HUMAN NUTRITION

WATER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Role of water in nutrition and health...........................................................................3

1.1. Role in nutrition and health.....................................................................................3
1.1.1. Nutrition...............................................................................................3
1.1.2. Health...................................................................................................3
1.2. How much water do you need.................................................................................4
1.3. Preventing dehydration...........................................................................................5
1.4. Tips to Drink More Water.......................................................................................6
2. Function, Quantity, and Quality..................................................................................7
2.1. Function...................................................................................................................7
2.2. Quantity...................................................................................................................8
2.2.1. Health implications of dehydration.....................................................9
2.2.2. Water requirements to maintain hydration........................................13
2.2.3. Water requirements for food hygiene................................................13
2.3. Quality...................................................................................................................14
2.3.1. Microbial aspects...............................................................................14
2.3.2. Disinfection.......................................................................................15
2.3.3. Chemical aspects...............................................................................16
2.3.4. Radiological aspects..........................................................................16
2.3.5. Acceptability aspects.........................................................................17
3. Deficiency......................................................................................................................17
4. Metabolism, Digestion and Absorption, Energy, Interaction and More................18
4.1. Metabolism................................................................................................................18
4.2. Digestion...............................................................................................................18
4.3. Absorption.............................................................................................................19
4.4. Energy...................................................................................................................21
4.5 Interaction..............................................................................................................21
4.5.1 Hydrogen bond...................................................................................21
4.5.2 Dipole-induced dipole force...............................................................22
4.5.3 London dispersion force.....................................................................23
 1. Role of water in nutrition and health
1.1. Role in nutrition and health
1.1.1. Nutrition
Water is a vital nutrient whose absence will be deadly within days. Water's
relevance in the prevention of nutrition-related non-communicable illnesses has lately
emerged as a result of the shift towards high amounts of fluids from caloric beverages.
In the aspect of nutrition, water takes a very important role as a solvent for
solutes in cells and an intermediate substance for chemical reactions in the body. Not
only acting as a chemical in metabolic reactions, water is an intermediate substance in
transporting nutrients and all other substances, as well as an important solvent for
dissolving water-soluble vitamins and minerals.
1.1.2. Health
Water is necessary for life. Prevention of dehydration has been an essential
part to survival since the time when primal creatures escaped from the oceans to live on
land. The key adaptations are shared by a variety of species, including humans. Humans
can only survive for a few days without water. Water is essential for cellular homeostasis
and life, making up 75% of baby body weight to 55% in the old people.
Drinking water can help avoid dehydration, a medical problem that can cause
foggy thinking, changes in mood, overheating body, lead to constipation, and kidney
stones. Because water contains no calories, it can aid in weight management and calorie
intake reduction when substituted for calorie-containing beverages , like sweet tea or
common soda. It can aid in the restoration of fluids losting through metabolism,
breathing, sweating, and waste removal, as well as the protection of your spinal cord and
other sensitive tissues. Water helps eliminate wastes through urination, perspiration, and
bowel movements.
Water performs several functions in the human body, including joint
lubrication, temperature regulation, and waste elimination. Water, in addition to its
multifaceted functions, may play an essential part in weight management. A study
conducted with 15 people discovered that drinking water before meals reduced calorie
intake without decreasing satiety.Water plays important functions in human health and
the efficient operation of many body systems, including the eyes, nose, mouth, skin,
lungs, kidneys, liver, joints, and digestive system. The table below shows the roles of
water in the body in detail:

Body’s system/organ Role of water

Lungs moisturizes the air

Kidneys and liver reduces the burden by flushing out

 waste products

Joints Lubricates and cushions

Blood makes up 83% of blood, protects

body’s organ and tissue

Skin hydrates, moisturizes and reduces

the appearance of wrinkles

Mucous membranes moistens mucous membranes

including mouth, noses and eyes

Digestion of food Major roles:

● Dissolves water-soluble vitamins
and minerals
● Aids in converting food to energy
● Aids in the adsorption of nutrients
● Removes waste
● Helps prevent constipation

