of to compensate for that summer’s lack of rain thanks to the
the solar power generated on site, such as for charging electric shade provided by the PV modules. This observation clearly
vehicles and processing agricultural products. The agrivoltaic shows the potential for agrivoltaics in arid regions and the
system almost covered the farm’s entire daily load in summer. need to conduct further testing in other climates and with
Installing a battery storage device with 150 kWh capacity more crops.
boosted the level of self-consumption to around 70 percent.
Project partner Elektrizitätswerke Schönau buys the surplus The solar irradiance was 1,319.7 kWh per square meter in
power. 2018, an increase of 8.4 percent over the previous year.
This meant that solar power generation in the 2018 h ­ arvest
Yields during the 2018 summer heat waves significantly year rose by 2 percent to 249,857 kWh, resulting in an
exceeded the previous year’s results. The partial shade under ­exceptionally high specific yield of 1,285.3 kWh per kWp.
the PV modules increased crop yields while the high levels of
solar radiation increased solar power generation. This improved The outcomes of the Heggelbach pilot project suggest
land-use efficiency by 86 percent where the potato crops were that agrivoltaics help stabilize yields as crops benefit from
being tested. the additional shade, especially during dry spells[5]. More
information about the pilot’s agricultural results is detailed in
section 3.1.

Fig. 15: The dual use of land for agrivoltaics and potato
growing increased land-use efficiency on the Heggelbach
test site to 186 percent. © Fraunhofer ISE

100 % potato cultivation and 100 % solar power generation 103% potato cultivation and
 
83 % solar power generation
> 186 % land-use efficiency

17
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Research at the University of Applied Sciences Dresden Tracking: Single axis

At the University of Applied Sciences Dresden (HTW Dresden), PV modules: Semi-transparent, double-glass PV modules,
Professor Feistel’s team has spent several years ­researching 225 W
­agrivoltaics and how PV systems effect the soil water regime. Yearly production: Approx. 276,000 kWh (forecast)
Their research focuses on changes in evaporation and Installed capacity: 258 kWp
­infiltration and how these changes are classified in the context Use: Powering electric tractors, water pumps; feeding into
of adverse climate impacts. They have studied both large solar the grid, no statutory feed-in tariff
PV systems and small agrivoltaic systems.
The project has four different pilot systems: (1) control field
Agri4Power project — Sustainably combining agriculture, with conventional hail-protection nets; (2) agrivoltaic system;
biodiversity and renewable energies (3) agrivoltaic system with reduced use of crop protection
Researchers at Fraunhofer IMW ran the Agri4Power ­project ­product; and (4) sheet covering. The part of the project ­dealing
between 2020 and 2021. The project looked at how with public acceptance and social responsibility looks at
­sustainable synergies could be created by combining ­vertical, different possible areas of conflict (land use, distribution, fair
bifacial solar PV systems with flower strips, which foster processes) in various stakeholder groups. The initial results from
­biodiversity, alongside agricultural production at the same time. the trial are expected in fall 2022.
They examined the economic and environmental aspects, as
well as questions of social acceptance[14]. APV 2.0 2022
The APV 2.0 project in Morschenich (Düren district, North
APV Obstbau 2021 Rhine-Westphalia), led by Forschungszentrum Jülich, has been
Fraunhofer ISE joined its partners in research and industry for further developing linked radiation and simulation models,
the APV Obstbau project where they examined the extent allowing both PV and crop production to be optimized
to which agrivoltaic systems can replace nets and sheets ­together. To assess how this affects the crops, researchers are
to protect apple orchards from hail, which system design developing and deploying an in-situ phenotypic monitoring
would be most useful and how much the PV system affects system to collect and analyze quantitative phenotypic data
­harvest yields. For their research, they installed a pilot system about the crops. They are also developing innovative tracking
with 258 kWp capacity at the Nachtwey organic fruit farm in algorithms, rainwater collection systems and smart irrigation
­Gelsdorf (Ahrweiler district, Rhineland-Palatinate) in spring strategies. The test system was constructed in December 2021.
2021. The research team used the agrivoltaic system on the
orchard to look at light management, system design, landscape Technical data:
esthetics, the system’s cost-effectiveness, its social acceptability
and the parameters of crop cultivation. Area: 2 x 25 m x 41 m; 2 x 22 m x 39 m giving a total of
2,050 m² + 1,716 m² = 3,766 m²
Technical data: Tracking: East-west for some parts of the system, test
­algorithms; static on two parts of the system
Area: 32 m x 111 m = 3,552 m² PV modules: 370 W, bifacial
PV module rows: 8 rows, fixed structure, 111 m in length Installed capacity: Approx. 300 kWp
with 106 PV modules of 2.1 m² each Use: Self-consumption, no statutory feed-in tariff. on-site
3 rows, tracking structure, 111 m in length with 100 PV storage
modules of 2.1 m² each

Fig. 16: Agrivoltaic system at the Nachtwey organic fruit farm.

© Fraunhofer ISE

18
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

2.5 Operational sites in Germany

There are a dozen private agrivoltaic systems in ­Germany The substructure was built in the “venlo” greenhouse style
in addition to the test ones for research purposes. One and comprises a total of 20 gabled roofs. The structure is
­organization, Elektro Guggenmos, has been growing potatoes, made from steel and aluminum profiles. The substructure is
wheat and leeks under its agrivoltaic system in Warmsried embedded in the ground using driven piles. The spacing in the
(Bavaria) since 2008. Some details about this system are shown system (3.5 m x 4.2 m) and a clearance height of 3.2 m enable
below. More systems are currently being planned. the farmers to use standard agricultural machinery to maintain
their crops. The actual roof is made of the bifacial PV modules.
Büren 2019 They generate electricity and protect the crops underneath
Farmers Fabian Karthaus and Josef Kneer began constructing from the sun and the elements. The cabling runs only in the
an operational agrivoltaic system at their organic soft fruit roof construction to ensure that the farmers can work on the
farm in Büren (North Rhine-Westphalia) in 2019. They applied land under the PV modules without any problems.
for a building permit to construct the system, classifying it as
a greenhouse for specialty crops, and it was approved as a Beneath the installation, blueberries, raspberries and apples are
special project in line with section 35 BauGB. planted in ridges around the supporting structure, with each
roof apex covering a ridge. A sensor-supported drip irrigation
Technical data: system regulates the watering of the ridges. The watering
system takes into account the current temperature, the wind,
Area: 70 x 60 m = 4,200 m² sun intensity and the forecasted rainfall. The drip edge for
PV module rows: 20 rows, 3.5 x 60 m each (116 PV ­modules each roof panel is positioned between each ridge. Rainwater
of 1.6 m² each) infiltrates the facility and is captured in drains where it is then
PV module orientation: East-west, 15° prepared for reuse.
PV modules: Bifacial; manufactured by Solarfabrik, special
production, 320 W (200 W/m²) The farmers report that they were impressed by the high
Use: 50 percent self-consumption, 50 percent fed into the ­blueberry yields in the first few years. They recorded slightly
grid lower strawberry yields in the first year. There has not been any
Installed capacity: 750 kWp yield information regarding the apples and grapes yet.
Inverter: Huawei 110 kWp

Table 04: Overview of some operational systems in Germany

Agrivoltaic Installed Year of

Location Type of land use Technology
systems capacity commissioning

Arable farming, vegetable

1 Warmsried, Bavaria Fixed PV arrays 70 kWp 2008
growing, livestock farming

2 Eppelborn-Dirmingen, Saarland Fodder Vertical PV arrays 2,000 kWp 2018

Büren-Steinbach, North
3 Soft fruit production Tracking PV array 740 kWp 2020
Rhine-Westphalia

Donaueschingen Aasen,
4 Fodder Vertical PV arrays 4,100 kWp 2020
Baden-Württemberg

Specialty crops and berry Single axis, solar tracking PV

5 Althegnenberg, Bavaria 749 kWp 2020
shrubs array

Livestock farming, vegeta- Single axis, solar tracking PV

6 Lüptitz, Saxony 1,045 kWp 2021
ble growing, honey crops array

19
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Community solar park, Aasen, Donaueschingen 2020 Community solar park, Lüptitz 2021
Next2Sun constructed a vertical agrivoltaic system near Aasen, Solverde Bürgerkraftwerke Energiegenossenschaft eG also
north of Donaueschingen, in partnership with the energy operates another agrivoltaic system in Lüptitz near Leipzig.
­cooperative Solverde Bürgerkraftwerke Energiegenossenschaft This involved dismantling an existing ground-mounted PV
as its operator. The system has a capacity of around 4.1 MWp system and replacing it with a more efficient, more advanced
and can supply power to 1,400 homes[15]. As part of the interspace PV system. Data from the operator shows that the
project, arable land was converted into extensively farmed Repowering Lüptitz project is profitable despite the costs to
grassland. The overall share of land taken up by the PV module dismantle the first system. The PV system was constructed in a
rows is minimal with a 10 m gap between rows, allowing the commercial area and put into operation in June 2021.
land in between to be farmed.

Technical data: Technical data:

Area: 140,000 m² Area: 16,500 m²

PV module rows: 33 rows, up to 400 m in length; 10,960 12 rows of PV modules of varying length (up to 190 m),
PV modules totaling 2,520 PV modules
PV module orientation: 90° east, 270° west PV module rows: Rotary axis 166° south-west
PV modules: Bifacial, double-glass PV modules; Type: Joly- PV modules: Bifacial, 2,520 x Jolywood JW-HD144N, 415 W
wood JW-D72N, 370-380 Watt (front side) with 72 six-inch each
cells each Use: 100 percent fed into the grid
Use: 100 percent fed into the grid Installed capacity: 1,045.8 kWp
Installed capacity: 4,100 kWp Yearly production: (predicted) 1,350 MWh
Yearly production: 4,814 MWh Inverter: 29 x Huawei SUN2000-30KTL-M3
Inverter: 46 x Huawei SUN2000-60KTL-M0

Fig. 17: Vertical agrivoltaic system in Aasen, Fig. 18: PV module row with bifacial PV modules on the
Donaueschingen. © Solverde Bürgerkraftwerke agrivoltaic system in Heggelbach. © Fraunhofer ISE

20
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

2.6 International development

With over 14 GWp of installed APV capacity worldwide (as Electricity generated from agrivoltaics can also go straight
estimated by Fraunhofer ISE), China has the largest share of into powering refrigeration and processing equipment for the
installed capacity with 12 GWp (as of July 2021). The country agricultural products. This gives them a longer shelf life, makes
also has the world’s largest agrivoltaic facility on the edges of them more marketable and allows farmers to continue selling
the Gobi Desert. Its solar PV modules have an installed capacity them beyond the harvest season, which in turn brings higher
of 700 MWp, and berries are grown underneath them. This revenues. Many countries still face political and e­ conomic bar-
facility also helps to combat desertification. Japan and South riers to realizing the huge potential for development cooper-
Korea are two more countries in Asia have that identified the ation. Political instability and limited capital reserves in partic-
opportunities offered by agrivoltaics. However, they both use ular make technology transfer difficult and hinder long-term
smaller PV systems. At present, Japan has over 3,000 systems. investment in agrivoltaics.
In South Korea, where there is a huge migration away from
rural areas to urban areas, the government is planning to build A preliminary study conducted by Fraunhofer ISE at a site
100,000 agrivoltaic systems on farms as a form of retirement in the Indian state of Maharashtra suggests that shade and
provision for farmers (selling electricity can earn them a month- reduced evaporation under agrivoltaic systems can lead to up
ly income of around 1,000 US dollars) and combat the decline to 40 ­percent bigger yields of tomatoes and cotton[16]. In this
in farming. particular case, Fraunhofer ISE researchers expect the land-use
efficiency for this region to double.
Agrivoltaics has multiple uses, so it can bring major ­benefits
to (semi-) arid areas in emerging and developing countries As part of the EU’s Horizon 2020 program, Fraunhofer ISE is
that receive a high level of solar radiation. In addition to working with partners in Algeria on the WATERMED 4.0 project
­protecting crops and livestock from the sun, agrivoltaic systems to find out how agrivoltaics impact water regime. In addition to
also p ­ rovide power to collect and treat water, which can reduced evaporation and lower air and soil temperatures, using
stem desertification and soil degradation trends. In future, PV modules to harvest rainwater also plays a role here. This
­agrivoltaics could help crops to grow in areas with dry, hot rainwater collection is a appealing prospect for many countries,
climates and high levels of solar radiation, conditions in which including parts of Germany, especially in view of the increasing
they would otherwise not grow. Generating power locally frequency of dry spells[17].
is another benefit of agrivoltaics for villages that are usually
far away from centralized grids. This technology could give
people access to education, information (e.g., by allowing
them to charge radio and cellphone batteries) and improved
medical care (e.g., by powering refrigeration for vaccines and
­medicines) and enable them to tap new sources of income.
This also reduces rural populations’ reliance on fossil fuels, such
as diesel for generators.

21
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

2.6.1 Research projects in Chile

An agrivoltaics project in cooperation with Fraunhofer Chile,

which was completed in spring 2018, saw three systems with
13 kWp capacity constructed in areas surrounding Santiago city,
in the municipalities of El Monte, Curacaví and Lampa. This
region has high annual solar radiation and low precipitation
levels. An ongoing drought in what is already a dry and sunny
climate has reduced precipitation by 20 to 40 percent over the
last ten years. These climatic conditions have led farmers to
actively seek out shade-giving installations to help stop their
crops from drying out and becoming sunburned. This is where
the use of agrivoltaics offers major potential for synergies.

This project was backed by the local government, and its

participants researched which crops could benefit from
having slightly less solar radiation. The participating farms had
­different profiles. One farm that grew broccoli and c­ auliflower
used the solar power generated by the agrivoltaic system
for post-harvest processes, such as cleaning, packing and
refrigeration. Another pilot system was set up by a family-run
business specializing in herb growing. A third PV system
was c­ o
­ nstructed in a remote area with poorly developed
­infrastructure and an unreliable power supply, providing seven
families there with a secure supply.

These three sites in Chile are the first of their kind in Latin
America. The researchers looked at how agrivoltaics could be
adapted to suit the climatic and economic conditions in the
region and optimized overall. There were positive results from
the agricultural production and solar power generation, so
there are plans to build on this research by Fraunhofer Chile
with the support of local government. Researchers continue to
monitor the three pilot systems in field operation[18].

Fig. 19: Pilot PV systems in Curacaví and Lampa

where the Fraunhofer Chile Research Institute is
investigating which crops benefit from slightly
less solar radiation. © Fraunhofer Chile

22
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

2.6.2 France 2.6.3 USA

There have been separate tenders for agrivoltaics in France The USA also has agrivoltaic facilities. For instance, a research
since 2017, and there are plans for 15 MWp of installed site in Massachusetts has successfully demonstrated dual land
capacity per year. Contracts are awarded partly based on the use for growing crops and generating electricity. On the back
offered price and partly based on how innovative the project is. of this project, the state began providing funding for dual use
The maximum project size is 3 MWp of installed capacity. Only solutions in 2018. This financial support comes with specific
greenhouse projects won tenders in the first tendering process requirements, stipulating that it is only awarded to PV systems
in 2017. In the second and third rounds, tenders for 140 MW that are built on agricultural land and do not exceed 2 MW.
each are awarded for systems with a capacity between The lower edge of PV modules must be at least 2.4 m high
100 kWp and 3 MWp. Successful projects are ­guaranteed on fixed models and at least 3 m on tracked ones. No part of
a feed-in tariff over 20 years. In March 2020, 40 MW was the crop field can be more than 50 percent shaded during the
secured for agrivoltaic projects, especially for systems with solar main growing period[5].
tracking PV modules. Europe’s largest PV facility with solar
tracking PV modules to date was constructed at a vineyard in The US Department of Agriculture also provides funding for
Tresserre (Pyrénées-Orientales, Occitanie) in 2018. solar PV systems in rural areas as part of the Rural Energy
Advancement Program (REAP). This support could help further
However, there are problems with the acceptance of the expansion of agrivoltaics.
a­ grivoltaics in France. The first round of tendering did not
clearly outline the criteria for agrivoltaics, so some p ­ rojects Arizona, Colorado, Indiana and Oregon are also home
have little to no agricultural production. This kind of to ­agrivoltaic facilities. Systems that focus on promoting
­bandwagon effect from the PV industry has caused some ­biodiversity rather than agricultural use are particularly popular.
resistance to a­ grivoltaics, especially in the agricultural sector. Several universities and research institutions are working on
The French energy and environmental agency ADEME (Agence developing sustainable business models to make agrivoltaic
de l­’environnement et de la maîtrise de l’énergie) is currently systems with an emphasis on agricultural use more attractive.
working on a definition of agrivoltaics.

2.6.4 Mali and The Gambia

Mali and The Gambia are two of the world’s hardest hit regions
when it comes to the climate crisis. Extreme weather events
Fig. 20: Study with various types of lettuce at the agrivoltaics such as droughts will occur more frequently in future. The
research site run by the University of Montpellier in France. APV-MaGa research project aims to improve food and energy
© INRAE / Christian Dupraz security and strengthen the stability of the agricultural sector in
the two countries by examining the extent to which ­agrivoltaic
systems with integrated rainwater collection can boost
­agricultural resilience.

The international consortium comprising Mali, The Gambia

and Germany brings together R&D activities in agronomics,
socioeconomics and solar energy. It aims to demonstrate
the challenges and opportunities presented by agrivoltaics
and develop a deeper understanding of the synergies and
­interrelationships at the water-energy-food nexus. The project
also looks at the socioeconomic aspect of this technology and
seeks to promote the sustainable development of rural areas in
the partner countries.

