UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

Tagum College

Department of Teacher Education

BSED Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

(SDL)

Course/Subject: MTH 212 – Logic & Set Theory

Name of Teacher: DANILO P. SALOMON

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY;

NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION
OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED
ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE
OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

Course Outline: MTH 212 – Logic and Set Theory

Course Coordinator: Prof. DANILO P. SALOMON

Email: dan_salmn@[Link]
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile:
Phone: (084) 6557140
Effectivity Date: August 2020
Mode of Delivery: Online Blended Delivery
Time Frame: 54 Hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 3
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at

Course Outline Policies

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The
expected number of hours will be 54, including the face
to face or virtual meetings. A Learning Management
System (LMS), Quipper, will be used to facilitate your
learning. Other sessions may also be conducted
through online communication channels such as
Facebook, Messenger, WhatsApp, Viber, E-mail, Line,
Zoom, Skype, or any other similar applications. You
may also contact the course coordinator through a
mobile number or telephone.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on the 3rd, 5th,
7th, and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper
shall be attached with a cover page indicating the title
of the assessment task (if the task is a performance),
the name of the course coordinator, date of submission,
and the name of the student. The document should be
e-mailed to the course coordinator. It is also expected
that you already paid your tuition and other fees before
the submission of the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real-time through the

features in the Learning Management System, the

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by the course

coordinator.
Turnitin submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain
in writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity. Also, if the document has
reached a more than 30% similarity index, the student
may be called for disciplinary action following the
University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late Assignments / The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day
that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of the assessment

paper has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should
be submitted and approved by the course coordinator.
If necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
pieces of evidence.
Return of Assignments / Assessment tasks will be returned to you within two (2)
Assessments weeks after the submission. This will be returned
through e-mail or via the Quipper.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate
the originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator your intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy three (3)
standards or other reasonable circumstances, e.g.,
illness, accident financial constraints.

2
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the course

Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The
course coordinator shall communicate with you on the
approval and disapproval of the request.

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will come
from the dean of the college.
Grading System Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual
University system and procedures.
Assignment 5%
Oral Recitation 10%
Quiz 10%
Research 15%
Prelim Assessment 15%
Midterm Assessment 15%
Final Assessment 30%
Preferred Referencing Style Use the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to have an e-mail account, which is a
requirement to access the LMS portal. Then, the course
coordinator shall enroll the students to have access to
the materials and resources of the course.

You may call or send SMS to your course coordinator

through his/her phone number. Online communication
channels, such as those stated above, may be used.

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
Contact Details of the Dean Gina Fe G. Israel, Ed.D
E-mail: deansofficetagum@[Link]
Phone: 0915 832 5092 / 0909 994 2314
Marck Lester L. Navales, CPA, MBA
Assistant Dean
E-mail: navalesmarck@[Link]
Phone: 0975 0517 851
Contact Details of the Russel J. Aporbo, MEAL
Program Head Email: russelaporbo@[Link]

Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course

3
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

coordinator with the approval of the program

coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks
or extension of the deadline of submission of
assessment tasks. However, the alternative
assessment tasks should still be in the service of
achieving the desired course learning outcomes.
Online Tutorial Registration You are required to enroll in a specific tutorial time for
this course via the [Link] portal. Please note
that there is a deadline for enrollment to the tutorial.
Help Desk Contact Dean’s Office
Globe:09158325092
Smart: deansofficetagum@[Link]

Cashiering Office
Globe:09458941623
Smart:09494254457
Sun: 09336032028

Records and Admission Center

Globe: 09752634831 / 09151825490
[Link]@[Link]

Student Accounts Office

Smart: 09075135112 / 09755119982
saotagum@[Link]
Library Contact Clarissa R. Donayre, MSLS
Email: lictagum@[Link]
Phone: 0927-395-1639
Well-being Welfare Support Rochen D. Yntig, RGC
Help Desk Contact Details GSTC Head
E-mail: [Link]@[Link]
Phone: 0932 771 7219

Mersun Faith A. Delco, RPm

Psychometrician
E-mail: mersunfaithdelco@[Link]
Phone: 0927 608 6037

Alfred Joshua M. Navarro

Facilitator
E-mail: is40fotb@[Link]
Phone: 0977 341 6064

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Quipper LMS

CF’s Voice: Hello, prospective teacher! Welcome to this course, MTH 212: Logic
and Set Theory. I am optimistic that you are excited to learn logical
operations and set theory as much as you are eager to teach these
mathematical concepts to your future students.