Body’s temperature Helps regulate body’s temperature

through sweat and respiration

1.2. How much water do you need

Water is a crucial nutrient at any age, thus staying hydrated is key for optimum
health. Water makes up roughly 60% of an adult's body weight. We drink fluids
whenever we are thirsty, which is the primary warning that our body is running low on
water. We also customarily consumed beverages with meals to aid digestion. However,
we sometimes drink depending on how much we believe we should be drinking rather
than on these considerations. One of the most common sayings is to drink "8 glasses of
water a day," yet this may not be suitable for everyone.
When you are in extreme temperatures (very hot or cold) or are physically active,
your body requires more water. When you have a fever, diarrhea, or vomiting, you
should drink more water due to excessive loss of body fluids. Even though no
recommendation is applied for how much plain water everyone should drink on a daily
basis, there are guidelines for how much total water intake should come from a variety of
beverages and foods. The amount of water consumed daily from foods, plain drinking
water, and other beverages is referred to as total fluid intake (fluid). Recommendations
for daily water intake vary by age, gender, pregnancy status, and breastfeeding status.
The National Academy of Medicine, for example, recommends a daily fluid intake of
about 13 cups for healthy men and 9 cups for healthy women, with 1 cup equaling 8
ounces. Smaller amounts may be required for individuals with smaller bodies. It is
important to keep in mind that this quantity is not a daily goal, but rather a general
guideline. Drinking less will not necessarily harm one's health because each person's
exact fluid needs vary, even from day to day.
The majority of your fluid requirements are met by the water and other beverages
you consume. Fluids can be obtained from foods, particularly those with a significant
amount of water, for example many fruits and vegetables. Water is a good source of
fluids because it contains no calories. Keep in mind that about 20% of our total water
intake comes from water-rich foods such as lettuce, leafy greens, cucumbers, bell
peppers, summer squash, celery, berries, and melons, not beverages. Aside from
including water-rich foods, the National Academy of Medicine's chart below is an outline
for daily water intake based on age group:

1.3. Preventing dehydration

A body in good health has been programmed to send thirst signals once fluids are
depleted. Thirst is an urge to drink which is driven by both physiological and behavioral
cues. However, as we age, the body's ability to regulate fluid intake and thirst declines.
According to research, both of these factors are impaired in the elderly. Certain
conditions, for example a stroke or dementia, can impair thirst as well as mental ability
and cognition. People may also limit their drinking voluntarily because of incontinence or
difficulty getting to the toilet. Aside from these situations, research discovered that
athletes, people who are ill, and infants might lack sufficient awareness of thirst to meet
their fluid requirements.
Symptoms of dehydration that may occur with as little as a 2% water deficit
includes fatigue, confusion or short-term memory loss, mood changes like increased
irritability or depression. Moreover, dehydration can increase the risk of certain medical
conditions, such as urinary tract infections, kidney stones, gallstones, constipation
Urine volume and color are able to supply a rough estimate of hydration status. In
general, the darker the color of urine, the more concentrated it is, which means it contains
less water. Although foods, medications, and vitamin supplements can all alter the color
of your urine.

Figure 1.3: The change of Urine color

1.4. Tips to Drink More Water

Even mild dehydration can cause negative symptoms, therefore those who can't
rely on thirst or other traditional methods may want to try a different strategy. Fill a 20-
ounce water bottle four times per day and sip throughout the day, for example, or drink a
large glass of water with each meal and snack.
Here some useful tips to drink more water
● Carry a water bottle with you and refill it throughout the day.
● Freeze some freezer safe water bottles. Take one with you for ice-cold water all
day long.
● Choose water over sugary drinks.
● Opt for water when eating out. You’ll save money and reduce calories.
● Serve water during meals and make it a habit
● Add some fruit slices such as a wedge of lime or lemon to your water. This can
help improve the taste.
● Eat foods with high water content like watermelons, cucumbers, oranges,
tomatoes, yogurt…
● Track the amount of water you drink on the calendar or some apps on the phone
● Brew some herbal tea to warm you up and keep you hydrated on cold days
 2. Function, Quantity, and Quality

2.1. Function

Within the extracellular and intracellular compartments of the body is water,

which is the primary constituent. The major factor controlling the exchange of water
between these compartments is osmotic pressure. For life to exist, the extracellular water
osmolarity must stay within extremely strict bounds. The inability of older persons to
concentrate urine and feel thirsty favors hyperosmotic stress, or elevated extracellular
osmolarity. This finally results in cell destruction as dehydration of the cells follows,
which has serious ramifications for the structure and function of intracellular proteins.
Furthermore, the fact that water controls cell volume might function as a metabolic
signal, with shrinking or swelling of the cell serving as a catabolic signal and swelling as
an anabolic signal. Additionally, as people age, their muscular mass and strength
gradually decline. The primary factor affecting functional capacity is muscular strength,
which in older adults is mostly determined by the quality of the muscles rather than their
amount (or mass). It has been suggested that intracellular water content in lean mass
serves as a measure of the quality of the muscles and the hydration of the cells. It has
been linked to muscular strength, functional ability, and frailty risk. The purpose of this
review is to evaluate how muscular function and frailty are affected by hyperosmotic
stress and cell dehydration.