23
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

3 Agriculture

Extreme weather events over the last few years have shown The dual use of agricultural land for growing food and
that global warming is not an abstract threat — it is already ­generating solar power gives farmers the opportunity to
having a major impact on Germany’s agriculture. Springtime address many of these problems at the same time. ­Agrivoltaics
precipitation is particularly crucial for crop growth, and it has offers farms the option to diversify their income and make
decreased significantly over the last 30 years[19]. Extra ­irrigation their internal processes circular. Reduced evaporation rates and
can make up for these dry spells and protect yields. Many protection against hail and frost are also key aspects. More
places have restrictions on drawing ground and surface water, protection systems can be integrated in a cost-effective manner
however, so more options for adaptation need to be found. if farms harness existing structures, boosting productivity and
Drought is not the only extreme weather event to threaten adding value to agricultural land.
crops — hail and heavy rainfall can also harm crop growth.
Using agrivoltaics does, however, present challenges for
Farms are increasingly using crop protection measures to cope ­agricultural production, including changing light conditions and
with challenges posed by climate change, water conservation difficulty in tending crops due to the system’s structures. In this
and the demand to increase yields. Such measures include case, the right crops and a suitable system design should be
growing crops in greenhouses and polytunnels and using chosen to minimize the risks and optimize synergies.
anti-hail netting in orchards. Anti-frost and anti-hail protection
measures are used especially for high-value specialty crops and
range from heating cables, anti-frost candles and static gas and
oil burners to helicopters and cloud seeders that disperse fine
particles of silver iodide under the cloud base. These technical
and mechanical crop protection measures are expected to grow
in importance over the next few decades as climate change
impacts agriculture more and more.
Fig. 21: Crops from the research site in Heggelbach
(celery, potatoes, wheat and clover grass).
© University of Hohenheim / Andrea Bauerle.

24
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

3.1 Results from the APV-RESOLA research project

As part of the APV-RESOLA research project, a sequence of same. During the hot, dry summer of 2018, the wheat field
several crops comprising celery, potatoes, winter wheat and had more soil moisture than the reference plot.
clover grass were successfully grown under the pilot system in
Heggelbach using a biodynamic approach. The results showed The initial yields from the test site in 2017 were promising: The
that weather conditions are a significant factor in how the clover grass yield was only slightly below that on the reference
agrivoltaic system impacts the yield. For instance, differences in plot, producing 5.3 percent less, but the reduced yields of
yields for potato crops growing under the facility compared to potatoes, wheat and celery caused by shading were slightly
a reference plot varied from minus 20 percent in 2017 to plus more pronounced at 18 to 19 percent.
11 percent in 2018 when it was dry and hot.
During 2018, which was a dry year, the winter wheat, potato
Depending on the geographic location and local climate, and celery crops produced higher yields than the reference
­growing crops under an agrivoltaic system can reduce plot with no PV modules. The celery benefited most from
­evaporation and protect against intense solar radiation. these conditions with its yield increasing 12 percent; the yields
This will become ever more important given the increasing for the potato and winter wheat crops rose 11 and 3 percent
­frequency of heat waves in Central Europe and Germany[20]. respectively. The clover grass yield was 8 percent lower than
Research with potatoes has also shown that using agrivoltaics the yield on the reference plot. Calculations for the total yield
can increase the proportion of sellable tubers. loss need to account for the 8 percent reduction loss as a
result of not being able to use the strips of land between the
Researchers at the University of Hohenheim collected data on supporting pillars for growing crops.
crop development, crop yield, harvest quality and ­microclimatic
conditions, both under the agrivoltaic system and on a Results from 2019 showed reductions in yields for crops
reference plot without PV modules (see figure 22). This data growing under agrivoltaic systems amounting to 19 percent for
showed that photosynthetically active solar radiation under the clover grass, 28 percent for wheat and 33 percent for celeriac.
agrivoltaic system was around 30 percent lower than on the Wheat grown with agrivoltaics produced 2 percent more in
reference plot. Besides solar radiation, the agrivoltaic system yields in 2020.
primarily affected the soil temperature and distribution of
precipitation. The temperature of the soil under the agrivoltaic
system was lower than that of the reference plot in spring and
summer, although the air temperature remained largely the

Processing on
behalf of
another party

Clover grass

Fig. 22: Field plan for the 2017 research site,

Potatoes showing monitoring stations. Areas where
samples were taken are shown as boxes, and
the positions of the microclimate stations are
Celery
shown as circles. © BayWa r.e., modified by
Axel Weselek/University of Hohenheim.

Winter wheat

25
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

3.2 Crop selection and cultivation

Cultivation under PV modules is not the same as farming on

“open fields.” There are differences in tilling (3.2.1), crop
­management (3.2.2) and crop selection (3.2.3).

20 3.2.1 Reconciling substructures and farming

machinery
15

10
When planning a system, practical requirements need to
Yield difference (%)

5 be taken into account before cultivation takes place. One

­important requirement is that the system needs to be aligned
0 with the direction of tilling, and the distances between the
substructure supports need to be suitable for the widths and
5 heights of the machines used. The machine operator needs to
get used to maneuvering between the pillars, especially at the
-10 outset. In the APV-RESOLA project, the pillars are equipped
with impact protection to prevent damage to the system. The
-15
actual land lost due to the pillars and impact protection in
­Heggelbach was less than one percent of arable land. Because
-20
it is often not practical to cultivate the strips between the
Winter wheat Potatoes Celery Grass/clover supports using machinery, around eight percent of the arable
mixture
land was not usable in the case of the research system in
Fig. 23: Crop yield differences under agrivoltaics compared Heggelbach. With manual cultivation or cultivation in rows,
to reference plots, 2017 (blue) and 2018 (red) in Heggelbach the area lost is reduced to cover only the area that is actually
(excluding land lost due to supports). Data: University of sealed. Innovative cabling techniques can also help to reduce
Hohenheim, graph: Fraunhofer ISE the number of supports to allow the largest possible area to
be cultivated (section 5.3). The use of precision farming and
automated track guidance systems makes cultivation easier.

Fig. 24: Impact protection for the supports of

the system in Heggelbach to protect against
possible damage from farming machinery.
© AGROSOLAR Europe GmbH

26
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

3.2.2 Changes to the microclimate

Shading of the agricultural land changes the microclimate Partial covering of the agricultural land leads to an uneven
below the PV modules. As well as the investigations in ­distribution of precipitation on the drip edges of the PV
­Heggelbach described above, research has also been done ­modules. Measures should be taken in these areas to
into ­possible effects on the microclimate at sites in the United ­counteract soil erosion due to run-off of nutrient-rich topsoil,
States[21] and France[7]. Depending on the location and design capping, ­washing out of seedlings or nutrient discharge and
of the system, the researchers were able to identify various ­eutrophication of surface water. Some possible options can be
changes in the microclimate. found in the technology section (section 5.4).

In combination with the findings from APV-RESOLA, the find- These findings play an important role in agricultural practice.
ings can essentially be summarized as follows: For example, with systems that offer no protection or only
partial protection from rain, it is necessary to take into account
1. The solar radiation available to the crops can vary depending possible changes in air circulation, humidity and risks of fungal
on the technical design (e.g. the distance and orientation infections when choosing crop varieties. It is also important to
of the PV modules). As a guideline, a reduction in radiation keep in mind that the decrease in solar radiation and canopy
of around a third can be considered acceptable for arable temperature can prolong development time.
farming in Germany.
2. The lower the height of the supports, the greater the Aside from practical considerations, knowledge of the
­ icroclimatic changes.
m ­microclimatic effects of agrivoltaics also serves as a basis for
3. On particularly hot days, the ground temperature decreases, ­selecting suitable crops. The partial shade underneath the
as does the air temperature to a lesser extent. system ­determines the suitability of individual crops.
4. The wind speed can decrease or increase depending on the
orientation and design of the system. Wind channel effects
and their impact on crop growth should therefore be taken
into account when planning the system.
5. Less groundwater is lost under an agrivoltaic system. The
hotter and drier the climate, the stronger the tendency
for soil moisture to increase compared to reference plots
w­ ithout agrivoltaics.
Fig. 25: Illustration of an agrivoltaic apple orchard.
© Fraunhofer ISE

27
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

3.2.3 Suitable crops

Based on current knowledge, all types of crops are ­generally

suitable for cultivation under an agrivoltaic system, with
­different effects on yields to be expected as a result of the
shade provided. Highly shade-tolerant crops such as leafy
­vegetable species (e.g. lettuce), field forage species (grass/
clover mixture), various pomaceous and stone fruit and berry
Fig. 26: Agrivoltaic system with solar tracking PV modules species and other specialized crops (e.g. wild garlic, asparagus,
in France. © Sun’Agri hops) appear to be particularly suitable.

Permanent and specialized crops

Agrivoltaics is likely to offer the greatest potential for ­synergy
effects in the case of specialized crops from viticulture and
fruit and vegetable growing. This is because the high added
value to area ratio and the often relatively sensitive crops
entail a ­greater need for protective measures. A sensibly
designed agrivoltaic structure can ensure direct protection
from ­environmental influences such as rain, hail and wind. The
supports can also be used to integrate additional ­protective
­elements such as hail protection nets and polytunnels.
­Agrivoltaics can help to reduce the amount of plastic used so
that less of it leaches into the soil. It also lowers the costs of
conventional protective measures and the yield risk at the same
time.

Leafy vegetable cultivation with lettuce produced positive

results under an agrivoltaic system. The crops responded to the
reduction in light of approximately 30 percent with increased
leaf surface area growth[22], in a similar way to the celery in
Fig. 27: Weather protection for raspberries provided Heggelbach.
by agrivoltaics. 300 kWp test system by BayWa r.e. in
the Netherlands. © BayWa r.e. In viticulture, on some types of vine the increased solar
r­ adiation and temperature change caused by the climate crisis
have had a marked effect on yields, leading to sunburn as well
as water shortage. Greater solar radiation increases the sugar
content of the grapes, which in turn increases the alcohol
content of the wine and can impair its quality. A shifting of
cultivation regions and changes in harvest times can already
be clearly observed in many regions. In high temperatures, the
partial shade therefore has a positive effect on growth while
also preventing early ripening[23]. Compared to other types of
agriculture, in viticulture the agrivoltaic system only needs to
be two to three meters high (see figure 26), which ­significantly
lowers the substructure costs. There are also potential cost
reductions to be achieved from integrating the agrivoltaic
system into existing protective structures. In France, agrivoltaic
systems are being increasingly promoted and implemented in
viticulture (section 2.6.2).

28
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Systems associated with pomaceous fruits such as apples are Arable farming
also showing promise. Reducing the effects of the ­climate crisis The results from Heggelbach with various agriculturally relevant
on the quality of the apples and harvest yields in G ­ ermany crops show that, especially in dry areas, these crops can clearly
often requires costly protective systems. Agrivoltaics can benefit from the shade of agrivoltaic systems. The positive
reduce these costs. For many types of apple, just 60 to 70 effect on yields in hot and dry years is particularly worth
percent of the available light is sufficient for optimum apple emphasizing. In years of high precipitation, on the other hand,
yields[24]. In Rhineland-Palatinate, Fraunhofer ISE has set up a crops such as potatoes, wheat and other grains (barley, rye or
pilot system on an organic orchard to investigate the effects triticale) under fixed substructures should be expected, as in
of the PV modules on pest infestations and yields compared the case of Heggelbach, to suffer yield losses of up to 20 per-
to those of conventional protective measures. Synergy effects cent. In temperate latitudes, corn is not well suited to cultiva-
are ­expected in hop production as well: The substructure can tion in partial shade because of its characteristics as a C4 crop
be used both as a climbing aid for the hops and as a fitting for (higher heat and light demand). There is little experience so far
the PV modules. This can substantially lower the costs of a hop with other popular crops such as canola, turnips and legumes.
yard. On the other hand, crops and cultivation systems that are It is recommended — including in view of achieving broad
susceptible to moisture-related fungal infestations that cannot ­acceptance among the population and in farming — that total
be reduced with accompanying cultivation techniques appear yield losses should not exceed 20 percent. The findings from
to be less suitable. ­Heggelbach show that this is achievable for some relevant
arable crops in Germany through suitable light management,
Another area of application among specialized crops is the which involves having a lower density of PV modules and
­protected cultivation of berry bushes. Here, PV modules adjusting the orientation of the PV modules. Movable agri­
could take on part of the function performed by polytunnels, voltaic systems can reduce losses in crop yields because the
­providing protection against rain and hail. Other advantages of available light can be increased in critical growth phases.
systems installed above permanent and specialized crops relate
to cost-effectiveness (section 3.3), societal acceptance (section
5) and regulatory feasibility (section 6).

Fig. 28: Demo project in berry cultivation shows high value Fig. 29: Wheat harvest with combine harvester.
creation in agriculture. © BayWa r.e. © Fraunhofer ISE

29
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Grassland
Dual agricultural use for ground-mounted PV systems and
Sun-loving crops sheep farming is common practice in Germany. These systems
are typically optimized purely on the PV side. The expected
Photosynthesis rate

­synergy effects and the agricultural added value to area ratio

Light saturation point are relatively low compared to other agrivoltaic applications.
However, concrete research findings are still needed in this
area.

A new approach, which allows the land to be farmed

Shade tolerant crops to a large extent even when the stilts are close to the
ground, is the installation of vertical agrivoltaic systems (see
figure 31). In Germany, there are already two r­ eference
Intensity of sunlight
­systems in ­Donaueschingen (Baden-Württemberg) and
Fig. 30: Graph of the rate of photosynthesis against intensity of ­Eppelborn-Dirmingen (Saarland). The main advantages for crop
sunlight for sun-loving and shade tolerant crops[24]. growth are expected to be in windy areas such as those close
© ASPS, modified by Fraunhofer ISE to coastlines, where the PV modules can act as wind barriers to
prevent wind erosion.

Light saturation point

Crops need light for photosynthesis. The ability to

make use of incident light differs from crop to crop.
The rate of photosynthesis stagnates after a certain
level of light intensity depending on the species
of crop (see figure 30). An important criterion in
determining the suitability of crops for agrivoltaics
is the light saturation point. After this point, crops
cannot convert any more light into photosynthesis
output, and can even become damaged. The lower
the point at which a crop reaches light saturation, the
better suited that crop is for cultivation under
an agrivoltaic system.[21]

Fig. 31:Vertically deployed, bifacial PV modules used within

the agrivoltaic system in Eppelborn-Dirmingen, with 2 MWp
of capacity, built by Next2Sun. © Next2Sun GmbH

30
3.3 Reports from farmers

The farmers in Heggelbach report chiefly positive effects,

but also clearly note the limitations due to the existing
regulatory framework in Germany. In an interview, Thomas
Schmid and Florian Reyer explain why they have chosen
an agrivoltaic system, how practically feasible it is and
how they think the legal regulations should be changed.
Thomas Schmid is a co-founder of the farming community
­Demeter-Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach, founded in 1986. Since
then, he has withdrawn from active farming and now works Fig. 32: Thomas Schmid and Florian Reyer. © AMA Film GmbH
on the supervisory board of the Demeter association and as
a consultant in Baden-Württemberg. Florian Reyer has been
a partner in Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach since 2008 with
responsibility for the areas of renewable energy, technology, How practical is it for you to farm under the system?
agriculture and vegetable farming. Reyer: “In terms of the benefits of dual use, it’s totally practical.
That also means that some of the constraints on cultivation
aren’t relevant. If you want to do it, you can.”
Interview with Thomas
What benefits do you get from generating power using
Schmid and Florian Reyer the system?
Schmid: “Our aim is to use as much of the energy ­produced
ourselves as possible so we can reduce energy costs. That’s
What drove you as an agricultural practice partner to why we’re trying to further increase consumption of our
take part in the pilot project and make your land avail- own energy and, with the help of our practice partner,
able for a pilot system? Schönau power station, to adapt storage, management and
Schmid: “For 15 years, we have had the ideal of achieving not ­consumption to the power that is generated.”
just a closed operational cycle but also a closed energy cycle on
the farm. Because of that, we have invested in various sources Given what you know now, would you choose to build
of energy in the past (note: wood gas power, roof PV systems). this system again?
When Fraunhofer ISE approached us in 2011, the energy Reyer: “As a research system, yes, but not under the current
transition was already a major topic. Agrivoltaics seemed to be conditions.”
an opportunity for us to play our part in a successful energy
transition and also, through dual land use, to showcase an Why? What do you think needs to change for agrivolta-
alternative to biogas production on agricultural land.” ics to be used successfully in the future?
Florian: “We’re also very interested in innovative developments Reyer: “It’s all about the conditions. Everything needs to
in renewable energies in general.” change!”
Schmid: “The conditions in Germany* are not right at
How did the planning and construction go? Were all your the moment. Building the system means we don’t get an
requirements taken into account, like maintenance of soil ­agricultural subsidy for the land any more. At the same time,
functions for example? we don’t get compensation under the Renewable Energies Act
Schmid and Reyer: “As a full practice partner, we were for feeding the power that’s generated into the grid.”
involved in the entire planning process and we had a say in Reyer: “New technology needs funding to incentivize people
the ­decisions made in every area, so our agricultural needs and to use it in practice. It also requires political will to adapt the
our high demands for maintaining soil fertility were considered underlying conditions accordingly.”
from the start. For example, a temporary construction road was Schmid: “More research is also needed to test the technology
laid to build the system, and a special anchoring system was in other areas of use, such as hop production, fruit growing
used to eliminate the need for concrete foundations.” and even conventional agriculture.”

* The statements refer to the regulatory conditions in 2019. Some conditions

have since been adapted, see also section 6.