CO Upon completion of this course, you are expected to develop

competence in both content and methodology of teaching
mathematics through conducting research-based activities utilizing
theories and concepts of Number Theory. Likewise, this course will
enable you to appreciate the contributions of mathematicians and
their significance in the development of number theory. Such
outcomes will eventually lead you to strengthen your skill in
formulating and solving problem as well as analytical reasoning
which are crucial to survive in our mathematically-inclined
environment.

Let us begin!

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

Big Picture A

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to
a. Construct truth tables from the given propositions; and
b. Justify the validity of an argument.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Construct truth tables from the given
propositions.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of

Propositions and Logical Operations and to demonstrate ULOa will be
operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the
texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we
go through the study of these topics. Please refer to these definitions in case you
will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.

• Proposition. This is a declarative sentence that is either true or false,

but not both. It is usually denoted as P or in some cases, if there is
more than one, other propositions are denoted as Q and R.

• Truth Value. The truth value of a proposition is denoted as T if it is true

or correct; otherwise it is denoted as F.

• Conjunction. A logical conjunction is an operation on two logical

propositions that produces a value of true if both statements are true,
and is false otherwise. This is also known as the logical “and” denoted
by the symbol ∧.

• Disjunction. A logical disjunction is an operator on two logical

propositions that is either true or false. It uses the conjunction “or” and
uses the symbol ∨.

• Negation. This is an operator on the logical value of a proposition that

sends true to false and false to true. This is also known as the logical
“not” and is denoted by the symbol ~.

• Implication. This is a method of combining propositions by using the

symbol → as in the statement P → Q which is read as “if P then Q”. In
other references this is called conditional connective.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

• Biconditional or double implication. The logical biconditional or double

implication is an operator connecting two logical propositions that is
true if the statements are both true or both false, and it is false
otherwise. The biconditional form of P and Q is denoted as P ↔ Q, and
read as “P if and only if Q”.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first
three (3) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you
are not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to
utilize other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, [Link] etc.

A proof in mathematics demonstrates the truth of certain statement or

proposition. A proposition is the building block of the study of logic. It is a declarative
sentence which if true or false, but not both. Here are the examples of proposition:

1. The University holds its founding anniversary today.

2. 2 + 4 = 6.
3. The sun rises in the West.
4. I love mathematics.
5. Right angles measure 90˚.

The given statements are propositions with varying truth values. The third
statement is a false one. The fourth statement, on the other hand, has a subjective
truth value. The rest are true declarative statements. Sentences which are not
declarative or that do not have a truth value or may have more than one truth vale
are not propositions. These are not propositions:

1. x – 3 = 5.
2. Who do you think you are?
3. Eat this!

Since one of our objectives is to make the truth tables of propositions in all
possible circumstances, we consider all the possible combinations of the
propositions connected by the logical operators and, or, not, then, and if and only if.

Conjunction
A logical conjunction, also known as logical “and”, of P and Q, denoted by 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄,
is defined by the following truth table.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∧𝑸

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

For 𝑷 ∧ 𝑸 to be true, both P and Q must be true, otherwise it becomes false.

Given the following propositions:

P : Manila is the capital of the Philippines. (T)
Q : Rodrigo Duterte is the Philippine President. (T)
Both propositions are true. Therefore, if we fasten together the statements by
conjunction: “Manila is the capital of the Philippines and Rodrigo Duterte is the
Philippine President”, the joined proposition remains true. However, changing one
proposition, either P or Q, even both of them into false propositions, the joined
proposition becomes false. As such the following propositions are false:
“Cebu is the capital of our country and Rodrigo Duterte is our President.”
F ∧ T =F

“Manila is the capital of our country and Bong Go is our President.”