The following are the primary purposes of water in the human body:

- A metabolic process. Every biological metabolic process takes place in water.

Water mediates the recognition of molecules, serves as a communication channel
between the inside and outside of proteins, and increases the mobility or flexibility
of enzymes, facilitating the enzymatic attack required for reactions to occur. It also
plays the roles of solvent and reactive in various metabolic reactions. For instance,
hydrolytic enzymes may readily target muscle glycogen, releasing glucose—the
energy source for working muscles—because each gram of muscle glycogen is
stored with 2.7 g of water. Water not only helps with enzyme activity but also
permits nerve impulse transmission.
- A conveyance role. The body's circulatory system facilitates the interchange of
substances, such as nutrients, hormones, oxygen, and metabolites, among other
systems and organs, while the kidneys' blood filtering process removes waste
products from metabolism through urine.
- A mechanism for controlling temperature. For a number of reasons, including its
high capacity to store energy in hydrogen bonds that cushion temperature changes,
its high thermal conductivity that ensures quick distribution and transfer of heat to
the skin, and the fact that evaporation of water requires a significant amount of
energy, water maintains a constant body temperature regardless of the outside
 temperature and metabolic activity. Water regulates body temperature within a
relatively small range by absorbing heat, dispersing it across the body's liquid
compartments, and expelling it via the skin through sweat evaporation.
- An element of structure. Cell volume is determined by water attached to
cytoplasmic proteins. Cell volume in turn affects physiological mechanisms like
cellular function and the control of apoptotic or proliferative cell death. Tissue
perfusion and plasma volume are similarly influenced by water.
- A mechanical operation. Water protects and encourages the cleaning of mucous
membranes, lubricates the mouth, eyes, and joints through saliva, tears, and
synovial fluid, and helps to avoid injuries and fractures by giving tissues more
elasticity and flexibility.

2.2. Quantity

Water scarcity is a major threat to human health, happiness, and prosperity.

Drinking enough water each day is necessary to restore bodily fluids and support
physiological functions. Water is also necessary for effective work, some leisure
activities, and maintaining personal and household cleanliness. Families with higher
domestic water usage and easily accessible water sources are much healthier than those
with less water use and more distant water sources. This article examines the data about
the recommended daily intake of water for health and wellbeing. It suggests goals for
home water supply in order to guarantee positive health effects.

The time and distance required to obtain water, as well as accessibility factors like
continuity (constant availability), dependability (availability when needed or anticipated),
and cost, all have a significant impact on the quantity of water utilized. At access
thresholds, as Table S1 illustrates, there are variations in the volume of water collected.
Water quantity-related policies, strategies, and laws may be influenced by these
thresholds. A minimum of 5.3 liters (L) of water per person should be consumed each
day. This is the amount of water that has to be available to make sure that nursing
women, who have the greatest physiological demands, who participate in moderate
exercise in moderately hot weather, stay hydrated. Individuals who lead sedentary lives
in temperate areas could need less, while those who work hard or live in hot climes
would need more. It should be safe to drink this water.

There is not enough empirical data to establish the minimal amount of water
required for food hygiene, personal cleanliness, cooking, and other aspects of household
hygiene. Twenty liters per person per day is usually enough for drinking, cooking, hand
and face washing, and food hygiene, but not for additional hygiene routines, according to
experience and professional opinion. However, 20 L/day is likely to be insufficient in
situations when demands for water are raised, such as when hand hygiene is enhanced in
response to disease outbreaks. In many of these situations, flowing water from a tap will
be required to enable adequate handwashing. Compared to the indication of water supply
"on-premises" used to track Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 6.1, which may
also be met by using non-piped protected sources such a hand pump in a yard, this is a
better quality of service. The usage of more water when there is piped water on the
premises can contribute to better cleanliness. Access to cleaning supplies, education, and
behavior all have an impact on good hygiene. Based on the availability of the water
supply, Table S1 shows the volumes of water that families are expected to use and if they
are sufficient for their needs in terms of health. In areas with inconsistent or non-
continuous water sources, families tend to consume less water. In addition, if prices are
higher than what consumers can pay, less water is consumed.