31
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

4 Profitability and business models

The costs of agrivoltaics are highly individually variable and Below, applications on permanent grassland and in arable
depend on factors such as installed capacity, agricultural farming and horticulture are considered separately and
activity, position and the PV module technology used. The compared to the costs of ground-mounted PV systems and
acquisition cost is generally higher than that of a ­conventional small PV roof systems so that the costs can be estimated.
ground-mounted PV system, mainly due to the higher, ­Horticulture here includes both permanent crops, such as fruits
more elaborate substructure and the need to produce the and wine, and specialized crops. Because of the high economic
PV modules specially. The clearance height and the spacing ­complexity of the overall system, the following ­considerations
between the posts have a significant effect on the cost of the are limited to the PV level. Income and ­expenditure from
­substructure. Using smaller farming machinery or performing ­farming activities have not been taken into account in this
as many operations as possible manually can have a positive ­estimate. For the purpose of simplification, it has been
effect on cost-effectiveness. Perennial row crops also ­provide assumed in the calculations that applications on permanent
cost advantages, because the substructure posts can be grassland are interspace systems and applications in arable
integrated into the rows with no appreciable loss of acreage. farming and horticulture are overhead systems.
Especially when the crops on the agricultural land need to
be protected in any case, investing in an agrivoltaic system The results show a tendency for systems with a higher installed
can be lucrative from the point of view of an agricultural capacity to be necessary in arable farming in order to put
­business, as there are potential savings to be made here. Unlike agrivoltaics into practice cost-effectively, while smaller systems
­conventional ground-mounted PV systems, overhead agrivoltaic appear to be possible options in horticulture when conditions
systems do not usually need to be fenced in, which eliminates are favorable. Crop rotations in arable farming mean that
this as a cost factor. the design of the agrivoltaic system needs to be adapted to
the needs or tilling methods used for all of the crops in the
When in operation, slight cost savings are expected with ­rotation. For permanent crops, on the other hand, the design
­agrivoltaic systems compared to ground-mounted PV ­systems, of the system can technically be adapted entirely to the needs
as steps such as pruning the vegetation under the PV ­modules and cultivation of the single crop. The most cost-effective
are already carried out as part of agricultural operations. ­systems are interspace systems on permanent grassland.
Only the non-tillable rows should be maintained to p ­ revent
­unwanted weeds from spreading. Dual use can also be The underlying figures used here represent estimated
­expected to enable cost reallocations or savings on leased land. ­medium-term costs and income. Cost fluctuations and supply
This is addressed in section 4.1.2. bottlenecks, such as those due to the coronavirus crisis or the
war in Ukraine in the case of steel and PV module prices, have
not been taken into account in the calculations.

32
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

4.1 Capital expenditure

The capital expenditure estimates are based on an area of per kWp has therefore been assumed in the example
two hectares and, for the roof system, an installed capacity calculation. In the case of special PV modules that can be
of 10 kWp. Because arable crops that are typical in Germany, used in ­horticulture, the assumed price is between 240 and
such as wheat, barley or canola, tend to need more light than 440 euros per kWp. These additional expenses ­associated
horticultural crops, larger spaces between the PV modules with bifacial PV modules can be offset in part by the
have been assumed for arable farming, and therefore a lower increased power generation to installed capacity ratio.
capacity to area ratio of 600 kWp per hectare. The substructure 2. For the substructure, average costs of 372 euros per kWp
clearance height and spacing between posts correspond to the are expected in arable farming, compared to 76 euros
dimensions of the system in Heggelbach. For low permanent per kWp for ground-mounted PV systems. However, this
crops such as berries, a capacity of 700 kWp per hectare and estimate (still) contains many uncertain elements, and
a clearance height of three meters have been assumed. On fluctuates between 243 and 500 euros per kWp depending
permanent grassland, a capacity of 300 kWp per hectare has on the design as well as on possible learning effects and
been calculated. ­economies of scale. For permanent grassland, the cost of
the s­ ubstructure is significantly lower, at 97 to 167 euros
For ground-mounted PV systems, a capacity of 1 MWp per per kWp. In horticulture, this is between 243 and 306 euros
hectare has been used. An optimistic and a conservative per kWp.
scenario reflect the expected range of costs. For the agrivoltaic 3. The site preparation and installation costs are also
scenarios, any possible risk premiums or additional costs to ­significantly higher, and in arable farming are estimated to
comply with legal conditions have not been taken into account. be 190 to 266 euros per kWp (ground-mounted PV systems:
The values therefore correspond to the estimated ­medium-term 67 to 100 euros per kWp). Cost-driving factors include
costs in the event of an agrivoltaic market launch. The soil p
­ rotection measures such as the use of construction
­differences between the capital expenditure expected for roads and less flexibility with regard to installation, because
ground-mounted PV and that for agrivoltaic systems are shown ­cultivation times for agriculture and the trafficability of the
in figure 33. soil need to be taken into account. On permanent grassland
and in horticulture, lower average costs of 93 and 137 euros
The differences in capital expenditure are largely attributable to per kWp respectively may be expected.
three cost points:
Aside from the aspects mentioned, the costs of power
1. The PV module price may increase, as the size or light inverters, electrical components, grid connection and project
transmission of low-level PV modules can be adjusted to planning are, according to current information, comparable
the crop’s growth needs (section 5.2). When using ­bifacial to those of ground-mounted PV systems in most cases. Some
double-glass PV modules, an average increase of 326 euros small savings can be made by not fencing off the system.

400 Ground-mounted PV
350 Agrivoltaics, grassland, interspace
300 Agrivoltaics, arable farming, > 4 m
CAPEX [€/kWp]

250 Agrivoltaics, horticulture, 2.5 m

200
150
Fig. 33: Estimated capital expendi-
100
ture (CAPEX) for ground-mounted
50
PV and agrivoltaic systems.
0
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33
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

4.2 Operating costs

The costs of agrivoltaic systems are individually variable, 2. Land management costs that are traditionally carried by a
and there is a tendency for there to be potential savings on PV system operator are eliminated by regular agricultural
­operating expenses, unlike on capital expenditure, compared to use.
ground-mounted PV systems. For the most part, the savings are
accounted for by the following: 3. However, the costs of cleaning the PV modules or ­repairing
the system are likely to be higher if this work needs to be
1. The costs of providing the land fall from around 2 to done at a greater height, for example using lifting p ­ latforms.
1.3 euros per kWp in arable farming or on permanent Because the regular rainfall in Germany means that the
grassland, and to 1.6 euros per kWp in horticulture. For costs of cleaning PV modules are only minor, this additional
this estimate, it was assumed that the area costs for agri- cost is likely to be manageable. In regions with a higher
voltaic systems are based on agricultural lease rates and probability of soiling, the additional costs of ­cleaning may
are divided equally between the farm and the operator of be far more significant depending on the cleaning ­technique
the agrivoltaic system. This figure may vary depending on used. Experience regarding the long-term effects of
the ownership structure and business model. The potential ­fertilizers and crop protection products on the ­substructure
savings may be higher in arable farming because lower lease and PV modules is currently limited.
rates are more common there than in horticulture.

10
Dark: OPEX
9
Light: CAPEX ∑ 8.1
8 ∑ 7.5
Euro cents (kWh)

1.26
7 1.32
∑ 6.0
6 ∑ 5.4
1.26
5
Fig. 34: A comparison of estimated levelized costs 1.38
of electricity by capital expenditure (CAPEX) and 4
operating expenses (OPEX) of ground-mounted 3
PV systems and agrivoltaic systems. 4.05 4.77 6.88 6.19
© Fraunhofer ISE 2

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34
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

4.3 Levelized cost of electricity 4.4 Self-consumption and revenue from power
generation

It can be concluded that the costs for the production of Power from an agrivoltaic crop is usually most lucrative when it
electricity in arable farming over a period of 20 years with is used for the producer’s own consumption, thereby reduc-
average electricity generation costs of 8.15 euro cents per ing the need to purchase electricity externally. For example,
kWh are around 50 percent higher than those for the aver- if the cost of purchasing electricity commercially is 14 to
age ­ground-mounted PV system, and more cost-effective on 16 euro cents per kilowatt-hour[25] (and the cost of generating
average than small roof systems. For permanent grassland, electricity is seven euro cents per kilowatt-hour), the poten-
on the other hand, electricity generation costs amount to tial savings are seven to nine euro cents per kilowatt-hour.
6.03 euro cents on average, only slightly higher than those of a To achieve high direct consumption, it is beneficial to have a
ground-mounted PV system. The range of electricity generation consumption profile that is similar to the generation profile,
costs of agrivoltaic systems compared to ground-mounted PV with peaks in the middle of the day and in the summer. These
systems and small roof systems is shown in figure 35. generation peaks can be shifted depending on the orientation
of the agrivoltaic system.
The cost estimate does not take into account the fact that
economies of scale in arable farming could lead to a cost For applications such as cooling, where energy can be stored,
advantage of applications in arable farming over those in thermal storage allows the consumption profile to be adapted
horticulture because of a tendency towards larger field sizes to the generation of electricity. Charging vehicle batteries is
and therefore larger agrivoltaic systems. The same advantage is another way in which the generation profile can be taken into
also likely to apply in arable farming with regard to fixed costs account and producer consumption can be increased.
(such as project planning and grid connection) because a larger
system means that these costs are lower relative to the system’s Given the falling costs of stationary energy storage, this could
size, thereby potentially improving overall ­cost-effectiveness. also be a cost-effective way to ensure a favorable consumption
On the other hand, small systems could also offer a­ dvantages profile, and should be considered on a case-by-case basis. For
in terms of cost-effectiveness, for example if farms use the PV energy that cannot be consumed immediately or stored, a
­generated electricity themselves. With an appropriately buyer needs to be found. This usually relies on models based
designed regulatory framework, decentralized locations close on the German Renewable Energies Act or electricity supply
to the consumer could lead to additional incentives to build contracts. Section 7.1.3 describes the circumstances under
agrivoltaic systems. which compensation is available under the Renewable
Energies Act.

18 Some energy suppliers will buy energy from operators of PV

systems through electricity supply contracts. Umweltbank, for
16
example, has drawn up an electricity supply contract template
14 for ground-mounted PV projects.
12
Euro cents (kWh)

10

6 Fig. 35: Estimated levelized costs of electricity (LCOE)

for ground-mounted PV and agrivoltaic systems.
4
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35
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

4.5 Business models

Because agrivoltaic systems incorporate agricultural land, particularly relevant in the case of ­agrivoltaic systems because
the business models are often more complex than for of possible interactions between the two areas of activity. For
ground-mounted PV. Depending on the parties involved in the example, bifacial PV modules can increase albedo values, and
project, its implementation can often involve different players ­ epending on the choice of crop and
therefore electricity yields, d
or areas of responsibility with different functions. the agricultural operations. The producer’s ability to use the
energy generated and the fact that many farms have already
There are at least four different areas: installed roof systems, and therefore have experience operating
PV systems, are also points in favor of this business model.
1. Provision of land (ownership)
2. Agricultural use of the land External land ownership
3. Supply of the PV system (ownership/investment) In many cases, however, the land is not owned by the farming
4. Operation of the PV system business itself. This can be seen from the high proportion of
leases in Germany, particularly eastern Germany[26]. If the other
Basic case: “everything from a single-entity model” three responsibilities at least are all in the hands of the farming
In the simplest business model, all four areas may be dealt with business, it can still benefit from the synergy effects described
by a single party — typically a farming business. This model above. As in the case of ground-mounted PV projects, this
is mainly used for smaller agrivoltaic systems close to farms in requires long-term land lease and use contracts, usually with a
western Germany. This is because those who farm the land term of more than 20 years.
on these farms are often also the owners, and the capital
­expenditure could be manageable. This business model has a External PV investment
number of advantages: Firstly, the costs of project p
­ lanning and For large agrivoltaic systems, it is also likely to be more
the complexity of contract negotiations are lower. ­Secondly, unusual for the farming business to own the PV system, and
the advantages and disadvantages of an agrivoltaic system are the l­ikelihood of external investment is likely to increase.
easier to estimate if the income from the ­agricultural and the ­Part-ownership could help to create an incentive structure for
photovoltaic activity goes to the same economic entity. This is synergetic dual land use. The larger the proportion of borrowed
capital, ­however, the more difficult it will be to maintain an
overview of the use of both production levels during ongoing
operations. This business model nonetheless has the p ­ otential
for economies of scale and optimization thanks to greater
What should a farm ideally ­division of labor.
bring to the table?
Shared responsibilities
In the example of the pilot system in Heggelbach, the mix of
Beneficial factors for the economical implementation players involved is relatively complex. The ownership of the
of agrivoltaics: land, the ownership of the PV system and the operation of
the farm and PV system are all in the hands of other parties.
A good connection to the grid in terms of proximi- Figure 36 shows the basic structure of the required network of
ty and capacity contracts. It remains to be seen what configurations will become
Row cultivation ­established in Germany; this will depend significantly on the
Permanent crops future ­regulatory framework. Cooperative models, with multiple
Protected cultivation farmers working together, are also a possibility.
Low employment of machines/low clearance
height
A large, contiguous area (> 1 hectare)
A low slope
High and flexible energy consumption (e.g. cool-
ing, drying, processing)
A willingness to invest

36
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Spatial planning Agreement of

Municipality agreement acceptance Community

Agrivoltaic system
owners

Agrivoltaic
system lease Land use contract
agreement

Land owners

Agrivoltaic system Land lease

operators/land tenants contract

Construction
company, Electricity supply Electricity
Maintenance
maintenance contracts distributors
work

Fig. 36: Stakeholders and contract model.

Table 05: Configurations of different agrivoltaic business models (based on Schindele et al. 2019[5])

Business model Function

Agricultural Providing Operating the PV

Providing land
management the PV system system

1. Base case Farm

2. External land ownership Land owners Farm

3. External PV investment Farm PV investors Farm

4. Cultivation and operation Land owners Farm PV investors Farm

only

5. Cultivation only Land owners Farm PV investors PV operators

37
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

5 Technology

The way that power generation works is the same for agri- and precipitation, the spacing between the PV module rows is
voltaic systems as for ground-mounted PV systems. However, often wider than in conventional ground-mounted PV systems.
the requirements of agrivoltaic systems in terms of technical This typically reduces the degree of surface coverage to around
components and supports for the system are different because one third. In combination with the high supports, this process
the land used is also being cultivated at the same time: The PV ensures that there is enough available light. When using solar
module technology, the height and alignment of the system, tracking PV modules, the light management can be adapted
the substructure and the foundation all need to be adapted to specifically to the development stage and the needs of the
farming using agricultural machines and the needs of the crops. individual crops[27].
Sophisticated light and water management is also important in
order to ensure that yields are sufficiently high and consistent. The substructure, and in some cases also the PV modules,
are often different from those used in ground-mounted PV
To enable dual use of the land for agricultural production systems. There are different technologies and designs to
and power generation, the solar PV modules are installed choose from, adapted to site-specific requirements and farming
with elevated supports three to five (or, in the case of hop conditions. In general, agrivoltaic systems should be state-of-
­growing, more than seven) meters above the field, depending the-art and comply with commonly accepted regulations and
on the use case. This allows even large agricultural machines, standards (see section 2.3 on DIN SPEC).
such as combine harvesters, to work the land underneath the
­agrivoltaic system. To ensure that the crops get enough light

Fig. 37: Overhead system enabling cultivation Fig. 38: PV modules with spatially segmented
with a potato harvester. solar cells and protective function in the
© Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach Netherlands. © BayWa r.e.

38
 Fig. 39: Bifacial, vertically
installed PV modules by
Next2Sun, Eppelborn-
Dirmingen.
© Next2Sun GmbH

5.1 Approaches to agrivoltaic system construction

Agrivoltaic systems, as already in use in countries such as

France and Japan, are often mounted on elevated supports.
The ­clearance height describes the unobstructed vertical space
between the ground and the lowest structural element. Various
possible system structures are described below.
Fig. 40: PV modules
Overhead systems offer significant potential for synergy effects above a polytunnel.
(see section 3). Ensuring that cultivation under the PV modules © BayWa r.e.
remains possible poses particular structural and economic
challenges, particularly for overhead systems in arable farming
(see figure 37).

If, as well as generating power, PV modules also perform the

function of protecting against hail, rain, night frost and other
extreme weather events, the use of special PV modules is a
natural choice. Figure 38 shows a research system by BayWa r.e.
above a fruit orchard. This system in the Netherlands was built
using PV modules with wider cell spacing, which increases the
sunlight available to crops and can also enhance the roofing Fig. 41: Special thin-film
and protective function by means of transparent PV module tubular PV modules from
parts. TubeSolar. © TubeSolar AG

There may also be synergy effects with PV modules installed

close to ground level. Next2Sun accomplishes this by using
bifacial PV modules that are installed vertically. While this type
of system is more cost-effective due to the lower substructure, it
also offers fewer light management options. One advantage of
interspace systems could be a reduction in wind speed, which in
turn has a positive effect on evaporation.

Another possible design is provided by TubeSolar AG in the Fig. 42: Semi-shade from
form of tubular PV modules installed horizontally on ­supports. tubular PV modules installed
This innovative approach promises spatially uniform light between tension cables, by
and water permeability, which is particularly important in TubeSolar. © sbp sonne GmbH
­agricultural production with no artificial irrigation. Agratio
GmbH combines these novel PV modules with a low-cost cable
structure used as a support.