T ∧ F =F

“Cebu is the capital of our country and Bong Go is our President.”

F ∧ F =F

Disjunction
Similarly, a logical disjunction is an operation on two propositions that is true if
either proposition is true or both are true, and is false otherwise. The logical “or” of P
and Q, denoted by 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄, is defined by this truth table.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∨𝑸
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Apparently, 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸 is false only if both P and Q are false.

Negation
A negation is an operation on the logical value of a proposition that drives true
to false and false to true. It is also called the logical “not”. The negation of P, denoted
by ~𝑃, is given by

𝑷 ~𝑷

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

T F
F T

The truth value of ~𝑷 is the opposite of the truth value of P.

Implication
For any two propositions P and Q, the statement “if P then Q” is called an
implication and is denoted by 𝑃 → 𝑄. In this implication, P is the hypothesis, premise
or antecedent and Q is the consequence. The truth table of 𝑃 → 𝑄 is defined by

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷→𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

The implication only turns out false if P (antecedent) is true and Q (consequence) is
false.

Biconditional or Double Implication

The logical biconditional is an operation joining two logical propositions that is

true only if these propositions are both true or both false, and it is false otherwise. The
statement 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 read as “P if and only if Q” has the same truth value as (𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧
(𝑄 → 𝑃). It is given by the following truth table.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷↔𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Using these basic operations defined earlier, it is viable to form compound

and more complex statements. We need parentheses to avoid ambiguity in writing
complex statements. For example, P, Q and R are our propositions. We wish to make
a truth table for the following statement
(𝑷 → 𝑹) ∧ (𝑸 ∨∼ 𝑹)

The truth table for this complex statement can be obtained by performing the
logical operations in a step-by-step fashion starting with the inner expressions or the
propositions inside the parentheses before getting the overall truth value of the given
statement. As such, we can come up with this table:

𝑃 𝑄 𝑅 ∼𝑅 𝑃→𝑅 𝑄 ∨∼𝑅 (𝑷 → 𝑹) ∧ (𝑸 ∨ ∼ 𝑹)

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T T T F T T T
T T F T F T F
T F T F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F T F F
F F F T T T T

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand
the lesson:

Mendelson E. (1997)Introduction to Mathematical [Link] Edition.

International Thomson Publishing, 1997, 440 pp.

Feldman, DV (2004). Lecture on logic and set theory:v.1 Mathematical logic.

American Library Association.

Let’s Check

Activity 1. Identify if each of the following expressions is a proposition or not. Tick the
item if it is a proposition; otherwise, write X.
___1. What is your name?
___2. x + y = 1
___3. Run!
___4. Russia is the only nation not affected by COVID-19.
___5. Our school director is female.
___6. Are you enrolling to an online class?
___7. My God is an awesome and mighty King.
___8. Today is Tuesday.
___9. Please answer my call.
___10. She is excited to see her classmates.

Activity 2. Make a truth table for the following statements.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

1. (𝑷 ∧ 𝑸) ∨ 𝑷
2. (𝑷 ∧ 𝑸) ∨∼ 𝑷
3. 𝑷 → (𝑸 ∧ 𝑷)
4. [(𝑷 ∧ 𝑸) ∨ 𝑷) ↔ 𝑷
5. ∼ 𝑷 → ∼ (𝑸 ∨ 𝑹)

Let’s Analyze

1. Based on your responses to Activity 1, make your own definition of a proposition.

_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________.
2. Write your observations from the truth tables you generated in Activity 2.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________.

3. Is there a table that consistently produced True values? _____________.

4. Is there a table that consistently produced False values? ____________.
5. Is there a table that produced a combination of True and False values?
___________.
6. What relationship can you draw from the results of your truth tables?
_________________________________________________________________
____

In a Nutshell

Logic has just been introduced in this section of the module. You might have a
different perspective about logic after going through this lesson. List at least 3 things
that you have learned about logical propositions and their truth values, which
changed the way you view logic as a whole, below.