2.2.1. Health implications of dehydration

Water is lost by perspiration, particularly in greater ambient temperatures and

higher levels of exertion, urine, feces, breathing, and the skin (insensible losses).
Consuming enough water is essential to replenish lost fluids and preserve the body's
natural water balance. The body gets dehydrated when it doesn't get enough water. The
negative health impacts worsen as dehydration increases. The body sends out a thirst
signal when it experiences a 1% decrease in body weight from dehydration. Symptoms of
dry mouth, discomfort, headaches, and job impairment occur when body weight decrease
approaches 5%. Dehydration can result in a 10% decrease in body weight, which can be
deadly. According to the US National Institutes of Health, 3–5% of body weight loss is
considered mild dehydration, 6–10% is considered moderate dehydration, and 9–15% of
body weight loss is considered severe dehydration (a medical emergency). Severe
dehydration can cause sunken eyes, black urine, dry skin, fast breathing or heartbeat,
shock, and coma. Increased fluid intake, which can be improved with salt replacement
products, helps correct mild dehydration. Severe dehydration may take up to 24 hours to
recover from and usually involves more than just replacing lost fluids. Food or other
osmolar intake may also be necessary.

Acute dehydration can occur from severe diarrhea, which can cause fluid loss
from the body and can be deadly. Inadequate fluid replacement after water loss due to
high temperatures, high and severely low relative humidity, physical effort, and high
altitude can also cause acute dehydration. Chronic (often moderate) dehydration can also
arise from insufficient fluid supplementation. There is compelling evidence that being
well hydrated reduces the incidence of urinary stones, according to a comprehensive
study of chronic dehydration and health outcomes. Less than 1 L of pee per day greatly
increases the risk of urinary stone development, and 2-2.5 L of urine per day or more
protects against the recurrence of stones in those who have already had the condition. The
American College of Physicians advises raising fluid intake to guarantee a urine output of
more than 2 L/day, while the European Association of Urology and the American
Urology Association both advise adequate fluid intake to achieve a urine output of more
than 2.5 L/day in the dietary treatment of patients with kidney stones.

It is suggested that 2.6 L of water are lost daily in tropical regions due to
respiration, insensible sweat, urine, and feces; if heavy labor is done and/or the
temperature is greater, more water is lost through sensible perspiration. They did not
distinguish these losses for youngsters or based on gender. The total amount of water lost
by breathing, peeing, feces, and insensible loss ranges from 1.3 to 3.4 L per day for
inactive individuals to 1.9 to 8.6 L per day for physically active adults.
 2.2.2. Water requirements to maintain hydration

Humans must be well hydrated, and this need should be reflected in programs,
policies, and professional conduct. The "absolute minimum" amount of water needed to
maintain hydration is still difficult to define since it varies depending on a person's
physiological makeup, food, activity level, and environment. With this method, 3.2
L/person/day for males and 2.7 L/person/day for women is the recommended daily
consumption of water (from all sources) to maintain hydration in temperate regions.
People in the general public who work modest jobs for five to eight hours a day (with a
median of 6.5 hours) at temperatures between 28 and 32 °C should drink 3.5 to 5.7 liters
of fluid daily, total. When the temperature rises or there is more intense exercise, this will
increase.Therefore, based on the increased requirement for males, individuals in
temperate regions should consume a minimum of 3.2 L of water per day for hydration
(total direct consumption, including food).

2.2.3. Water requirements for food hygiene

Fruits and vegetables, for example, might have diseases and substances like
pesticides contaminating their outside. Therefore, it's critical that such meals be cleaned
in homes before being consumed. Before using, surfaces used for food preparation and
consumption as well as utensils need to be cleaned. Depending on the kind of food,
washing it in a 200 ppm chlorine solution can lower the quantity of surface germs by 1-2
log units. The use of polluted water for producing food, the use of facael sludge as
fertilizer or untreated wastewater for irrigation, and the hygiene habits of workers
preparing the food are risk factors for food contamination. Microbes on food can
proliferate due to a number of factors, including hot temperatures, improper storage
methods, short cooking times, and the interval between meal preparation and
consumption. It's difficult to define how much water is enough for food hygiene.
 2.3. Quality

Life depends on water, and everyone needs access to a sufficient (appropriate,

safe, and accessible) supply. Enhancing the availability of clean drinking water can have
positive effects on health. According to the Guidelines, consuming safe drinking water
does not pose a serious danger to one's health over the course of a lifetime, even for those
who may experience varying levels of sensitivity at different times of life. The elderly,
those with disabilities or living in filthy circumstances, and newborns and small children
are the groups most vulnerable to waterborne illness. Water that is safe to drink may be
used for many common home needs, including personal hygiene. Higher-quality water,
however, could be needed for specific applications, such as cleaning contact lenses and
doing renal dialysis, as well as for particular processes in the manufacturing of food and
medicine. Due to their vulnerability to pathogens that would not typically be of concern
by drinking water, those who are severely immunocompromised may need to take extra
precautions, such as boiling drinking water.