In Japan, narrow PV modules are installed above a­ gricultural

land in a concept called “solar sharing” to adjust the
­availability and distribution of light. There are many other
possible ­technical solutions, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages.
Fig. 43: Overhead systems with
narrow PV modules in Italy.
© REM Tec

39
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

5.2 Module technologies

All types of PV modules can in principle be used for Thin-film PV modules (CIS, CdTe, a-Si/µ-Si) can be installed
­agrivoltaics. PV modules using wafer-based silicon solar cells on flexible structures, making cylindrical bending possible.
account for around 95 percent of the global PV market. The While their structure is otherwise identical, their weight is
usual design calls for a glass pane on the front and a white ­approximately 500 grams per square meter of surface area less
covering film on the back. Opaque solar cells are ­connected than that of PV modules with wafer-based silicon solar cells.
and laminated between these in series at a distance of Their efficiency is somewhat lower, however. The cost to sur-
2–3 mm. A metal frame is used for mounting and stabilization. face area ratio of thin-film PV modules is somewhat lower than
that of silicon solar cells.
Where there is a transparent back covering (glass, film), the
spaces between the cells allow most of the light to pass The same applies to organic photovoltaics (OPV). In contrast
through and, in the case of agrivoltaic systems, to reach the to silicone-based crystalline PV modules, they are composed
crops below. With the PV modules that are currently most of organic carbon compounds. Selective spectral adjustment
common, the spaces between the cells make up four to five of the active layers of OPV systems is in principle also possible,
percent of the surface area. To increase light transmission, which means that those layers can be incorporated into flexible
however, the spaces can be widened and the PV module base films. For example, part of the solar spectrum can be
frames replaced by clamp mountings. PV modules with a transmitted into PV polytunnels and used by the crops ­growing
larger ratio of transparent to total area protect crops against below. The current challenges of OPV films include low effi-
­environmental influences without limiting the available light to ciency and durability.
the same extent.
In concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), lenses or mirrors focus
Bifacial PV modules can also use the light that hits the reverse the light onto small photoactive surfaces. CPV modules need
side to generate electricity. Depending on the level of radiation to have solar tracking, with the exception of systems with low
on the reverse side, this can increase electricity yields by up to concentration. Diffuse light is largely transmitted. Spectrally
25 percent. Because agrivoltaic systems tend to have a larger selective approaches can also be carried out using CPV if the
distance between rows and taller supports, the reverse sides of reflective layers reflect only part of the solar spectrum. There
the PV modules tend to receive more light than conventional are currently only few commercial suppliers of CPV modules for
ground-mounted PV systems. Bifacial PV modules are ­therefore use in agrivoltaics. One example is the Swiss company Insolight.
often well suited to agrivoltaics. Another advantage of PV
modules with a double glass structure is the increased residual
load-bearing capacity if the glass shatters, which benefits road
safety as well as occupational health and safety.

Fig. 44: Overhead system with

continuous rows of PV modules.
© Sun’Agri

40
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

5.3 Substructure and foundation

5.3.1 Substructure construction 5.3.2 Single and dual-axis solar tracking

As well as the clearance height and working width, the There are systems, for instance in France, that work with
headland for the agricultural machines to be used also single- or dual-axis tracking. This means that the direction in
needs to be taken into account with agrivoltaic systems. The which the PV modules are facing is adjusted by a mechanism
­distance between the ground and the bottom of the s­ tructure to track the position of the sun. With single-axis tracking, the
­(clearance height) is typically at least five meters in arable PV module field either follows the sun horizontally according
­farming. The advantages of such clearance heights include not to its angle of incidence (elevation) or vertically according to its
only making the land more easily trafficable, but also producing orbit (azimuth). Dual-axis trackers do both, and therefore pro-
a more even distribution of light underneath the PV modules. duce the highest solar power yield. However, dual-axis systems
On the other hand, the capital expenditure for the substructure with large PV module tables can create an umbra under the
is lower for interspace agrivoltaic systems with low clearance PV modules, while other parts of the land receive no shade at
heights because they use less steel and have lower structural all. Notwithstanding the higher acquisition and maintenance
demands. As row spacing becomes significantly larger, the area costs, however, tracking can optimize energy yields and light
of land required by an agrivoltaic system increases, as does its management for crop farming[27] (section 5.4). The flexible
cost, relative to the electricity yield. angle of inclination allows tracking systems to optimize their
constructive protection against hail or extreme sun by adjusting
their orientation as appropriate.

Fig. 45: Single-axis tracker

system on a demonstration
system in France. © Sun’Agri

41
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

5.3.3 Anchoring and foundation

The anchoring or foundation needs to ensure the statics and

stability of the agrivoltaic system. Proof of fulfillment of these
safety requirements must be provided when building a system
(see section 5.7.2). Concrete foundations are not recommended
in view of protecting valuable farmland. Alternative options
include piled or screw foundations, which allow the system to
be removed without leaving any traces.

Mobile agrivoltaic concepts make it possible to assemble the

system, disassemble it again and install it in another location
without using large machinery. One possible benefit is that,
because this is not a structural alteration, a building permit may
not be necessary. This means that mobile agrivoltaics can be
flexibly adapted to farming, and even deployed spontaneously
in crisis regions.

Fig. 46: Spinnanker anchor with anchor plate and threaded Fig. 47: Illustration of different system types
rods provides the foundation for the installation system. oriented east-west, south and south-east.
© Spinnanker GmbH © Fraunhofer ISE

42
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

5.4 Light management

The sun’s path over the course of the day and its changing
position over the year mean that the shadow cast over the
farmland changes constantly. In most cases, light should ideally
be as homogeneous as possible for healthy crop growth,
uniform ripening and maximizing potential synergy effects. This
can be achieved in various ways:

1. Simulations and measurements show that a south-east or

south-west orientation at an angle of 30 to 50 degrees to
due south results in even shading. For the Heggelbach site,
an angle of 45 degrees to due south was used. A power
generation loss of around five percent was built into the
calculation. The actual alignment may differ depending on
local conditions.
2. Another option is to maintain the south-facing orientation
and use narrower PV modules. This approach is frequently
used in Japan, where it is referred to as “solar sharing.”
3. Uniform light conditions can also be achieved by aligning Fig. 48: The shaded strips underneath the PV modules move
the PV modules east-west. This alignment maximizes the with the sun’s position. © University of Hohenheim.
movement of shadow over the course of the day. To avoid
the creation of an umbra under the fixed and completely
opaque PV modules, the width of the PV module rows
should be considerably less than the height of the system.
As a rule of thumb, the clearance height should be at least
1.5 times as great as the width of the PV module rows, or at
least twice as great for tracking PV modules. For transparent
PV modules, on the other hand, this factor is reduced in
both cases depending on the degree of transparency.
4. Another option for achieving targeted light management
and higher electricity yields is the use of single- or ­dual-axis
tracking PV modules. As described in section 5.3.2,
­however, this type of PV module entails higher capital
expenditure and maintenance costs. Dual-axis tracking
systems that use large PV module tables tend to be less
­suitable for the cultivation of crops because an umbra
­usually forms underneath the PV modules, while other parts
of the land are permanently exposed to full sunlight.

43
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

5.5 Water management

When it rains, rainwater running off the edges of the PV

modules can cause soil erosion and wash away the soil. There
are various approaches that can be taken to avoid negative
consequences for crop growth and soil quality: For example,
as with light management, narrow PV modules or PV tubes
can prevent large quantities of water from collecting on the
edges of the PV modules. However, if the PV modules are
intended to provide constructive protection for the crops, it is
preferable to prevent run-off by using tracking PV modules[28]
or by c­ hanneling away the rainwater. If using the latter option,
it is important in most cases to ensure that sufficient water is
provided through irrigation. Collecting and storing rainwater
Fig. 49: Concept design for a rainwater harvesting can help to conserve groundwater resources, or even make it
system with storage tank. © Fraunhofer ISE possible to farm in the first place, especially in arid regions.

5.6 Size of the PV system

The size of agrivoltaic systems can vary considerably from

­country to country. While Japan has an increasing number
of smaller systems ranging from 30 to 120 kWp, in China
there are already agrivoltaic systems with capacities of
several ­hundred MWp. The key criteria include not only
­cost-effectiveness, decentralization of energy generation and
social aspects, but also the impact on the farming landscape,
which in turn affects social acceptance. The path that Germany
will take remains to be seen and may also differ from region to
region. The regions of southern Germany, which mostly have
smaller land parcels and sensitive landscapes, are better suited
to smaller systems, typically installed above specialized crops.
Fig. 50: Agrivoltaic system in Heggelbach with a capacity of In northern and eastern German regions, on the other hand,
194 kWp covering approximately a third of a hectare. larger systems may be more practical given the larger land
© Fraunhofer ISE parcels there, not least because the economies of scale could
compensate financially for the lower annual solar radiation.

The amount of land required by overhead agrivoltaic systems is

typically 20 to 40 percent more than that of ground-mounted
PV systems. This means that overhead agrivoltaic systems have
a capacity of 500 to 800 kWp per hectare, while a conventional
ground-mounted PV system can achieve 700 to 1,100 kWp
per hectare, depending on the type of system. Interspace
­agrivoltaic systems, on the other hand, manage just 250 to
400 kWp per hectare, meaning that they require around three
times as much land as ground-mounted PV systems.

Fig. 51: Eppelborn-Dirmingen solar farm with 2 MWp with

vertical solar fences by Next2Sun. © Next2Sun GmbH

44
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

5.7 Approval, installation and operation

Overhead agrivoltaic systems, which are classified as structural If an agrivoltaic system deviates from European and German
facilities by definition, generally use glass/glass PV modules. In electrical regulations or building regulation law, a separate
Europe, the PV modules are subject to electrical requirements permit from the building authorities is required to build the
through their certification under the “Low Voltage Directive PV module, or appropriate proof of usability is required to
2014/35/EU” (IEC certification for approval as an electrical use it in this special construction context. Aside from this,
component), as well as requirements for construction products proof of load-bearing capacity and serviceability is required for
regarding the use of glass in the construction industry under each agrivoltaic system, including PV module coverage. This
the “Construction Products Regulation (EU) 305/2011.” is dependent on geometry, location, net weight and possible
meteorological effects such as wind, snow or thermal loads. It
Unlike conventional ground-mounted PV systems, agrivoltaic is also necessary to ensure that the potentially extreme stress
systems are expected to be navigated by machinery. To ensure from external influences is always less than or equal to the
that it is safe to work under the glass/glass PV modules, the stress resistance of the components. Furthermore, a guarantee
planning, measurement and design of the PV modules is is required that the loads from the agrivoltaic system, made up
subject to particular requirements. These are set out in the of its net weight and external influences, can be transferred
Administrative Provisions of the Technical Building Regulations safely by the substructure into the subsoil.
(Verwaltungsvorschriften der Technischen Baubestimmun-
gen, VwV TB) of each of the federal states. In addition, the Additional information can be found in the brochure:
­requirements regarding the usability of construction products “Allianz-BIPV_Techn-Baubestimmungen.pdf” available for
set out in the building code of each state (Landesbauordnung, ­download free of charge from https://allianz-bipv.org/.
LBO) must be observed.
It should be noted that the descriptions given here are gen-
Glass used in the construction industry is subject to certain erally applicable throughout Germany. Consultation with the
design and construction rules to ensure the necessary level competent legal board of construction for the federal state of
of safety and protection. These rules make it mandatory to the construction project is recommended for each agrivoltaic
use glass with safe shattering behavior (see “DIN 18008 system. The requirements and regulations applicable to the
Glass in building — design and construction rules” series specific project (project-specific type approval) must be checked
of standards). Overhead agrivoltaic systems use a s­ tructure or evaluated. Specific cases may be resolved on a case-by-case
that can be ­classified as overhead glazing, because it is basis taking into account the local conditions and construction
­normally ­necessary to carry out work underneath the PV framework, even within the regulatory area or with a special
modules. If so, the ­residual load-bearing capacity of the verification concept and special measures, possibly with an
structure if the glass s­ hatters must be ensured without any application to deviate from regulations.
­appreciable ­consequences in terms of damage or injury. This
can be achieved by ­selecting appropriate products, such as In the future, some exceptions may even be introduced for
­l­aminated glass and suitable modular frame structures. Some agrivoltaic systems at the state or federal level as part of
­manufacturers sell glass/glass solar PV modules that are IEC the government’s energy transition policy, which could then
certified under the Low Voltage Directive for use within the in turn be implemented in state law (construction law) by
regulatory scope of DIN 18008 through a general building the ­individual federal states. It is worth keeping an eye on
approval (Allgemeine bauaufsichtliche Zulassung, AbZ) and ­developments in this area.
general type approval (allgemeine B ­ auartgenehmigung, aBG).

45
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Fig. 52: Work in an agrivoltaic system

under the PV modules. © Fabian Karthaus.

5.7.1 Approvals process for agrivoltaic systems

Some specifics must be considered in the approval process Fraunhofer ISE, together with project partners, has drawn
for the construction of an agrivoltaic system. The required up a DIN specification to define quality standards that
­documentation should be prepared in close coordination could serve as criteria for tenders, funding or simplified
with the technical side. Table 6 provides an overview of the planning processes (see section 2.3). These include the
­necessary approvals, expert opinions and documents. definition of agrivoltaic indexes and corresponding test
processes that can be used by certifying bodies such as the
In the case of the research system in Heggelbach, the land VDE (Association for Electrical, Electronic and Information
underneath the agrivoltaic system was designated a special Technologies) or TÜV.
use area. The application for agricultural land subsidies was
­rejected even though farming was still being carried out.
­Further information on approval processes can be found in
section 7.1.

Table 06: Overview of approval steps for agrivoltaics

Process steps Institution Comments

Building permit Municipality Zoning map and development plan

Environmental, soil and glare protection

Required expert opinions Certified experts
report. Wind load testing

Right of way and ownership structure, for

example
Recording of the easements (optional) Notary
Applications submitted through notaries

In the APV-RESOLA project, the pilot system

in Heggelbach was insured under the same
Insurance Insurance company
conditions as a conventional ground-level
PV system.

46
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

5.7.2 Installing an agrivoltaic system following

the Heggelbach example

Project planning and land use planning are generally handled The various contracts for the installation of the research
by a firm from the solar industry. However, in principle, the system were awarded to various firms in accordance with the
farm can install the system, either on its own or in cooperation ­procurement regulations, and the construction process was
with the local machinery ring. coordinated in close consultation with the farming community
Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach. The power electronics and wiring
The technical partners are responsible for all planning and pro- of the system were installed so that the research system could be
cesses relating to the construction, installation and operation of quickly connected to the grid upon completion.
the system. This includes:

Finding partners to purchase the excess electricity and feed

it into the grid
Material procurement and logistics planning 5.7.3 Agrivoltaics in operation
Construction site setup and soil protection
System setup
Concept for connection, lightning protection and Because of the crop cultivation and the height of the
monitoring ­supports, the PV modules are not fully accessible at all times.
Grid connection ­Maintenance and repair work should therefore be carried
Technical maintenance and removal out when fields are fallow and the land is not being used for
farming. Not all maintenance vehicles are suitable for working
In the case of the research system in Heggelbach, the on agricultural land. Workers must be secured when working
­building application was submitted just six months after the at clearance height.
­hearing in the Herdwangen-Schönach municipal council.
The building permit was granted one month later. However, Soil can be churned up while land is being cultivated, leading
building approval was linked to a verification of the statics to soiling of the PV modules. This is especially true in high
by an ­independent test engineering firm. A soil report was winds and when the soil is particularly dry. Tilling in these con-
also ­prepared to document the actual retention force of the ditions should therefore be avoided as far as possible.
­anchoring. The results of this report and the feedback from the
test engineering firm were incorporated into the revision of the
agrivoltaic substructure.

Fig. 53: Construction roads to avoid Fig. 54: Maintenance work on the agrivoltaic
soil compaction. © BayWa r.e. system in Heggelbach. © Fraunhofer ISE

47
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

6 Society

If the energy transition is to succeed, it must be anchored in There are indications that agrivoltaic systems are generally
society through social acceptance[29]. There are two aspects to viewed in a more positive light than ground-mounted PV
this: the fundamental approval or rejection of political goals systems because of the dual use of agricultural land. ­However,
and concrete measures and the willingness, or lack thereof, of even in the case of agrivoltaic systems, it is nonetheless
citizens to accept specific local infrastructural measures, such crucially important already in the planning phase, to involve
as the building of ground-mounted PV or agrivoltaic systems. the various stakeholder groups and the local population with
The German federal government’s target for increasing the a connection to the planned system. Developing a shared
share of electricity generated from renewable energy sources understanding of the sustainability targets to be achieved in
has the broad approval of the population across technologies. regional food production, species conservation, preservation
This is shown by scientific, representative opinion polls carried of the arable and leisure landscape as well as the ­decentralized
out in recent years[30]. The most encouraging response was to generation, storage and use of renewable energy is of
the building of additional solar power systems on the roofs of particular importance in this context[29]. A transdisciplinary
houses, which is supported by 92 percent of r­ espondents[31]. approach helps to take into account the different interests and
The approval rate for the political target of expanding expectations, but also the different preferences and concerns,
ground-mounted PV systems is 74 percent, which is significant- to understand and reduce acceptance problems and to drive
ly lower than in previous years when it was at 80 percent[30]. the energy transition forward on site with local stakeholder
groups[33]. This makes it possible to increase regional willing-
However, even where the specifications of planning law and ness to invest and local value creation and to take into account
local policy have been met, the expansion of renewable energy the interests of the population even before the decision to
supply remains controversial and faltering when it comes build a system is taken.
to finding suitable sites for building new solar parks[32]. The
­building of ground-mounted PV systems may be rejected or The role of subjective risk-benefit evaluations by the ­various
resisted by the local society, who may criticize the ­location, stakeholder groups is particularly significant: They lead
form and size of the system and fear that their houses and to ­concerns about potential financial, health or aesthetic
recreational landscape will lose their value. Acceptance ­problems associated with local changes to the environment,
challenges at the local level arise when decisions are made at and particularly to land use and the visual landscape[34]. It is
particular political or economic levels to build new systems in therefore the job of investors and project planners to employ
a certain form or in a certain way without adequately taking appropriate communication strategies to approach the
into account the interests of the population or the concerns of ­stakeholder groups in the community at an early stage in order
the community or giving local people the opportunity to voice to keep them informed in a transparent manner and allow
their opinions or be involved. It is therefore no wonder when them to contribute and have their say.
societal groups do not accept such decisions, even if they were
made following the proper planning or local policy procedures.