1. _________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

3. _________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index

• Biconditional • Double implication • Proposition

• Conjunction • Implication • Statement
• Disjunction • Negation • Truth Value

Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Justify the validity of an argument.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of

Propositions and Logical Operations and to demonstrate ULOb will be
operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the
texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we
go through the study of these topics. Please refer to these definitions in case you
will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.

• Tautology. A tautology is a logical expression that is true. It is

determined easily by the use of the truth table since it only produces
true propositions in the last column of the truth table.
• Contradiction. A contradiction is a statement that is necessarily false
regardless of the truth values of its propositional variables. It produces

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

purely false propositions in the last column of the truth table.

• Contingency. A statement that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction
is a contingency.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first
three (3) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you
are not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to
utilize other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, [Link] etc.

The truth tables presented in the previous section do not produce pure true
values in the last column. By definition, these are not tautology. A tautology is a
statement that is true in each value of its propositional variables, independent of the
truth values assigned to these variables. Let’s take the statement
𝑷 ∨∼𝑷

𝑷 ∼𝑷 𝑷 ∨∼𝑷
T F T
F T T

Since the last column generated true values, 𝑷 ∨ ∼ 𝑷 is a tautology. For

instance, the proposition is “Mega world renewed its franchise”, the statement “Mega
world renewed its franchise or Mega world did not renew its franchise” is true
regardless of whether the Mega world got its franchise.

Tautology, furthermore, is the basis of a valid argument. But not all compound
statements form a tautology, thus some arguments are invalid. The complete
opposite of tautology is a contradiction. Take the statement
𝑷 ∧∼𝑷

𝑷 ∼𝑷 𝑷 ∧∼𝑷
T F F
F T F
As seen on the final column of the truth table, the statement 𝑷 ∧ ∼ 𝑷
consistently produces false propositions, making it an invalid argument.

Most of the statements that we have discussed are neither tautologies nor
contradictions. These statements which produce a combination of true and false
propositions are called contingencies. These statements also make up an invalid
argument.

The validity of an argument can be analyzed using the truth table. The form of

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

an argument is usually:
Premise 1
Premise 2
Conclusion

It can be turned into one single statement with the general for given below:
[(Premise 1) ∧ (Premise 2)] → Conclusion

Again, only tautologies are considered valid arguments. Let us take the
following examples.

1. Is this argument valid? Justify.

If you attend the online class, then you will pass the subject.
You passed the subject.
Therefore, you attended the online class.

The first two lines are the premises and the last one is the conclusion.
Symbolically, we can assign them as:
P: You attend the online class
Q: You pass the subject

Thus, we can rewrite the argument into:

𝑃→𝑄
𝑄
𝑃 or [(𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ 𝑸] → 𝑷

Generating a truth table, we obtain

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷→𝑸 (𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ 𝑸 [(𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ 𝑸] → 𝑷
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T

Since the last column yields a combination of true and false statements, it is a
contingency, not a tautology, and therefore, the argument is invalid.

2. Is this argument valid? Justify.

If you wear the cloak of invisibility, then you can defeat the enemies.
You wore the cloak of invisibility.
Therefore, you defeated the enemies.

The statement is of this form

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

𝑃→𝑄
𝑃
𝑄 or [(𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ 𝑷] → 𝑸

This is the truth table of the statement

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷→𝑸 (𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ 𝑷 [(𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ 𝑷] → 𝑸
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Logically, the structure of the argument is valid.

Facts
Generally here are the four (4) important valid forms of argument:

I. [(𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ 𝑃] → 𝑄Direct Reasoning or modus ponens

(This is reflective of example 2.)