2.3.1. Microbial aspects

The foundation for ensuring the microbiological safety of drinking water supplies
is the implementation of several barriers, ranging from catchment to consumer, to either
stop drinking water contamination or lower it to levels that are not harmful to human
health. Multiple hurdles, such as safeguarding water resources, choosing and executing a
sequence of treatment procedures correctly, and managing distribution networks (piped
or not) to preserve and safeguard treated water quality, all contribute to greater safety.
The recommended course of action is a management plan that prioritizes limiting or
eliminating pathogen entrance into water sources and lowering dependency on treatment
procedures to eradicate pathogens. The worst microbiological hazards are often linked to
drinking water tainted by animal or human excrement, especially bird droppings.
Pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths can all be found in feces. The main
factors to consider when establishing health-based objectives for microbiological safety
include pathogens originating from feces. The quality of microbiological water frequently
fluctuates quickly and widely. Temporary peaks in pathogen concentration have the
potential to significantly raise disease risks and start waterborne disease outbreaks.
Furthermore, a large number of people could have been exposed by the time microbial
contamination is discovered. For these reasons, even with frequent testing, end-product
testing cannot be the only means of ensuring the microbiological safety of drinking
water. To constantly assure drinking water safety and consequently protect public health,
special emphasis should be paid to a water safety framework and the implementation of
comprehensive water safety plans (WSPs). Intestinal and other infectious disease
epidemics might put the population at risk if drinking water safety is not maintained.
Because drinking water-borne epidemics have the potential to simultaneously infect a
large number of people and possibly a significant segment of the community, they should
be avoided in particular.

Other microbiological risks, such as toxic cyanobacteria, Legionella, and guinea

worms (Dracunculus medinensis), may be more significant for public health in certain
situations than faecal transmitted diseases.Humans can become infected with several
helminths from drinking water, including parasitic roundworms and flatworms. These
should not be present in drinking water as even one developed larva or fertilized egg has
the potential to spread illness. Except in the instance of guinea worm infection, the water
route is, however, quite insignificant for helminth infection.

2.3.2. Disinfection

Without a doubt, disinfection is crucial to the provision of clean drinking water. It

is crucial to destroy microbiological infections, and using reactive chemical agents like
chlorine to do so is a frequent practice. When treating drinking water, disinfection is an
effective barrier to many pathogens, particularly bacteria, and it should be applied to
surface waters as well as groundwater that has been contaminated by feces. A partial
defense against low-level pollution and growth within the distribution system is offered
by residual disinfection.

While chemical disinfection can lower the overall risk of disease, it may not
always make a faecal contamination-contaminated drinking water source safe. For
instance, chlorine disinfection of drinking water has limits when it comes to some viruses
and protozoan infections, like Cryptosporidium. Additionally, microorganisms within
flocs or particles that shield them from disinfectant action may not be sufficiently
affected by the efficiency of disinfection. Elevated turbidity can shield microorganisms
from the effects of disinfection, promote bacterial development, and increase the need for
chlorine. A successful overall management plan includes several barriers, such as suitable
treatment procedures and source water protection, as well as protection during
distribution and storage along with disinfection to eliminate or prevent microbiological
contamination.Chemical byproducts are typically produced during the water treatment
process when chemical disinfectants are used. But the dangers to health from these
byproducts pale in contrast to the hazards from insufficient disinfection, therefore it's
critical that disinfection not be sacrificed in the name of trying to regulate these
byproducts. Everywhere chlorination is used, regular monitoring is advised because some
disinfectants, like chlorine, are simple to monitor and regulate as drinking-water
disinfectants.
 2.3.3. Chemical aspects

The capacity of chemical elements to have negative health consequences over

extended periods of exposure is the main reason of the health problems related to
drinking water composition, as opposed to those related to microbiological
contamination. Water's chemical composition seldom causes health issues from a single
exposure, unless a large-scale, unintentional pollution of a drinking water source occurs.
Furthermore, empirical evidence indicates that in a majority of these cases—though not
all—the water loses its drinkability due to unsatisfactory flavor, odor, and look.