48
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

6.1 Engaging citizens and stakeholder groups 6.2 Context-specific acceptance

Because an agrivoltaic system is a cross-sector ­enterprise The acceptance of agrivoltaic systems will be affected
between the agriculture and energy supply sectors, by ­context factors. These are not directly related to the
­communication and dialogue with all those involved, both ­technology, but are related to aspects that shape the context
directly and indirectly, is absolutely key. When establishing in which the process of creating acceptance takes place and
­infrastructure projects, it is important to avoid conflicts of that influence the perception of the issue from the outside by
­interest by involving the (local) population and stakeholder those who are being asked to accept it. These aspects include
groups at an early stage. Bringing citizens and stakeholder the use of technology, social, legal and environmental contexts
groups into the approval process requires a clear framework, and circumstances (physical, cultural, social, economic and
and should be based on a shared understanding of the agricultural) and sociopolitical and normative conditions (such
­problems and lead to the joint development of an idea to solve as guidelines, participation culture and experience as well as
those problems. The project’s goals should be communicated credibility of the individuals involved).
clearly and openly to prevent misunderstandings about the role
and process of involving stakeholder groups and citizens[32]. The Because agrivoltaic systems used above specialized and
communication process should allow those involved to gain a permanent crops are usually smaller, they are expected to be
new perspective on individual structures in their actions, values more readily accepted by society than systems used in arable
and preferences: on the one hand the citizens and stakehold- farming. The smaller size and generally lower clearance heights
er groups that are in many cases interested in changing the mean that the negative visual impact is usually less disturbing.
responsibility and decision-making structures and in getting Furthermore, the visual landscape is already impaired in these
involved both politically and financially, and on the other hand cases by polytunnels or hail protection nets. The ­potential
the investors and project planners who are looking for tailored, additional benefit gained from using agrivoltaics above
easy-to-implement, effective and marketable solutions[32]. ­specialized and permanent crops is the most important driver
An important trust-building measure is the proactive, timely of potential greater acceptance in the general population. The
and comprehensive communication of information about added agricultural value could come from various benefits of
the planned system, the approval process and the opportuni- the agrivoltaic systems, such as the reduction of heat stress
ties that exist to speak to investors and operators in order to on crops through shading, the reduction of diseases and need
get involved in shaping outcomes. The decisions as to how for chemical pesticides, erosion protection, irrigation using
­stakeholder groups and citizens are addressed and involved and renewable electricity, greater biodiversity or more stable yields,
what forms of participation are used need to be tailored to the even in extreme weather conditions such as heatwaves or hail.
specific context. This depends on the combination of players The concrete manifestation and visualization of these benefits
involved and their individual concerns. The following general is likely to play a crucial role in increasing the likelihood of
rules apply: The earlier communication begins and dialog is acceptance of agrivoltaic systems among stakeholder groups
proactively created, the sooner the conditions for ­success and and the public.
questions of involvement can be discussed, ­examined and
resolved.

49
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

6.3 Two examples for dialogue and engagement

6.3.1 APV-RESOLA research project

Fig. 55: Citizens’ information workshop The APV-RESOLA project, run by the Institute for ­Technology
in the APV-RESOLA project. © ITAS Assessment and Systems Analysis (ITAS) at the ­Karlsruhe
­Institute of Technology (KIT), aimed to gather an early
­impression of opinions within society and normative value
­systems on agrivoltaics in order to identify potential ­obstacles,
but also conditions for the successful establishment of
­agrivoltaics. These conditions served to answer questions
within society about the future of sustainable, decentralized
energy supply and to produce a design for an ­agrivoltaic
system that would be accepted by society. Bringing the
­different citizens and stakeholder groups together at an
early stage to exchange their ideas strengthened the mutual
­understanding of interests, values and preferences.

In concrete terms, the APV-RESOLA project was a multi-stage

transdisciplinary process, conducted on the site of the pilot
system in the Lake Constance region on arable land cultivated
biodynamically in accordance with the Demeter guidelines, to
involve citizens and stakeholder groups using different formats
and at various times. Following an information workshop for
all stakeholders, all citizens aged 18 to 80 in the immediate
vicinity of the planned agrivoltaic pilot system were asked to
indicate whether they wanted to take part in the process.
An open brainstorming session with the stakeholders on
Fig. 56: Model of the agrivoltaic system in the opportunities and challenges of agrivoltaics then took
Heggelbach for information workshops. place before the system was built, using a model as a basis
© Fraunhofer ISE (see figure 56)[33]. The participants agreed that the effect of
agrivoltaics on regional food production and the leisure and
farming landscape needed to be taken into account, and
that decisions about the locations of systems needed to be
made at the municipal level so that particular local conditions
and region-specific size and concentration criteria could be
­considered[34]. This first citizens’ workshop was followed by
a tour of the pilot system and a survey when the system was
opened. One year after the system was put into operation,
those who had participated in the first workshop were invited
back. The aim of the second citizens’ workshop was to analyze
possible changes in opinions and approval patterns. Some
participants confirmed their rejection of the system, which
they found obtrusive. “I don’t like it at all. I don’t think an
enormous structure belongs in the middle of the countryside.
As a pilot system of this size, I don’t have a problem with it.
You can imagine that. But when I imagine it on a large scale

50
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

somewhere, I just can’t get my head around that.” On the

other hand, some other participants were positively surprised INFORMATION CITIZENS’
and their initial concerns had been put into perspective. WORKSHOP WORKSHOP 1
“Well, standing underneath it, it doesn’t seem so massive
to me, more light and airy. It doesn’t feel like an industrial
system to me now.” However, the time frame for assessing
the system was seen as too short. “The consequences, either
negative or positive, of agrivoltaics would take many years to
CONSTRUCTION OF
materialise in a clear way.” PILOT AGRIVOLTAIC
SYSTEM
In the second citizens’ workshop, selection criteria for
choosing a site for an agrivoltaic system were also devel-
SURVEY CITIZENS’
oped. These include restrictions — factors that restrict or
WORKSHOP 2
prevent use — as well as preferential aspects in favor of or
enabling the use of a system. These criteria were applied by
­participants to identify suitable sites for agrivoltaics in the
STAKEHOLDER
­Herdwangen-Schönach municipality in the Lake ­Constance
WORKSHOP
region, for example. This planning exercise allowed
­participants to work out the c­ ontext-specific and complex
interdependencies for themselves and to verify the practicality
of the criteria that had been developed in a realistic setting Fig. 57: Multi-stage transdisciplinary
(see figure 57). This resulted in recommendations for action agrivoltaic research approach. © ITAS.
on political m ­ anagement of land use for ground-mounted
PV and agrivoltaics. “­Regulations need to be adopted to stop
land from being leased to energy suppliers at higher prices so
that farming can actually continue to be practiced under these
systems.” Some aspects were identified as key success factors
and implemented at the trial stage. One prominent example is
the increased resource efficiency gained through local storage or ­agrivoltaics. “The land and rural areas should not just be
and use of the power generated (see more in section 6.4). “If viewed as cheap energy suppliers for urban areas. It should
I don’t have a storage concept, then I don’t need to bother be clear where it’s necessary and where it isn’t. Are sloping
setting up solar systems. That’s the biggest problem. Storage. sites or biotopes an issue? We don’t want to have the same
If we had storage, it would be fine right away.” ­uncontrolled growth as we do with biogas systems.” It is
important to have ­proactive, timely and open communication
The results and recommendations for action from the second on planned projects and to involve citizens locally. “If the
citizens’ workshop have been discussed in a workshop citizens are involved in the project, not just a little bit, but if
with stakeholder representatives. The participants included it’s a citizens’ project, then the project has a greater chance
­representatives from technological development c­ ompanies, of becoming reality.” There is a lot of concern and “fear
the energy sector and energy cooperatives, municipal, that enormous areas will be built over” and the familiar and
­regional and state administrations, agriculture, conservation beloved natural and leisure landscape in people’s backyards will
and tourism, as well as representatives of the general public. be changed for the worse. “I find it paradoxical that people say
A c­ riteria-oriented and open process to identify potential that wind bothers people and disrupts tourism and then they
sites is seen as crucial for regional land use for solar farms might authorize a ­ten-hectare stretch of agrivoltaics.”

51
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

6.3.2 APV Obstbau research project 6.4 Success factors

Another example of early involvement of stakeholder groups The transdisciplinary research carried out in the ­APV-RESOLA
is the APV Obstbau (Agrivoltaic Orcharding) research ­project project has the following key success factors for social
in the district of Ahrweiler in Rhineland-Palatinate. For a ­acceptance of the use of agrivoltaics, confirmed from the
­technological innovation like agrivoltaics to succeed, it requires ­viewpoint of the current status of the APV Obstbau project:
the support not only of the population, but also of all stake-
holders involved in the implementation of a system. The aim Expansion strategy
of the qualitative analysis was therefore to obtain a subjective 1. Using the existing potential of PV on rooftops, ­industrial
picture of the sentiments surrounding the factors that helped buildings and parking lots should take priority over
or hindered support for agrivoltaics. To achieve this, a survey ­identifying sites for agrivoltaic systems.
was conducted alongside the implementation of the agrivoltaic 2. The systems should be set up on sites where the dual use of
research system to interview representatives from administra- the land will give rise to synergies, for example from using
tion, the energy sector, environmental and species conservation the resulting shade to reduce heat stress on crops or the
associations, the agriculture sector, farmers’ associations, local supply of power for irrigation or digital land management
politics and science. The content of the interview questions with electrified and, in the future, autonomous systems.
addressed knowledge of the APV Obstbau project, perceptions
of agrivoltaics and estimations of the opportunities, challenges Production of food and energy
and future prospects of agrivoltaics. 3. Agricultural use of the land to produce food underneath
agrivoltaic systems should be mandatory in order to ­prevent
As a result, there was a predominantly positive attitude across the unilateral optimization of power generation and
all stakeholder groups toward agrivoltaics for the orcharding ­“pseudo-farming” underneath the PV modules.
region, its future and the research project. The responses 4. The systems should be integrated into a decentralized
to the interview showed that the acceptance of agrivoltaics energy supply in order to use the solar power on site or
(as is generally the case with renewable energies) is highly for processes with higher value creation such as irrigation,
dependent on regional conditions[5]. In the region of the APV cooling or processing agricultural products.
Obstbau research project, plastic films and hail protection nets 5. The systems should be combined with an energy storage
in orcharding have been in use across large areas in ­orcharding system to increase resource efficiency so that the available
for many years. The familiar view of a farming landscape electricity can be used to meet local demand.
with structures built over it favors the aesthetic perception of
technical structures like agrivoltaics, particularly if they have Integration into the leisure and farming landscape
additional synergy effects. These include, in particular, dual 6. The size and concentration of the systems should be
land use for food and energy production, financial profits for limited and, as with wind farms, minimum distances
farmers and positive environmental effects. The crop protection from residential areas should be defined in view of local
factor of agrivoltaics is also important for farmers. The main site ­characteristics and societal preferences. In order to
factors ­hindering acceptance are uncertainties surrounding the manage the number of systems in regions that are used
economic viability of agrivoltaic systems, integrating them into for ­agriculture, regional land use policy should manage the
modern agricultural work management and the current legal approval of agrivoltaics, for example by limiting site cover-
framework for constructing them. For species and environmen- age levels1.
tal conservationists, any negative environmental impacts that 7. Agrivoltaic systems must not negatively alter the quality
may arise must also be viewed with criticism where possible. of local and regional recreation or the visual landscape.
Based on the estimation of the local stakeholders involved, Sites that are naturally shielded from view (on the edges of
concrete communication concepts specific to the various ­forests, for example) or flat sites should be given preference
­stakeholder groups can then be developed for the circum- in order to integrate the systems into the landscape in the
stances in the Ahrweiler district. Although the results of such best way possible.
studies are tied to the region and the context, the resulting
findings and communication concepts can serve as a template 1 Standard for the building site types in the Land Utilization Ordinance
(Baunutzungsverordnung, BauNVO).
for future projects.

52
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Fig. 58: Where agrivoltaic systems produce strips that cannot

be farmed, these could be used to increase biodiversity on the
agricultural land. © Fraunhofer ISE

Ecological contribution
8. Where the systems have strips of land that cannot be
farmed, these should be used as erosion protection strips
or corridor biotopes to maintain or increase biodiversity in
agriculture.

53
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

7 Policy and legislation

According to the provisions of the German Federal Climate regulatory approval aspects and financial support under
Change Act (Klimaschutzgesetz, KSG), greenhouse gas the Renewable Energies Act (EEG) are crucially important in
­emissions need to be reduced to the point of net greenhouse the heavily regulated agricultural and energy sectors. This is
gas neutrality by 2045. After 2050, greenhouse gas ­emissions particularly the case because agrivoltaics is a new technology
should be negative. The coalition agreement between the that has had little time to accumulate learning effects and
Social Democratic Party (SPD), the Greens (Bündnis 90/Die economies of scale, but that nonetheless has to compete with
Grünen) and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) states that 80 established technologies.
percent of gross energy needs will be met using renewable
energies in 2030. The scenarios for achieving these goals To study agrivoltaics further and increase its potential, it
assume that PV needs to be expanded to up to 500 GWp[2]. therefore appears prudent, in addition to further research
This is approximately ten times the currently available PV projects, to implement operational sites close to the market.
capacity. A considerable share of PV expansion is expected to This will allow insights into the acceptance, economic viability
be ground-mounted, since this is where PV is currently most and diverse areas of use of the technology to be gained hand
cost-effective. in hand with agriculture and solar power companies. Germany
has the opportunity to learn from the experience of France and
However, the expansion of ground-mounted PV systems goes other countries and to pave the way for further development
against the political goal of reducing the amount of land used, of the technology with suitable funding instruments.
which stipulates that new land used for settlements and traffic
needs to be reduced to 30 hectares per day by 2030 and to net The innovation tender for April 2022 earmarked in the EEG
zero by 2050. This is intended in part to conserve fertile soil for for special solar power systems is highly unlikely to provide
food production. At present, around 56 hectares of land per targeted funding for agrivoltaics. Instead, because of pricing
day is allocated for settlements and traffic in Germany. This is competition among different applications, the obligation to
equivalent to around 79 soccer pitches. As well as PV systems combine systems and the lack of consideration for the interests
on roofs, facades, sealed areas, lakes created in former mining of the agricultural sector, the tender risks delaying the market
areas and parking lots, agrivoltaics could also help to generate launch of agrivoltaics and the acceptance of the ­technology by
energy in a space-neutral and environmentally friendly way. the general population. One possible way to provide ­targeted
and systematic funding for agrivoltaics could be to create
Unless a suitable legal framework is created, however, it will be a dedicated market premium and tendering segment for
difficult to establish agrivoltaics in Germany in an ­economically overhead systems and to implement a “1000-field agrivoltaic
viable way for the foreseeable future. Agricultural subsidies, program” (see section 7.2.4).

54
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

7.1 Regulatory framework

Below is an overview of the key aspects of the legal

f­ ramework. It is not possible to examine all the legal aspects
and possible combinations of cases here. Ultimately, each case
needs to be examined and evaluated individually.

7.1.1 EU direct payments If an agrivoltaic system is properly planned and installed, it

does not limit the agricultural use of a plot of land, or at most
only limits it to a small extent (as a result of the anchoring for
the PV mounting system, for example). There are therefore
As part of its agricultural policy, the EU provides direct good arguments to support the case that farms cultivating a
­payments for land that is used primarily for agriculture. An plot of land on which there is an agrivoltaic system installed
important question, therefore, is whether a plot of agricultural are acting in line with EU law requirements for direct payments
land will lose its eligibility for financial support if it makes use and should be eligible to receive such payments for c­ ultivating
of agrivoltaics. Of interest in this context is a verdict by the the land. Enshrining this in concrete terms in the Direct
German Federal Administrative Court (Bundesverwaltungs- Payment Implementation Ordinance could create planning
gericht, BVerwG) on a so-called corn maze2. In the view of certainty for farmers. Compliance with the requirements of
the German Federal Administrative Court, corn mazes do not DIN SPEC 91434 could be a suitable condition for ­receiving
affect eligibility for financial support because, in brief, they do the direct payments. As long as regulatory uncertainties
not severely limit the agricultural use of the land. What does remain, ­consulting the competent authorities at an early stage
this verdict imply for agrivoltaics? is recommended. A draft bill by the German Federal Ministry
for Food and Agriculture stipulates that, from 2023, farmers
Agrivoltaic systems enable mixed use of the same land for both will be entitled to 85 percent of the direct payments provided
solar power generation and farming. The crucial question is that at least 85 percent of the usable agricultural land can be
whether the predominant purpose for which the land is used is cultivated5.
clearly agricultural. Section 12 (3) no. 6 of the Direct Payment
Implementation Ordinance (DirektZahlDurchfV) stipulates that The related provisions in the DirektZahlDurchfV have since
areas of land on which there are systems for generating energy been amended, and the amendments were published in
through solar radiation are primarily used for non-agricultural the Federal Law Gazette (Bundesgesetzblatt) on January 31,
activity. However, following the verdict of the German Federal 2022: Section 12 (4) no. 6 of the Common Agricultural Policy
Administrative Court, this regulation must be seen through the Direct Payments Ordinance (GAPDZV) now stipulates that the
lens of European law: The crucial criterion is that the ­intensity, exclusion does not apply to agrivoltaic systems. Section 12 (5)
nature, duration or timing of agrivoltaics must not limit agri- GAPDZV defines an agrivoltaic system as a system for the use
cultural activity too severely. This view was also adopted by of solar radiation energy that is constructed on agricultural
the Higher Administrative Court of Bavaria in a case of sheep land and does not prevent the land from being cultivated using
grazing underneath a ground-mounted PV system3. A severe conventional agricultural methods, machinery and equipment
limitation of agricultural activity would exist if there were any and does not reduce the usable agricultural land by more
real, significant difficulties or obstacles to the performance of than 15 percent on the basis of DIN SPEC 91434:2021-05.
the agricultural activity for the farms concerned resulting from ­According to the ordinance, this leaves 85 percent of the
the performance of another simultaneous activity. This did not ­agricultural land eligible for funding. This regulation takes
apply in the case in question, and the court therefore ruled that effect on the day on which the Common Agricultural Policy
the financial support should be granted4. Direct Payments Act (GAP-Direktzahlungen-Gesetz) takes
effect, according to section 28 (2) GAPDZV.