II. [(𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ ∼ 𝑄] → ∼ 𝑃Contrapositive Reasoning or modus tollens

III. [(𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ (𝑄 → 𝑅)] → (𝑃 → 𝑅) Transitive Reasoning

IV. [(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∧ ∼ 𝑃] → 𝑄Valid Disjunctive Reasoning

On the other hand, the following forms of argument are invalid:

I. [(𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ ∼ 𝑃] → ∼ 𝑄 Fallacy of Inverse

II. [(𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ 𝑄] → 𝑃 Fallacy of Converse

(This is reflective of example 1.)

III. [(𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ (𝑄 → 𝑅)] → (𝑅 → 𝑃) Invalid Transitive Reasoning

IV. [(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∧ 𝑃] → ~𝑄 Invalid Disjunctive Reasoning

3. Is this argument valid? Justify.

If you attend the online class, then you will pass the subject.
You did not attend the online class.
Therefore, you will not pass the subject.

The statement is of this form: [(𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧∼ 𝑷] →∼ 𝑸

We may choose to create another truth table to justify the form of argument

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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but since it has already been established in the Facts section that the given
statement is of the form Fallacy of Inverse, then we can conclude that the
argument is invalid.

4. Is this argument valid? Justify.

On Sunday, I will wake up late or go to church.

I woke up late.
Therefore, I did not go to church.

The statement is of this form: [(𝑷 ∨ 𝑸) ∧ 𝑷] →∼ 𝑸

We may decide to make a truth table for this statement to justify the form of
argument but since it has already been established in the Facts section that
the given statement is of the form Invalid Disjunctive Reasoning, then we can
say that the argument is invalid.

5. Is this argument valid? Justify.

If a vaccine is successfully made, then the battle is won.

If the battle is won, then the whole world wins.
Therefore, if a vaccine is successfully made, then the whole world
wins.

The statement is of this form: [(𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ (𝑸 → 𝑹)] → (𝑷 → 𝑹)

This argument has 3 propositions which means the number of variables
increases and will result to more rows if we plot the truth table. Hence, we can
come up with

𝑷 𝑸 𝑹 𝑷→𝑸 𝑸→𝑹 𝑷→𝑹 (𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ (𝑸 → 𝑹) [(𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ (𝑸 → 𝑹)]

→ (𝑷
→ 𝑹)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T T F T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F T F T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T

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The resulting column proves that the statement is a tautology. The statement
is also a reflection of Transitive Reasoning, so we can firmly say that this is a
valid argument.

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Mendelson E. (1997)Introduction to Mathematical Logic. Fourth Edition.

International Thomson Publishing, 1997, 440 pp.

Feldman, DV (2004). Lecture on logic and set theory:v.1 Mathematical logic.

American Library Association.

Let’s Check
Activity 1. Build a truth table to verify if the proposition is a tautology, a
contradiction or a contingency.

1. (𝑷 ↔ 𝑸) ∧ (∼ 𝑷 ∧ 𝑸)
2. (𝑷 ↔ 𝑸) → (𝑷 → 𝑸)
3. [(𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ ∼ 𝑸] → ∼ 𝑷

Activity 2. Make a truth table for the following arguments.

1. If you study hard, then you will do well on the test.

You did not do well on the test.
Therefore, you did not study hard.

2. If you study hard, then you will do well on the test.

You do not study hard.
Therefore, you will not do well on the test.

Let’s Analyze

1. Going back to your truth table in Activity 2, identify which argument is valid
and justify your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.

2. Look at the following argument. Make a symbolic statement out of this and
identify if the argument is valid or not. Justify your answer.

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I will answer the exercises or do more examples.

I will not do more examples.
Therefore, I will answer the exercises.