When there is little chance of a short-term exposure causing health problems, it is usually
more efficient to focus remedial action resources on locating and removing the source of
contamination rather than installing costly drinking-water treatment to remove the
chemical constituent. While drinking water may include a wide range of chemicals, only
a small number of them are always immediately harmful to human health. In order to
prevent limited resources from being needlessly allocated to pollutants that provide little
or no health risk, the priority assigned to both monitoring and corrective action for
chemical contaminants in drinking water should be carefully considered. Natural
exposure to high fluoride concentrations can cause teeth to mottle and, in extreme
situations, debilitating skeletal fluorosis. In a similar vein, excessive exposure to arsenic
in drinking water can raise the risk of cancer and skin problems. Arsenic can also exist
naturally. When present in excess, other naturally occurring compounds like selenium
and uranium may potentially raise health concerns. Methemoglobinemia has been linked
to nitrate and nitrite in water, particularly in newborns who are bottle-fed. Excessive
fertilizer application or the seepage of wastewater or other organic wastes into surface
and groundwater can result in nitrate buildup. The use of lead pipes, fittings, or solder
can raise the amounts of lead in drinking water, which can have detrimental effects on the
nervous system, especially in locations with hostile or acidic waters. There aren't many
substances for which a drinking water's portion of total consumption has a significant
role in illness prevention. The influence of fluoride in drinking water in boosting tooth
caries prevention is one example.

2.3.4. Radiological aspects

Even though drinking water contributes relatively little to overall radionuclide

exposure under typical conditions, the health risk linked to naturally occurring
radionuclides in drinking water should be taken into account. Individual radionuclides in
drinking water do not have any guideline levels established for them. Instead, a screening
method for gross alpha and gross beta radiation activity is employed in drinking water.
While the presence of activity levels above screening limits does not always mean that
there is an immediate health concern, it should prompt more research to identify the
radionuclides in question and assess any potential dangers, taking local conditions into
consideration. When radioactive materials are accidentally released into the environment
during an emergency, drinking water sources that have been polluted do not fall within
the guiding values established in this book.

2.3.5. Acceptability aspects

Water shouldn't have flavors or aromas that most consumers would find offensive.
Consumers mostly rely on their senses to determine the quality of drinking water. The
look, taste, and smell of water can be influenced by microbiological, chemical, and
physical components; the consumer will assess the water's acceptability and quality based
on these factors. Water that is extremely turbid, brightly colored, or has an unpleasant
taste or odor may be rejected by customers even if these substances may not directly
harm them.In severe circumstances, people can choose to forgo safe but visually
unappealing sources of drinking water in favor of more enjoyable but perhaps dangerous
ones. When evaluating drinking-water supplies and creating laws and standards, it is
prudent to include consumer perceptions as well as aesthetic standards and health-related
recommendations. Any deviations from a drinking water supply's typical look, flavor, or
odor might indicate problems with the treatment process or a shift in the raw water
source's quality, which calls for further investigation.