2 German Federal Administrative Court, verdict of July 4, 2019, file no. 3 C 11.17.
3 See verdict of June 1, 2021, file no. BV 19.98; also ECJ, verdict of July 2, 2015, file no. C-684/13 (also known as the Demmer verdict); Munich Higher
Administrative Court, verdict of April 19, 2016, file no. 21 B 15-2391; Regensburg Administrative Court, verdict of November 15, 2018, file no. RO 5 K 17.1331

4 See verdict of June 1, 2021, file no. BV 19.98;

5 https://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Glaeserne-Gesetze/Referentenentwuerfe/gapdzg.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2

55
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

7.1.2 Public law

Agrivoltaics usually consists of structural installations for the Agrivoltaic systems are therefore not explicitly specified as
purposes of building regulation law. A building permit6 is usual- special status projects. This can considerably increase the
ly needed to construct installations of this type. It is granted as effort required to justify the classification of agrivoltaics as
long as the project does not conflict with public law regu- special status projects. This is clear from the use of the term
lations. Public law regulations include provisions of building “serve” (no. 1): According to the Federal Administrative Court,
regulation law (as set out in the building codes of the German this requirement is only met “if a reasonable farmer would
state governments) and building design law (as set out in the construct this project with approximately the same intended
Federal Building Code, BauGB). purpose and approximately the same design and configuration
for an equivalent enterprise, even and especially when taking
Whether a project is permissible under building design law into account the requirement to conserve the non-urban area
depends on the location of the plot of land: If the land is in an to the greatest extent possible, and if the project is shaped by
area covered by a development plan, the requirements of the this allocation to the specific enterprise in a way that is visible
development plan must be taken into account (see sections 30, even externally8.” What does this mean for agrivoltaic systems?
31, 33 BauGB). On land that is not covered by a development The systems necessary for the supply of energy to the ­building
plan, whether the installation is permissible under building and enterprise fundamentally meet this requirement. The
design law depends on whether the project is inside an urban crucial factor is whether the energy supplied to the enterprise
area (see section 34 BauGB) or outside an urban area (see is significant compared to the total capacity of the system: If it
section 35 BauGB)7. does not considerably exceed the amount of energy intended
for the public grid, the system will fail to meet the definition of
The areas under consideration are typically located outside the term “serve.”
urban areas. In such cases, the Federal Building Code draws a
distinction between special status projects and other projects: The Federal Administrative Court considers the use of
Special status projects are inadmissible under section 35 (1) ­approximately two thirds of the electricity generated by a
BauGB only in exceptional cases where they conflict with public wind farm in an agricultural enterprise to be sufficient9. The
interests. Other projects, on the other hand, are generally ­aforementioned shaping of the enterprise by the project is
inadmissible outside urban areas under section 35 (2) BauGB likely to require the agrivoltaic system to be located relatively
except in exceptional cases where they do not conflict with close to the focal points of the enterprise’s processes.
public interests. Some public interests are explicitly listed in
section 35 (3) BauGB. These include depictions in zoning maps In view of the climate crisis and the associated demands on
or requirements in spatial development plans. farming, forestry or horticulture (including protection from hail,
heavy rain and high solar radiation) it is likely to strengthen the
A complete list of special status projects is provided in section fulfillment the definition of the term “serve” in section 35 (1)
35 (1) BauGB. These special status projects include, for exam- no. 1 or no. 2 BauGB if future systems are conceptualized as
ple, projects that: performing a protective function for the crops, soil and water
management. As a result, the proportion of the electricity from
Serve an agricultural or forestry enterprise and make up only the systems that is used in the enterprises themselves would
a minor proportion of the enterprise’s land (no. 1), be irrelevant. In other words, using less energy on site would
Serve a horticultural production enterprise (no. 2) or not prevent the project from being classified as a special status
Serve to make use of solar radiation energy on roof and project in this case10.
exterior wall surfaces of buildings that are used permissibly
if the system is structurally subordinate to the building The term “agriculture” used in section 35 (1) no. 1 BauGB is
(no. 8). defined separately in section 201 BauGB, which also mentions

6 The Federal Immission Control Act (BImSchG) does not apply because agrivoltaic systems are not listed in the annexes to the fourth ordinance for the
Implementation of the Federal Immission Control Act (4th Federal Immission Control Ordinance, 4. BImSchV).

7 See also Vollprecht/Trommsdorff/Hermann, Legal Framework of Agrivoltaics in Germany, AIP Conference Proceedings 2361, 020002 (2021).
8 German Federal Administrative Court, verdict of November 3, 1972, file no. 4 C 9.70.
9 German Federal Administrative Court, decision of November 4, 2008, file no. 4 B 44.08.
10 According to Vollprecht/Kather, Der Rechtsrahmen für Agri-PV: Aktuelle Herausforderungen und Lösungsansätze (The legal framework for agrivoltaics:
current challenges and approaches to solutions), IR 2021, pp. 266 et seq. 12

56
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

horticultural production. Special status under section 35 (1) (Ökokonto-Verordnung, ÖKVO). This ordinance defines
no. 2 is therefore also likely to apply to enterprises that grow requirements for ­Baden-Württemberg for the recognition and
crops in pots, containers and other receptacles, especially in assessment of advance nature c­ onservation and landscape care
greenhouses. measures (eco-account measures) that are to be assigned to an
interference project as compensation measures at a later date.
If the project is not permissible outside an urban area under
section 35 BauGB, the preparation of a development plan­ Because agrivoltaics, when appropriately designed, can
— possibly with a partial amendment of the zoning map — be ­beneficial for the agricultural use of land, including in
should be considered. In that case, “only” the r­ equirements view of the climate crisis, projects should be examined on a
of the development plan would need to be met. A problem in ­case-by-case basis to determine whether the use of the land
this respect, however, is what is known as the ­“standardization follows the rules of good agricultural practice and therefore
requirement,” because the municipality is bound by the­ does not constitute an intervention for the purposes of the
­stipulations of section 9 BauGB and the Land Utilization BNatSchG. Continuing this line of thought also raises the
­Ordinance (Baunutzungsverordnung, BauNVO). A solution question of whether an agrivoltaic system could even generate
could be to establish “photovoltaics” as a special area under eco-points under the ÖKVO.
section 11 BauNVO. However, this raises the question of
whether agricultural use can be stipulated at the same time. A Participation of
possible solution could be to designate the area simultaneously Local building
Building permit authorities:
as land for agriculture under section 9 no. 18 a) BauGB11. authority
nature conserva-
tion, environmental
Another possibility is to pass what is known as a protection, water
­project-specific development plan. This would enable the management, agri-
Additional culture, etc.
leeway provided by planning law to be utilized, because the
requests can
municipality would then be able to approve the project without be made
Completeness Municipality
having to consider section 9 BauGB12 or the BauNVO. ­However,
check participation
the stipulations of the BauGB and the BauNVO always have a
guiding f­ unction. Orderly urban development must ­t­herefore
be taken into c­ onsideration even within the scope of a Community

­project-specific development plan13. participation

Reliability check
With agrivoltaics, the question of whether it constitutes
an interference in the natural environment is often posed.
Avoiding interferences is a priority, and unavoidable s­ ignificant
damage must be compensated14. However, land use ­according Building permit
to the rules of good agricultural practice is privileged in
the fact that it does not constitute an interference15. If an
area is used to generate electricity, this currently constitutes
Start of
an interference for the purposes of section 14 (1) of the
construction
­Federal Nature Conservation Act (Bundesnaturschutzgesetz,
BNatSchG). For example, the APV-RESOLA research ­project
was considered an ­interference, and eco-points had to be Fig. 59: Example process for a building
utilized in accordance with the Eco-Account Ordinance application. © Fraunhofer ISE

11 According to Vollprecht/Kather, Der Rechtsrahmen für Agri-PV: Aktuelle Herausforderungen und Lösungsansätze (The legal framework for agrivoltaics: current
challenges and approaches to solutions), IR 2021, pp. 266 et seq.

12 Notably section 9 BauGB.

13 German Federal Administrative Court, NVwZ 2003, 98.
14 See section 13 (1) BNatSchG
15 See section 13 (2) BNatSchG

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Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

7.1.3 German Renewable Energy Sources Act

(EEG)

Agrivoltaic systems are systems for the generation of electric- under the EEG unless they have a surcharge or, in the case
ity from renewable energy according to section 3 (1) of the of first-segment systems, a “payment entitlement”23. Section
Renewable Energies Act (EEG). The operator of an agrivoltaic 27a EEG is also relevant: In principle, electricity from systems
system is therefore entitled to priority connection to the grid subject to the tendering procedures cannot be used to supply
from the grid operator under section 8 (1) EEG. This involves power directly to the operator. For systems with a capacity of
identifying the grid connection option with the lowest total up to 750 kWp, the values stipulated in section 48 EEG apply
financial cost. Only once this option has been identified does it (degression must also always be taken into account in such
become clear which party has to bear which costs. In princi- cases).
ple, the grid operator bears the grid expansion costs and the
system operator bears the grid connection costs16. For ground-mounted PV systems, the “20 MW limit” defined
in section 38a (1) no. 5 EEG and elsewhere also needs to be
In addition, the operator of an agrivoltaic system is entitled taken into account: Any capacity the system may have in excess
under section 11 (1) EEG to first refusal of the electricity gen- of this limit is not eligible for subsidy. For second-segment
erated. However, the system operator is not required to feed systems, each bid must not exceed 20 MW24.
the electricity into the grid, but instead can use it directly17 or
supply it to a third party “upstream of” the grid18. The financial support is paid for a period of 20 years starting
on the date the system is put into operation. For systems
Financial support for the electricity fed into the grid is more whose financial support is determined by law, the payment is
complicated. First of all, operators of systems with an installed extended until December 31 of the twentieth year.
capacity of more than 100 kWp19 are obliged to sell the electric-
ity through a third party. The grid operator is only available as In addition to the general requirements for financial support
a purchaser of the electricity in exceptional cases20. In cases of under the EEG, solar energy is also subject to further special
subsidized direct sale, however, the system operator is entitled requirements. These are outlined but not described in full
under section 20 EEG to a “market premium” from the grid below:
operator, as well as receiving the agreed price from the direct
seller for the electricity supplied. If the system’s capacity is As specified in section 48 EEG, a system is eligible for financial
below the 100 kWp threshold, the grid operator is obliged to support if it is installed on or in a building (rooftop system) or
purchase the electricity. The operator then receives the “feed- other structural facility that was built primarily for ­purposes
in payment” from the grid operator. other than the generation of solar power. Essentially, this
means that the solar power system should be installed on a
Operators of systems with an installed capacity of more than surface that is being used “anyway” (“dual use”). This means
750 kWp must successfully take part in a tender for first-21 that the PV system can also be installed as a roof25. In the case
or second-segment22 solar systems under section 29 et seq. of PV systems on greenhouses, for example, it must be ensured
in conjunction with section 37 et seq. or 38c et seq. EEG. that the use of the greenhouse focuses mainly on its actual
They cannot claim financial support from the grid operator

16 See section 16 (1), section 17 EEG.

17 The EEG levy may be reduced in such cases.
18 Because the general supply grid is not used under this arrangement, grid charges are not incurred. The same applies to grid charges and levies (such as the cogen-
eration levy, the levy under section 19 (2) of the Grid Charges Ordinance (StromNEV), the offshore grid levy or the concession fee). This allows the system operator
to offer the electricity to the customer at a more favorable price, for example.

19 When determining the size of the system in this case and also thereafter, the “system combination rules” under section 24 (1) and to some extent (2) EEG must
usually be observed.

20 See section 21 (1) no. 2 EEG.

21 Ground-mounted systems and solar systems installed on or in structural facilities that are neither buildings nor noise barriers; see section 3 no. 4a EEG.
22 Solar power systems to be installed on or in a building or noise barrier; see section 3 no. 4b EEG.
23 See section 22 (3) EEG; when determining the “750 kW limit,” the “system combination rules” contained in section 24 (1) and (2) EEG must also be observed.
24 See section 38c (2) EEG.

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 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

function. In situations such as the cultivation of crops that do section 37 (1) EEG and are located in disadvantaged areas26.
not need to be grown in a greenhouse, this would not be the However, this only applies where the state government has
case. This means that a detailed examination of each individual passed a legal ordinance for tenders on land in such areas
case is necessary. For non-residential buildings in rural areas (known as a “state opening clause”). So far, this has only been
not covered by a development plan under section 35 BauGB, done in Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Hesse, Lower Saxony,
such as greenhouses, the restriction in section 48 (3) EEG must Saxony, Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate.
nonetheless be observed.
With regard to acceptance, section 6 EEG, which was added
In the case of rooftop systems (although presumably not to the EEG in the summer amendment, is of interest: This
systems on other structural facilities), the following must also regulation stipulates that operators of ground-mounted solar
be observed: According to section 48 (5) EEG, systems with a power systems can grant affected municipalities allowances
capacity of between 300 and 750 kWp are eligible for ­financial of up to 0.2 euro cents per kilowatt-hour fed in. This requires
support for just 50 percent of the power generated. To prevent a written contract between the system operator and the
this, the system operator must take part in the tenders, in affected ­municipality27. For systems receiving financial support,
which case the ban on self-supply under section 27a EEG the allowances are reimbursed by the grid operator. For other
applies. systems (“PPA systems”), system operators must bear this cost
themselves.
If these requirements are not met, the system may still be
eligible for support, for example under section 48 (1) no. 3
EEG: An agreed development plan is always required in such
cases. If that development plan was established or amended
after S­ eptember 1, 2003 for the purpose of constructing a
solar power system, the agrivoltaic systems must be located in
particular areas, for example along highways or railroad tracks
within a 200 meter corridor measured from the outer edge
of the fixed road or track — with a clear corridor 15 meters
wide — or in a “conversion area.”

This area can only be extended for systems that are required
to take part in tenders. Financial support is also considered
for these systems in areas whose plots of land were used as
arable land or grassland at the time of the decision to establish
or amend the development plan, cannot (to put it briefly) be
allocated to any land category other than that mentioned in

25 Regarding the EEG, see 2004 Federal Court of Justice (BGH), verdict of November 17, 2010, file no. VIII ZR 277/09.
26 See section 37 (1) sentence 1 h.) and i.) EEG.
27 The Association of Energy Market Innovators (bne) has a sample contract for municipal participation, a supplementary sheet with useful clarifications of the content
of the contract and additional information, all available free of charge from https://sonne-sammeln.de/mustervertrag/.

59
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

7.1.4 Including agrivoltaics as part of innovation

tenders as provided for in the EEG

The amendment to the EEG that entered into force on Janu- Section 37 EEG is not applicable, meaning that the
ary 1, 2021 introduced a separate innovation tender segment r­ equirements for financial support set out in the EEG regarding
for “special solar power systems” with 50 MWp of installed areas to be utilized and development plans29 do not need to be
capacity. The German Federal Parliament (Bundestag) approved observed. Operators of agrivoltaic systems who win a tender
an increase to 150 megawatts in June 2021. Special solar will receive a fixed amount from the grid operator per kilo-
power systems include not only PV systems above parking lots watt-hour of electricity fed in (“fixed market premium”). The
and floating solar power systems, but also solar power systems maximum value of the bid permitted in the tender is e­ xpected
on arable or horticultural land — i.e. permanent and perennial to be around 7.43 euro cents per kilowatt-hour. Another
crops — if the land is also being used for crop cultivation at the source of income could be revenue generated from selling the
same time. The requirements for special solar power systemss electricity — this is likely to be around four to six euro cents per
were set out in more detail by the Federal Network Agency kilowatt-hour depending on the time of the sale. Furthermore,
(BNetzA) in a regulation issued on October 1, 202128. In brief, as with all systems subject to tendering procedures under the
the agrivoltaic systems must fulfill the requirements of DIN EEG, the electricity must not be used by the operator under
SPEC 91434 in particular. This segment will initially only exist section 27a EEG, but instead must either be supplied to a third
as part of the call for tenders on April 1, 2022. Bids must be party upstream of the grid, or be fed into the grid.
submitted to the Federal Network Agency before that time.

However, only system combinations as defined in section 2

of the Innovation Tenders Ordinance (Innovationsausschrei-
bungsverordnung, InnAusV) are eligible to participate. This
means that agrivoltaic systems must be connected to a storage
system or to another green electricity system and feed the
­electricity in via a shared grid connection point. A bid for a
system combination including a special solar power systems
must have a minimum capacity of 100 kWp and must not
exceed a two megawatts-peak.