3. Deficiency

Water is the body's most abundant ingredient, accounting for more than half of its
weight. A regular adult has to ingest 2 - 4 liters of fluid per day in temperate
temperatures, depending on the degree and kind of exercise, and 8 - 16 liters per day in
highly hot conditions to replenish fluid losses. Dehydration can occur if water
consumption does not satisfy thirst; if there is excessive fluid loss, such as with vomiting
or diarrhea; or if the thirst mechanism is not operating effectively, such as during
intensive physical exercise. By the time thirst becomes noticeable, there is some degree
of dehydration, which is defined as fluid loss of no less than 1 to 2% of body weight. If
symptoms are not treated, they might worsen quickly.Sunken eyes, poor skin turgor, dry
lips, chilly hands and feet, quick and shallow breathing, disorientation, weariness, weak
and rapid pulse, and coma are all indications of water shortage. More than 10% of body
weight in fluid loss can be deadly. Dehydration is especially common among the elderly
(whose thirst feeling may be muted), the sick, and passengers flying in airplanes. Infants
and toddlers suffering from chronic malnutrition who acquire gastroenteritis might
become severely dehydrated as a result of vomiting or diarrhea. An oral or intravenous
solution of salts and glucose is used to treat the condition.
4. Metabolism, Digestion and Absorption, Energy, Interaction and More
Water is an essential nutrient considered primarily from the perspective of
physiological needs. But access to reliable water in sufficient quantity and quality is also
important for many nutrition-related behaviors and activities, including growing and
cooking diverse foods.
4.1. Metabolism
With a few exceptions (eg, the ascending limb of Henle [LOH] and the distal
nephron), water moves freely across the cell membrane, depending on tone. Because
tonicity depends on water-impermeable solutes, such as sodium (Na), water metabolism
disorders are reflected by changes in solute concentration. In addition to changes in water
distribution, changes in TBW, blood volume and ECV also affect overall water balance.
Understanding disorders of water metabolism requires a clear understanding of changes
in plasma Na concentration (PNa), plasma osmolality (Posm), and ECV.
Rapid changes in water content or distribution in the body can cause severe
neurological dysfunction and is reflected clinically by hyponatremia or hypernatremia.
Treatment requires a clear understanding of changes in plasma sodium, plasma
osmolality, and effective circulating volume. Water always moves across cell membranes
from low to high osmolality. This movement is determined by the effective osmotic
solute concentration in the intracellular or extracellular fluid and is responsible for
neurological symptoms and signs. Water content in the body is a balance between input
and output. The balance is controlled by thirst, water access, solute intake, antidiuretic
hormones, cortisol, aldosterone, natriuretic peptides, renal receptors for hormone activity,
renal water channels called aquaporins, and levels of kidney function and medications.
4.2. Digestion
Functional organization of water-transporting epithelia in the digestive tract:
Sheets of epithelial cells line all cavities in the digestive organs, both preventing and
promoting the movement of substances across the epithelium, including water. Water
transport by the epithelia of the digestive organs: There is general agreement that water
flow in the digestive organs occurs secondary to osmotic gradients generated by the
active transport of ions and solutes and to passive hydrostatic or oncotic forces.
Pathophysiological significance of AQP-mediated water transport in the digestive
organs: Understanding the mechanism of water transport in the digestive tract under
normal physiological conditions is the first and necessary step in understanding how
pathological conditions lead to changes in water excretion and absorption. As mentioned
previously, most digestive organ epithelia typically transport water in one direction: from
the blood to the lumen (i.e. excretion) or from the lumen to the blood (i.e. absorption).
Drink plenty of water to keep your digestive system healthy and happy because
every step of the digestive process involves water. Digestion begins when food is in the
mouth, because water helps saliva chew the food and move it to the stomach. The food
then passes through your intestines and is followed by watery gastric secretions. The
fluid's enzymes also begin breaking down the proteins and carbs in your food, preparing
them for transport to the small intestine, where most digestion takes place. Water aids in
food digestion and reduces constipation. Water has the effect of increasing appetite or the
ability to absorb calories, not just for individual subjects. Water has been researched to be
calorie-free but creates a feeling of fullness when you drink a glass before a meal.
Therefore, maintaining the habit of drinking water before eating will make you full and
eat less.
Impacts the digestive system but to different degrees for each person. Drinking
water before, during or after eating is not a common habit for everyone. However, young
children tend to like to drink water while eating, while adults prefer to drink water before
or after meals. The effects of drinking water on the digestive system are also not too
clear. Sometimes it happens depending on each person's body.
Some people report feeling bloated and gassy when they drink water with each
meal. However, this has not been proven true or has convincing evidence. Experts
believe that this symptom may appear due to the psychological impact of drinking water
causing digestive disorders.
4.3. Absorption
The movement of water through the digestive wall is of great significance, not
only in providing fluids to the body but also for the digestion of other nutrients and
protection from pathogens. In fact, there is a balance between intestinal water secretion
(through pancreatic juice, bile, gastric juice and saliva) and water absorption that must be
maintained within narrow limits, because of disturbances in the equilibrium. This leads to
diarrhea or constipation. Movement of water across the intestinal epithelium can occur
paracellularly through tight junctions and transcellular through cell membranes.
Experiments on dog intestinal segments have shown that the ability to absorb water
varies between different parts of the intestine. Specifically, the large intestine has a
higher capacity to absorb hypotonic solutions than the jejunum or ileum, while net water
flow is observed in the duodenum in the presence of hypotonic solutions. However, most
of the water entering the intestine is absorbed in the small intestine. Of the total of about
8 L, about 6.5 L is absorbed through the small intestine, while the absorptive function of
the large intestine is limited to about 1.3 L. Although water can diffuse to some extent
Through cell membranes, the hydrophobic nature of their lipid bilayer does not allow the
necessary degree of absorption. Instead, the majority of absorbed water is transferred
through channel systems, such as aquaporins. Water movement in the digestive tract is
regulated by the osmotic gradient and is related to ion movement. Specifically, water
absorption is primarily associated with the movement of sodium ions, whereas excretion
is associated with the movement of chloride ions. This association with ion movements is
less essential than for the large intestine, where absorption of even distilled water can
occur.