28 https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Sachgebiete/Energie/Unternehmen_Institutionen/Ausschreibungen/Innovations/GezeichneteFestle-
gungOktober2021.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3

29 Important: This relates to the requirement for financial support under the EEG. The requirement for a development plan may well still apply under public law (see
above).

60
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

7.2 Recommendations for policy-related action

7.2.1 Possibilities for improvements with the inno-

vation tenders

While including agrivoltaics as part of the innovation tenders Facilitating own consumption of energy
under the EEG basically marks a step in the right direction, the produced for farms
regulation for providing targeted funding for agrivoltaics does One requirement imposed by the EEG on systems ­participating
not seem to be suitable for various reasons. There is a need for in the tendering process is that they should generally not
improvement, especially in the following areas. consume the electricity generated themselves, but deliver it
to a third party before it is supplied to the electricity grid, or
No obligation to have system combinations feed it all into the electricity grid. In the case of conventional
Only system combinations can participate in EEG innovation ground-mounted PV systems, this applies from the power
tenders. However, the obligation to be coupled with a storage output that makes the tendering process compulsory, which
system or one or more renewable energy systems imposes is currently 750 kWp. As the innovation tender process in
a restriction in terms of content that can hardly be justified April 2022 will also support funding for smaller agrivoltaic
for the agrivoltaic systems to be funded. The grid efficiency system combinations from 100 kWp, the ban on self-supply
target specified in the innovation tenders should therefore be will also apply to these agrivoltaic systems under 750 kWp.
considered independently of any possible financial s­ upport Integrating agrivoltaics into agricultural has highlighted the
for agrivoltaics. After all, the innovative approach to the fact that it is essentially ideal in terms of meeting farms’
­agrivoltaic sector lies in the coexistence of energy production demand for ­electricity. The fact that this is excluded under
and ­agricultural use on the land, meaning that the issue of current ­conditions reduces the economic viability of ­agrivoltaic
whether the agrivoltaic system offers any particular market systems. This is especially true for smaller systems where
or grid ­convenience should be irrelevant in the context of the ­self-consumption tends to account for a larger share of the
innovation tender process in April 2022. electricity produced and which could therefore benefit the
most from savings on grid charges.
Realistic chance of funding
The tendering process involving agrivoltaic systems is being Realistic chance of funding for smaller systems too
planned together with floating PV systems and PV parking When there is direct competition, larger systems typically
lot canopies. By establishing direct competition between the have an advantage over smaller systems thanks to economies
three types of system, it will be clear as to which technology of scale. Due to the cost pressure involved in tenders, this
will ultimately come out on top in the joint tender. The cost means that larger agrivoltaic systems will tend to be awarded
structures for the three area-neutral PV technologies may ­contracts in the 2022 innovation tender process. However, this
differ in such a way that contracts cannot be awarded to all contradicts the idea that a large range of different applications
three system types. Therefore, if the other system types offer can be supported in the early years of funding, with a view to
a more ­affordable option, agrivoltaic systems will not be given gathering knowledge about their potential synergy effects. This
a chance. In addition, interspace agrivoltaic systems allowing trend could also be detrimental to the public acceptance of
crops to be grown between the PV module rows (Category agrivoltaic systems as smaller, local systems close to farmyards
II, DIN SPEC 91434) have a less complex substructure, which would presumably enjoy greater support among the public.
gives them a clear competitive edge that is likely to have a
strong influence on the composition of the projects awarded. Planning certainty and long-term investment incentives
As a result, overhead systems allowing crops to be grown through multiannual funding
between the PV module rows (Category I, DIN SPEC 91434) are The one-off implementation of an innovation tender ­process
not likely to be awarded funding. In fact, it is precisely these with the “special solar power system” segment in April
systems that are conducive to a more efficient use of land and 2022 will offer German solar power companies and farms
offer crops protection against the consequences of climate ­variable prospects in terms of investing in the development of
change. ­agrivoltaic systems and relevant product strategies or projects.
On the other hand, consistent and transparent ­multiannual
funding conditions could provide planning certainty and
­investment incentives, and set the course for sustainable gener-
ation of energy in the future.

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Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

7.2.2 Explicit special status for agrivoltaics

An explicit special status for agrivoltaic systems according to In addition to a general expansion of the area used, a statutory
section 35 (1) BauGB appears reasonable in principle, since feed-in payment appears to have an important role in the EEG,
they are a natural part of the outdoors due to their agricultural especially for overhead agrivoltaic systems that are not subject
use. Agrivoltaic systems crop rarely have any impact on public to the tendering process. A separate tender segment would be
sentiment, as they are used for climate protection purposes, effective for major agrivoltaic systems that are subject to the
improve climate resilience, and reduce water consumption. tendering process, especially for overhead agrivoltaic systems.
However, the landscape is affected by these systems. Prefer-
ence should therefore be given to sites not located in fragile In order to simplify approval procedures, granting partial special
landscapes, such as areas along the edge of a forest or sites status would allow those agrivoltaic systems to be classified as
where protective structures for agriculture are widespread. special status projects according to section 35 of the Federal
Building Code, which enjoy a particularly high level of public
Practical example, raspberry plantation acceptance. This could include systems in the horticultural
To protect raspberries against hail and strong solar radiation, a sector and small systems with a power output of less than
row of PV modules above the trellis forming fruit can achieve a one MWp.
twofold benefit. Usually, raspberry cultivation takes precedence
over generation of solar power in terms of value creation. Agrivoltaics combined with cultivation of paludiculture crops is
a future-oriented application that makes it possible to ­leverage
the vital climate protection potential. Therefore, when d ­ rafting
the legal framework, it should also allow for systems on
­rewetted bogs.

7.2.3 Addition of agrivoltaics as a “special area” Since agrivoltaics means dual use — for agriculture and
in the BauNVO energy — the circumstances are similar to those for the
dual use of buildings and other physical structures30. This is
an a­ rgument in favor of treating both scenarios equally in
Due to the uncertainties described above regarding the the legal drafting of the regulation. In view of the EEG, a
­regulatory options in terms of building planning, a new ­development plan would then be just as dispensable as the
­“settlement component” should be added to the BauNVO in existence of a specific land category. Agricultural use must
the form of a “special agrivoltaic area”. be able to continue largely unrestricted. This is important for
reasons of acceptance alone and avoids contradictory values
within the EEG. The prerequisites for EU direct payments
should be applied in order to ensure this. That increases legal
7.2.4 Possible funding criteria and scenarios certainty as well. The applicable jurisprudence31 could then be
transferred to the “new” provision in the EEG. How might that
be implemented?
In the “Easter Package”, the German federal government
tabled draft legislation early April 2022, which proposed For one thing, a new point 2 could be added after point 1 in
extensive funding for agrivoltaic systems under the EEG. Some sentence 1 of section 48 (1) EEG. The regulation would then be
of the measures envisaged include an expansion of the area to worded as follows:
cover arable and horticultural land, and a technology payment
for overhead agrivoltaic systems. The exact wording of the EEG “For electricity from solar installations, where the applicable
2023 amendment will only be discussed in the next edition of value is determined by law, this is [...] euro cents per kilo-
this guide. watt-hour if the system […]

30 Also see above regarding no. 1 in sentence 1, section 48 (1) EEG.

31 Also see above regarding DirektZahlDurchfV.

62
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

has been constructed on farmland and the agricultural activity In order to ensure that the benefits for agriculture are
on this area is carried out without being severely limited by achieved, the regulations should also define in precise terms
the intensity, type, duration, or timing of the operation of the the ­requirements for an agrivoltaic system. The performance
system, […]” ­figures and test procedures of the DIN specification 91434
could serve as a starting point.
With regard to proof of the prerequisites, the following
­sentence 2 could be added after sentence 1: A 1000-field program is another possible funding ­scenario:
Similar to the 1000-roof program for PV systems in the
“Proof of the prerequisites of sentence 1, no. 2 can, in 1990s, a targeted and systematic funding program could
­particular, take the form of submitting a notice for this area be launched that gives due consideration to the specific
about the allocation of a single payment in terms of ­Regulation ­challenges posed by and the funding requirements for both
(EU) No 1307/2013 of the European Parliament and of the interspace and overhead agrivoltaic systems in the application
Council of December 17, 2013 establishing rules for direct areas of ­horticulture/ ­permanent crops, arable farming, and
­payments to farmers under support schemes within the PV greenhouses. An a­ ccompanying scientific measurement
­framework of the common agricultural policy and repealing and ­evaluation program could provide the necessary data
Council Regulation (EC) No 637/2008 and Council Regulation ­establishing a basis for designing future legal frameworks.
(EC) No 73/2009 (Official Journal L 347 of December 20, 2013,
p. 608) in the respective current version.”

Corresponding amendments would be required in section 37

(1) EEG among others.

Currently, the investment costs for agrivoltaic systems and

other land-use-neutral PV generating systems are ­somewhat
higher compared to conventional ground-mounted PV
­systems. A technology payment (euro cents per kWh) could be
­implemented in the EEG to provide the market boost required
for these innovative systems. The legally established payment
(see section 48 EEG) would be increased accordingly and would
then be adequate. This payment would be reduced year by
year and reach zero as soon as the new PV generating system
technologies are competitive, thus making a market boost
no longer necessary. With the current tenders (see sections
37 et seq. EEG), land-use-neutral solar generating system
­technologies hardly stand a chance at present due to the cost
structure described above. The technology payment could
compensate for these competitive disadvantages. The idea is
that it would increase the award value accordingly, meaning
that it would only be taken into account after the conclusion of
the tendering process. Bidders could therefore take part in the
tenders with a lower bid, making them more competitive using
conventional ground-mounted PV systems.

63
Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

8 Promoting agrivoltaics

Humanity is faced with challenges of previously unknown Horticultural applications appear especially well suited for
magnitude due to the climate crisis, water scarcity, and launching agrivoltaics on the market. Reasons for this include
the steadily increasing demand for energy and foodstuffs. the frequent close physical proximity of the growing area to
­Whether and how humanity will overcome these global the farmyard, the high synergy potential of the cultivated
challenges will be decided in the coming years. To maintain crops, the lower cost of supports, and the comparatively simple
quality of life in industrialized countries and improve it in the process of integrating them into the farming methods used
­countries of the Global South, we need to find ways to achieve for permanent crops. Benefits in terms of approval can also be
­seemingly ­conflicting goals: maintaining prosperity, facilitating expected in horticulture. In addition, it may be easier to achieve
­development and a livable future, and simultaneously ­reducing classification for agrivoltaics in horticulture as a special status
the consumption of natural resources and the emission of building project as stipulated in section 35 (1), no. 2 BauGB.
­climate-damaging substances. Agrivoltaics can make a relevant
contribution to all this. A general increase in agricultural value creation could
be another benefit in horticulture. This is because many
This guideline describes the current state of agrivoltaic ­horticultural applications are highly productive: Accounting for
­technology, its potential, and various areas of application. only about 1.3 percent of farmland, horticulture contributes
Aside from enabling more efficient land use, agrivoltaics more than 10 percent of the value created in agriculture[35].
can help reduce water consumption in agriculture, ­generate Creating incentives for agricultural operations to become
stable ­additional sources of income for farms, and make more active in this sector by funding agrivoltaics in horticulture
many farms more resilient against crop losses. Involving local could therefore serve as leverage for the entire agricultural
citizens at an early stage is a key success factor in the ­specific ­production sector in Germany, even with a small proportion
­implementation of agrivoltaics. With a levelized cost of of land being used for agrivoltaics. This applies in particular to
­electricity between six and ten euro cents per kWh, agrivoltaics fruit and berry production.
is already competitive with other renewable energy sources.
However, in Germany, agrivoltaics can only be implemented In discussions about agrivoltaics, the argument is often made
in an economically viable manner in rare cases due to the that the potential of roof surfaces in Germany should be better
lack of a suitable legal and regulatory framework. Adapting utilized first. There is no doubt that roof systems will continue
the ­regulatory framework to the technical advancements in to be instrumental in PV expansion going forward, and not
­agrivoltaics could encompass, for example: only because of their local proximity and land use neutrali-
ty. Nevertheless, there are good reasons for also deploying
A special status for agrivoltaic systems according to section agrivoltaics as a supplement to the existing renewable power
35 (1) BauGB to make approval procedures easier ­generation technologies. For one thing, agrivoltaics —
Remuneration for electricity generated from agrivoltaic ­especially in the case of larger systems — can be ­implemented
systems according to the EEG, falling in between that for more cost effectively on average than roof systems due to
ground-mounted PV systems and roof systems, for instance economies of scale, which helps keep renewable power
in the form of special tenders for agrivoltaic systems ­affordable. In addition, the PV modules can, in the best case
Implementation of a 1000-field program to fund and further scenario, offer added benefits for crop growth while roof
develop agrivoltaics ­systems are “just” land-use-neutral.

64
 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Admittedly, a decrease in crop yields has been observed for heat, heavy rain, or drought can be protected at the same
the bulk of the systems studied to date. However, the harvest time. Agrivoltaics can also provide more climate-friendly energy
results for the research project in Heggelbach in 2018 indicated to cover the energy consumption of farms.
that agrivoltaics, even at this early stage of the ­technological
journey, could provide a possible answer to the various The first agrivoltaic systems in Germany have shown that
­challenges faced by farmers. One of them is the increasing the technology works. However, to fully realize the ­potential
periods of drought in Germany. The fact that the average offered by this technology, the measures adopted in
­temperature, extreme weather events and, in the case of ­Germany thus far are nowhere near sufficient. This is because
­Central Europe, solar radiation will increase due to the climate ­conventional tenders are unable to handle the wide range of
crisis suggests that a possible protective function provided by different application areas and synergy effects that are partially
PV modules for crops will grow in importance going forward. still unknown if contracts are awarded only to systems with the
lowest current levelized cost of electricity.
Future fields of research involving agrivoltaics could include
combinations with energy storage systems, organic PV films, The specific challenges and funding requirements for ­agrivoltaic
and solar water treatment and distribution. The use of electrical systems can only be identified as part of a ­cross-sectoral
agricultural machines and smart, automated field cultivation exchange. Therefore, an important, central step is to ­establish
are also, to some extent, promising fields of research. One a working dialog between the agricultural and energy
future vision is “swarm farming”, using smaller, automated, ­sectors. Only then can a framework be created that gives due
solar electrified agricultural machines, which are operating ­consideration to the needs of the agricultural sector, on the
under the agrivoltaic system and generating the required one hand, and to the technical and economic opportunities
energy directly in the field. This could result in a significant of the PV sector, on the other. Only then can agrivoltaics be
reduction in clearance height requirements. The substructure ­successfully promoted with targeted and systematic funding.
and power generation of an agrivoltaic system offer conditions Only then can the opportunities offered by agrivoltaics for
that are conducive to the integration of such smart ­farming agriculture and the energy transition be fully seized.
elements. Automated field cultivation is currently being
­integrated into the substructure of an agrivoltaic system at
Fraunhofer ISE for testing on a 1.2 x 3 meter area of land.

Over the long term, PV will become the cornerstone of energy

supply, alongside wind power. The climate crisis and increasing
water scarcity require new approaches in agriculture, partly to
make farms more economically and ecologically resilient. To
mitigate land use competition, agrivoltaic technology offers
a way to expand PV capacity while conserving fertile soil as
a resource for food production. This dual use of the areas
­considerably increases land use efficiency. Soils exposed to
increasing and more frequent severe weather events such as

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Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

9 Bibliography and sources

9.1 Sources

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Energy Production. Systems Approaches to Allocate Michael, S. Schicketanz, K. Pascal, T. Miron, and N.
Potentials for Bioenergy and Agrophotovoltaics. Disserta- Venus: Vorbereitung und Begleitung bei der Erstellung
tion,. 2020 eines Erfahrungsberichts gemäß § 97 Erneuerbare-En-
[2] P. Sterchele, J. Brandes, J. Heilig, D. Wrede, C. Kost, T. ergien-Gesetz. Teilvorhaben II c: Solare Strahlungsen-
Schlegl, A. Bett, and H.-M. Henning: Wege zu einem kli- ergie. Final report, 2019. https://www.erneuerbare-en-
maneutralen Energiesystem. Die deutsche Energiewende ergien.de/EE/Redaktion/DE/Downloads/bmwi_de/
im Kontext gesellschaftlicher Verhaltensweisen, Freiburg zsv-boschundpartner-vorbereitung-begleitung-eeg.
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gen/studien/wege-zu-einem-klimaneutralen-energiesys- [9] Bundesverband Solarwirtschaft e.V.: Entwicklung des
tem.html, accessed on: June 8, 2020 deutschen PV-Marktes. Auswertung und grafische
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Kollektor. Sonnenenergie 3/81 (1981), p. 19 – 22 of: Mid-February 2020, 2020
[4] Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis: [10] DWD — German Meteorological Service: Zeitreihen und
APV-RESOLA — Agrivoltaics innovation group: contribu- Trends. https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/zeitreihen/
tion to resource-efficient land use. Project description, zeitreihen.html?nn=344886#buehneTop, accessed on:
year not specified https://www.itas.kit.edu/projekte_ December 21, 2021
roes15_apvres.php [11] M. Ionita, V. Nagavciuc, R. Kumar, and O. Rakovec: On
[5] S. Schindele, M. Trommsdorff, A. Schlaak, T. Obergfell, G. the curious case of the recent decade, mid-spring precip-
Bopp, C. Reise, C. Braun, A. Weselek, A. Bauerle, P. Högy, itation deficit in central Europe. npj Climate and Atmo-
A. Goetzberger, and E. Weber: Implementation of agro- spheric Science 3 (2020) 1
photovoltaics: Techno-economic analysis of the price-per- [12] A. Weselek, A. Ehmann, S. Zikeli, I. Lewandowski, S.
formance ratio and its policy implications. Applied Energy Schindele, and P. Högy: Agrophotovoltaic systems: appli-
265 (2020), p. 114737 cations, challenges, and opportunities. A review. Agrono-
[6] Stellungnahme zur BMWK-Konsultation »Eckpunkte für my for Sustainable Development 39 (2019) 4, p. 35
ein Ausschreibungsdesign für Photovoltaik-Freiflächenan- [13] Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e. V.: Anbau und
lagen. «. Agrophotovoltaik (APV) als ressourceneffiziente Verwendung nachwachsender Rohstoffe in Deutschland.
Landnutzung, D. H.-J. Luhmann, P. D. M. Fischedick, and As of: March 2019, 2019
S. Schindele, 2014 [14] Fraunhofer Center for International Management and
[7] Y. Elamri, B. Cheviron, J.-M. Lopez, C. Dejean, and G. Knowledge Economy IMW: Nachhaltige Kombination von
Belaud: Water budget and crop modelling for agrivoltaic bifacialen Solarmodulen, Windenergie und Biomasse bei
systems: Application to irrigated lettuces. Agricultural gleichzeitiger landwirtschaftlicher Flächennutzung und
Water Management 208 (2018), p. 440 – 453 Steigerung der Artenvielfalt, year not specified https://
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ter-for-economics-of-materials/forschungsprojekte/BiWiBi.
html