Figure 4.3: Water's Journey Through The Body

 4.4. Energy
The body needs water to function normally, and even slight dehydration can
contribute to the development of a number of disorders. Water is therefore essential. As a
result, it is crucial to consume the appropriate amounts of water each day. Water has
many functions in metabolism, but its impact on energy metabolism should also not be
disregarded. Water drinking can contribute to energy expenditure and serve as an extra
weight-management technique. Consequently, it is crucial to stress the value of water
consumption, which is similar to a secret ingredient in the treatment of obesity.
The increase in sympathetic activity brought on by water consumption is a
significant and little-known aspect of daily energy expenditure since it is linked to
sympathetic activity, which raises metabolic rate (thermogenesis) and energy
expenditure. Apart from the notion of water-based thermogenesis, water, a factor that
may enhance body composition, also contributes to weight loss by decreasing energy
intake and increasing fat burning. According to this viewpoint, drinking water could be
extremely important in the global effort to combat rising rates of obesity. Water's
multifaceted impact on energy metabolism makes it imperative to pay greater attention to
the role it plays in maintaining human health. There is no specific evidence that water
will provide a lot of energy, however, providing adequate water will help the body limit
the loss of energy and health.
4.5 Interaction
4.5.1 Hydrogen bond
An electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom bound to another electronegative
atom form an attractive (dipole-dipole) contact known as a hydrogen bond. There is
always a hydrogen atom in this connection. Parts of a single molecule or molecules can
form hydrogen bonds with one another.
Compared to covalent or ionic connections, hydrogen bonds are typically weaker
than van der Waals forces. It is roughly 1/20,000th (5%) of the covalent bond's strength
that forms between O and H. Even so, this weak link has enough strength to endure a
small change in temperature.
Of the numerous reversible, weak, mostly non-covalent interactions, hydrogen
bonding (HB) interactions are among the strongest, most directed, and most dynamic.
Since terrestrial life would not survive without HB, these interactions are very
significant. For instance, HB causes the folding of proteins, the increased density of
frozen water, and the self-complementarity of nucleic acids. An HB must have an
attractive contact and evidence of bond formation between an HB acceptor (A) with a
single pair of electrons and a hydrogen atom connected to a donor (D), which is more
electronegative than the hydrogen atom. Parameters that are often measured in HB
systems include the H…A (L1) and D…A (L2) distances, and the D–H…A (A1) and R–
A…H (A2) bond angles. Stronger HB interactions are generally associated with shorter
L1 lengths and A2 angles that are close to 180° (Fig. 4.5.1).
 Figure 1: Bond lengths and bond angles often measured in HB systems and will be
described throughout the text
Electrostatics, polarization, charge transfer, dispersion, and exchange repulsion are
some of the attracting and repulsive forces that contribute to hydrogen bonding
interactions. The main contributing force in an HB is usually electrostatic forces, which
are directional and determined by the electrostatic potential of the D–H and A atoms.
Functionalization is an easy way to modify electrostatic interactions, which are improved
by raising partial charges on the donor and acceptor atoms. The strength of electrostatic
interactions decreases the least with increasing H–A distances of all the attractive forces
because they are the least dependent on interatomic distances. The capacity of the HB
acceptor to rearrange electron density in order to enhance its participation in hydrogen
bonding is related to polarization. The overlap of the vacant D-H antibonding orbital and
a filled lone pair orbital on the HB Acceptor results in charge transfer forces. These
forces have a high linearity requirement and decrease significantly with increasing
distance and with deviating from the ideal HB geometry. Lastly, the Lennard-Jones
potential can be used to approximate the van der Waals forces, which are dispersion and
exchange repulsion forces combined.9. Because of their isotropic nature and general
weakness, these forces are frequently the main causes of non-linear hydrogen bonding.
4.5.2 Dipole-induced dipole force
When a polar molecule upsets the electron configuration of a nonpolar species, a
dipole-induced dipole attraction, a weak attraction, forms in the atom or nonpolar
molecule.
 Figure 4.5.2: Dipole-induced dipole force
Polar molecules: A molecule that has a charge on one side that is not canceled out
is said to be polar. On it, there is a zone of partial charge. There is a slight positive trend
and a slight negative trend on both sides of the spectrum. They usually have an uneven
electron distribution and are unbalanced.
Permanent dipole: Permanent dipoles arise when two atoms bonded together in a
covalent connection have a significant variation in electronegativity. The shared pair's
electron distribution becomes uneven as a result. The atom with greater electronegative
energy attracts them.
Polarisability: Matter tends to acquire an electric dipole moment proportional to
the applied field when it is exposed to an electric field. It is a characteristic of all matter
since it is composed of constituent particles, such protons and electrons, that have an
electric charge. Positively charged atomic nuclei and negatively charged electrons
experience opposing forces and charge separation when exposed to an electric field.
4.5.3 London dispersion force
A weak intermolecular force between two atoms or molecules that are near to one
another is known as the London dispersion force. The force is a quantum force produced
when two atoms or molecules approach one another and experience electron repulsion
between their electron clouds.
As the temperature drops, nonpolar atoms and molecules condense into liquids or
solids due to the London dispersion force, the weakest of the van der Waals forces. Of
the three van der Waals forces (orientation, induction, and dispersion), the dispersion
force is typically dominant despite being weak. Water molecules and other tiny, easily
polarized molecules are the exception.

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