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 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

[15] Next2Sun GmbH: References. https://www.next2sun.de/ [25] The Power to Change: Solar and Wind Cost Reduc-
referenzen/ tion Potential to 2025, International Renewable Energy
[16] Feasibility and Economic Viability of Horticulture Photo- Agency, 2016
voltaics in Paras, Maharashtra, India, M. Trommsdorff, [26] Solaranlage Ratgeber: Anschaffungskosten für Photo-
S. Schindele, M. Vorast, N. Durga, S. M. Patwardhan, K. voltaik-Anlagen, year not specified https://www.solaran-
Baltins, A. Söthe-Garnier, and G. Grifi, 2019 lage-ratgeber.de/photovoltaik/photovoltaik-wirtschaft-
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Hitzesommer. Freiburg 2019 August 7, 2020
[18] K. Schneider: Agrophotovoltaik goes global: von Chile bis [27] E.ON Energie Deutschland GmbH: Solaranlage Kosten:
Vietnam. Freiburg 2018 Was kostet Photovoltaik 2020?, year not specified https://
[19] G. P. Brasseur, D. Jacob, and S. Schuck-Zöller: Klimawa- www.eon.de/de/pk/solar/photovoltaik-kosten.html,
ndel in Deutschland. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin accessed on: August 7, 2020
Heidelberg 2017 [28] K. Grave, M. Hazart, S. Boeve, F. von Blücher, C. Bour-
[20] J. Ballester, X. Rodó, and F. Giorgi: Future changes in Cen- gault, N. Bader, B. Breitschopf, N. Friedrichsen, M. Arens,
tral Europe heat waves expected to mostly follow summer A. Aydemir, M. Pudlik, V. Duscha, and J. Ordonez: Strom-
mean warming. Climate Dynamics 35 (2010) 7 – 8, p. kosten der energieintensiven Industrie. Ein internationaler
1191 – 1205 Vergleich. Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse, 2015
[21] G. A. Barron-Gafford, M. A. Pavao-Zuckerman, R. L. [29] A. Tietz: Der landwirtschaftliche Bodenmarkt — Entwick-
Minor, L. F. Sutter, I. Barnett-Moreno, D. T. Blackett, M. lung, Ursachen, Problemfelder. Wertermittlungsforum
Thompson, K. Dimond, A. K. Gerlak, G. P. Nabhan, and J. 36(2) (2018), p. 54 – 58
E. Macknick: Agrivoltaics provide mutual benefits across [30] B. Valle, T. Simonneau, F. Sourd, P. Pechier, P. Hamard, T.
the food–energy–water nexus in drylands. Nature Sustain- Frisson, M. Ryckewaert, and A. Christophe: Increasing the
ability 2 (2019) 9, p. 848 – 855 total productivity of a land by combining mobile photo-
[22] H. Marrou, J. Wery, L. Dufour, and C. Dupraz: Productiv- voltaic panels and food crops. Applied Energy 206 (2017),
ity and radiation use efficiency of lettuces grown in the p. 1495 –1507
partial shade of photovoltaic panels. European Journal of [31] Y. Elamri, B. Cheviron, A. Mange, C. Dejean, F. Liron,
Agronomy 44 (2013), p. 54 – 66 and G. Belaud: Rain concentration and sheltering effect
[23] S. K. Abeysinghe, D. H. Greer, and S. Y. Rogiers: The of solar panels on cultivated plots. Hydrology and Earth
effect of light intensity and temperature on berry growth System Sciences 22 (2018) 2, p. 1285 – 1298
and sugar accumulation in Vitis vinifera “Shiraz” under [32] C. Rösch: Agrophotovoltaik — die Energiewende in der
vineyard conditions. VITIS - Journal of Grapevine Research Landwirtschaft. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science
58/1 (2019), p. 7 – 16 and Society 25 (2016) 4, p. 242 – 246
[24] M. Büchele: Lucas’ Anleitung zum Obstbau. Libreka [33] Soziales Nachhaltigkeitsbarometer der Energiewende
GmbH; Verlag Eugen Ulmer 2018 2019. Kernaussagen und Zusammenfassung der wesentli-
chen Ergebnisse, I. Wolf, Potsdam 2020

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Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

9.2 List of figures

[34] Soziales Nachhaltigkeitsbarometer der Energie- und Fig. 1 Agrivoltaic research site at Lake Constance.
Verkehrswende 2021. Kernaussagen und Zusammen- © Fraunhofer ISE 4
fassung der wesentlichen Ergebnisse, I. Wolf, A.-K. F. Fig. 2 Illustration of an agrivoltaic system.
Fischer, and J.-H. Huttarsch, Potsdam 2021 © Fraunhofer ISE 5
[35] C. Rösch, S. Gölz, J. Hildebrand, S. Venghaus, and Fig. 3 Partners in the APV-RESOLA project. 5
K. Witte: Transdisziplinäre Ansätze zur Erforschung Fig. 4 How agrivoltaics has developed since 2010.
gesellschaftlicher Akzeptanz. Energy Research for © Fraunhofer ISE 6
Future — Forschung für die Herausforderungen der Ener- Fig. 5 L and used for ground-mounted PV systems in
giewende (2019) Germany since 2004; total land used and yearly
[36] D. Ketzer, N. Weinberger, C. Rösch, and S. B. Seitz: Land expansion. © German Federal Ministry for
use conflicts between biomass and power production — Economic Affairs and Climate Action (BMWK) [8] 7
Citizens’ participation in the technology development Fig. 6 Applications for integrated photovoltaics.
of agrophotovoltaics. Journal of Responsible Innovation © Fraunhofer ISE 8
(2020) 7 (2), p. 193 – 216 Fig. 7 Typical ground-mounted PV system.
[37] D. Ketzer, P. Schlyter, N. Weinberger, and C. Rösch: Driv- © Fraunhofer ISE 9
ing and restraining forces for the implementation of the Fig. 8 Precipitation and global solar radiation in
Agrophotovoltaics system technology A system dynam- Germany since 1991.
ics analysis. Journal of environmental management 270 Data: Deutscher Wetterdienst.
(2020), p. 110864 Graph: Fraunhofer ISE. 10
[38] BMEL German Federal Ministry for Food and Agriculture: Fig. 9 Classification of agrivoltaic systems.
Der Gartenbau in Deutschland Auswertung des Garten- © Fraunhofer ISE
baumoduls der Agrarstukturerhebung 2016. https://www. Image A: Illustration of a category I setup;
bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Broschueren/Garten- Image B: Illustration of a category II setup,
bauerhebung.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=7 variant 1;
Image C: Illustration of a category II setup,
variants 1 and 2 11
Fig. 10 Illustration of the categories and forms of land
use as set out in DIN SPEC 91434. 13
Fig. 11 L and use in Germany. © Fachagentur
Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e.V. (2021) [13] 14
Fig. 12 C ross-section view of the agrivoltaic system
in Weihenstephan. © 2020 B. Ehrmaier,
M. Beck, U. Bodmer 15

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 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Fig. 13 Illustration of the agrivoltaic system in Fig. 23 Crop yield differences under agrivoltaics compared to
Heggelbach. © AGRISOLAR Europe GmbH 16 reference plots, 2017 (blue) and 2018 (red) in
Fig. 14 The agrivoltaic system at Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach (excluding land lost due to supports).
Heggelbach enabled the farm to cover almost Data: University of Hohenheim,
all of its energy demand in summer 2017 using graph: Fraunhofer ISE 26
the power generated with the system. Fig. 24 Impact protection for the supports of the system
© BayWa r.e. 17 in Heggelbach to protect against possible damage
Fig. 15 The dual use of land for agrivoltaics and potato from farming machinery.
growing increased land-use efficiency on the © AGROSOLAR Europe GmbH 26
Heggelbach test site to 186 percent. Fig. 25 Illustration of an agrivoltaic apple orchard.
© Fraunhofer ISE 17 © Fraunhofer ISE 27
Fig. 16 Agrivoltaic system at the Nachtwey organic Fig. 26 Agrivoltaic system with solar tracking
fruit farm. © Fraunhofer ISE 18 PV modules in France.
Fig. 17 Vertical agrivoltaic system in Aasen, © Sun’Agri 28
Donaueschingen. © solverde Bürgerkraftwerke 20 Fig. 27 Weather protection for raspberries provided
Fig. 18 PV module row with bifacial PV modules on by agrivoltaics, 300 kWp test system by
the agrivoltaic system in Heggelbach. BayWa r.e. in the Netherlands. © BayWa r.e. 28
© Fraunhofer ISE 21 Fig. 28 Demo project in berry cultivation shows high
Fig. 19 Pilot PV systems in Curacaví and Lampa where value creation in agriculture. © BayWa r.e. 29
the Fraunhofer Chile Research Institute is Fig. 29 Wheat harvest with combine harvester.
investigating which crops benefit from less © Fraunhofer ISE 29
slightly solar radiation. © Fraunhofer Chile 22 Fig. 30 Graph of The rate of photosynthesis against
Fig. 20 Study with various types of lettuce at the intensity of sunlight for sun-loving and shade
agrivoltaics research site run by the tolerant crops [24]. (Source: © ASPS, modified
University of Montpellier in France. modified by Fraunhofer ISE 30
© INRAE / Christian Dupraz 23 Fig. 31 Vertically deployed, bifacial PV modules used
Fig. 21 Crops from the research site in Heggelbach within the agrivoltaic system in Eppelborn-
(celery, potatoes, wheat, and clover grass). Dirmingen, Saarland, with 2 MWp of capacity,
© University of Hohenheim 24 built by Next2Sun. © Next2Sun GmbH 30
Fig. 22 Field plan for the 2017 research site, showing Fig. 32 Thomas Schmid and Florian Reyer.
monitoring stations. Areas where samples were © AMA Film 31
taken are shown as boxes, and the positions of the Fig. 33 Estimated capital expenditure (CAPEX) for
microclimate stations are shown as circles. ground-mounted PV and agrivoltaic systems.
© BayWa r.e., modified by Axel Weselek/ © Fraunhofer ISE 33
University of Hohenheim 25

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Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

Fig. 34 A comparison of estimated levelized costs of Fig. 47 Illustration of different system types oriented
electricity by capital expenditure (CAPEX) and east-west, south, and south-east.
operating expenses (OPEX) of ground-mounted © Fraunhofer ISE 42
PV systems and agrivoltaic systems. Fig. 48 The shaded strips underneath the PV modules
© Fraunhofer ISE 34 move with the sun’s position.
Fig. 35 Estimated average levelized cost of electricity © University of Hohenheim 43
(LCOE) for ground-mounted PV and agrivoltaic Fig. 49 Concept design for a rainwater harvesting
systems. Data from [4, 5, 26, 27] 35 system with storage tank. © Fraunhofer ISE 44
Fig. 36 Stakeholders and contract model. 37 Fig. 50 Agrivoltaic system in Heggelbach with a
Fig. 37 Overhead system enabling cultivation with a capacity of 194 kWp covering approximately a
potato harvester. © Hofgemeinschaft Heggelbach 38 third of a hectare. © Fraunhofer 44
Fig. 38 PV modules with spatially segmented solar cells Fig. 51 Eppelborn-Dirmingen solar farm with 2 MWp
and protective function in the Netherlands. with vertical solar fences by Next2Sun.
© BayWa r.e. 38 © Next2Sun GmbH 44
Fig. 39 Bifacial, vertically installed PV modules by Fig. 52 Work in an agrivoltaic system under
Next2Sun, Eppelborn-Dirmingen. the PV modules. © Fabian Karthaus 46
© Next2Sun GmbH 39 Fig. 53 Construction roads to avoid soil compaction.
Fig. 40 PV modules above a polytunnel. © BayWa r.e. 39 © BayWa r.e. 47
Fig. 41 Special thin-film tubular PV modules from Fig. 54 Maintenance work on the agrivoltaic system
TubeSolar. © TubeSolar AG 39 in Heggelbach. © Fraunhofer ISE 47
Fig. 42 Semi-shade from tubular PV modules installed Fig. 55 Citizens’ information workshop in the
between tension cables, by TubeSolar. APV-RESOLA project. © ITAS 50
© sbp sonne gmbh 39 Fig. 56 Model of the agrivoltaic system in Heggelbach
Fig. 43 Overhead systems with narrow PV modules for information workshops. © Fraunhofer ISE 50
in Italy. © REM Tec 39 Fig. 57 Multi-stage transdisciplinary agrivoltaic research
Fig. 44 Overhead system with continuous rows of approach. © ITAS 51
PV modules. © Sun’Agri 40 Fig. 58 Where agrivoltaic systems produce strips that
Fig. 45 Single-axis tracker system on a demonstration cannot be farmed, these could be used to
system in France. © Sun’Agri 41 increase biodiversity on the agricultural land.
Fig. 46 Spinnanker anchor with anchor plate and © Fraunhofer ISE 53
threaded rods provides the foundation for the Fig. 59 Example process for a building application. 57
installation system. © Spinnanker GmbH 42

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 Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

9.3 List of tables 9.4 Acronyms

Tab. 01 Overview of categories and forms of Agri-PV Agrivoltaics

land use as set out in DIN SPEC 91434. 12 APV-RESOLA Agrophotovoltaik-Ressourceneffiziente —
Tab. 02 Overview of research sites in Germany to date. 14 Landnutzung, Resource-efficient land use
Tab. 03 Damage to cabbage crops. with agrivoltaics
© 2020 B. Ehrmaier, M. Beck, U. Bodmer 15 BMBF German Federal Ministry of Education
Tab. 04 Overview of some operational systems and Research
in Germany 19 W Watt
Tab. 05 Configurations of different agrivoltaic kW Kilowatt
business models (based on[4]). 37 kWh Kilowatt-hour
Tab. 06 Overview of approval steps for agrivoltaics. 46 Wh Watt-hour
GW Gigawatt
GWh Gigawatt-hour
TWh Terawatt-hour
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt-hour
CAPEX Capital Expenditure
OPEX Operational Expenditure
LCOE Levelized Cost of Electricity
STC Standard Test Conditions
EEG Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz,
Renewable Energy Sources Act
EE Renewable energy resources
REAP Rural Energy Advancement Programs
PV-FFA Ground-mounted photovoltaic systems
PPA Power Purchase Agreements
CIS Copper Indium Selenide
CdTE Cadmium Telluride
a-Si Amorphous Silicon
µ-Si Microcrystalline Silicon
OPV Organic Photovoltaics
CPV Concentrating Photovoltaics

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Agrivoltaics: Opportunities for Agriculture and the Energy Transition

9.5 Links to further information

Agrivoltaics website of Fraunhofer ISE:

https://www.agri-pv.org

Short film about the agrivoltaic research site in Heggelbach:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BlXPf-e1a0U

Guidelines for ground-mounted solar power systems from the

Ministry of the Environment, Climate Protection and the Energy
Sector Baden-Württemberg:
https://um.baden-wuerttemberg.de/de/service/publikation/did/
handlungsleitfaden-freiflaechensolaranlagen/

R&D for agrivoltaics at Fraunhofer ISE:

https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/de/geschaeftsfelder/photovol-
taik/photovoltaische-module-und-kraftwerke/integrierte-pv/
agrar-photovoltaik.html

APV Obstbau project website:

https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/de/forschungsprojekte/apv-obst-
bau.html

Agrivoltaics sector directory of the LandSchafftEnergie

consultancy network:
https://www.landschafftenergie.bayern/beratung/
branchenverzeichnis/

DIN SPEC 91434:2021-05, »Agri-Photovoltaik-Anlagen -

Anforderungen an die landwirtschaftliche Haupnutzung«
[“Agri-photovoltaic systems - Requirements for primary agricul-
tural use”]:
https://www.beuth.de/de/technische-regel/
din-spec-91434/337886742

Status report on agrivoltaics from the Technology and Support

Centre, Straubing:
https://www.tfz.bayern.de/service/presse/268709/index.php

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Precipitation and global radiation

73
Funded by

With support from

by decision of the
German Bundestag

Contact

Max Trommsdorff
Phone +49 761 4588-2456
[email protected]

Dr. Harry Wirth

Director, Division Photovoltaics
Modules and Power Systems

Fraunhofer Institute for

Solar Energy Systems ISE
Heidenhofstrasse 2
79110 Freiburg, Germany

www.ise.fraunhofer.de
www.agri-pv.org

Head of Institute
Prof. Hans-Martin Henning
Prof. Andreas Bett