In a Nutshell

Justifying the validity of an argument requires skill in examining the truth value of each
proposition and may take quite a time. From your observations, how can you prove
the validity of an argument in easier ways, even without going through some truth
tables? Give examples to substantiate your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

Keywords

• Argument • Premise • Truth Table

• Contingency • Proposition • Valid
• Contradiction • Tautology • Validity
• Invalid

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Big Picture B

Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to
a. Show a proof of mathematical statements using direct method;
b. Prove statements by the use of contraposition using contradiction;
c. Prove statements using contradiction; and
d. Create proof by mathematical induction

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Show a proof of mathematical

statements using direct method.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of

Propositions and Logical Operations and to demonstrate ULOa will be
operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the
texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we
go through the study of these topics. Please refer to these definitions in case you
will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
• Theorem. It is a mathematical statement that is true and can be or has
been verified true.
• Proof. A proof of a theorem is a written verification that shows that the
theorem is clearly true.
• Definition. Definitions are exact meanings of the sets ℕ, ℤ, ℝ, ℚand ∅,
as well as the meanings of the symbols ∈ and ⊆. The following are
definitions that are frequently used in proving.
Definition 1. An integer n is even if n = 2a for some integer 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
Definition 2. An integer n is odd if n = 2a + 1for some integer 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
Definition 3. Two integers have the same parity if they are both
even or they are both odd. Otherwise they have
opposite parity.
Definition 4. Suppose a and b are integers. We say that a divides
b, written 𝑎 ∕ 𝑏, if b= ac for some 𝑐 ∈ ℤ in which case
we further say that a is a divisor of b, and that b is a
multiple of a.
Definition 5. A natural number n is prime if it has exactly two
positive divisors, 1 and n.
Definition 6. The greatest common divisor of integers a and b,
denoted gcd(a,b), is the largest integer that divides
both a and b. Their least common multiple, denoted
lcm(a,b), is the smallest positive integer that is a
multiple of both a and b.

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Definition 7. (The Division Algorithm) Given integers a and b with b

> 0, there exist unique integers q and r for which a =
qb + r and 0 < r < b.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the next
two (2) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you
are not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to
utilize other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, [Link] etc.

A Direct Proof is a simple way to prove theorems or propositions that have the
form of conditional statements, that is, “If P, then Q”. This proposition can be written
as P → Q. Our goal is to show that this statement is true. To see how to proceed,
recall its truth table.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷→𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

The table shows that if P is false, the statement P → Qis automatically

true. This means that if we are concerned with showing P→ Q is true, we don’t
need to worry about the situations where P is false, but we must be careful about
the instances where P is true.

We need to show that the condition of P being true compels Q to be true also,
preventing the second line of the table from occurring.

This gives a basic outline for proving statements of the form P → Q. We begin
by assuming P is true and then ending the proof by showing Q to be true also. We
summarize this as follows.

Direct Proof Outline

Proposition If P, then Q.

Proof: Suppose P.
.
.
.
Therefore, Q. ∎

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So the format for direct proof is simple. Between the first and last lines we use
definitions, mathematical facts and logic to transform the statement P to the
statement Q. It is customary to begin with “Proof” and to use the symbol ∎ to indicate
the end of a proof.

Example 1. Proposition If 𝑥 is odd, then 𝑥 ! is odd.

Proof: Suppose x is odd.

Therefore, 𝒙𝟐 is odd.

We set the tone of the proof by writing the first and last lines. We need to fill in
the space with the content of our proof. We refer to our definitions that may apply to
the given proposition.

Proof: Suppose x is odd.

Then x = 2a + 1 for some a ∈ ℤ (Definition 2, definition of odd number)
Thus 𝑥 ! = (2𝑎 + 1)! = 4𝑎! + 4𝑎 + 1 (Squaring both sides leading to
the last line in which the subject
is 𝑥 ! )
!
This is equal to 2(2𝑎 + 2𝑎) + 1 (Factoring the first to terms)
So 𝑥 ! = 2𝑏 + 1where b is an integer 𝑏 = 2𝑎! + 2𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
Therefore x 𝟐 is odd.

Our goal is to come up with the definition of an odd number which is in the
form 𝟐𝒂 + 𝟏 or 𝟐𝒃 + 𝟏 which we have reached thus, the proof is complete. Here is
the final version of the complete proof.

Proof: Suppose x is odd.

Then x = 2a + 1 for some a ∈ ℤ
Thus 𝑥 ! = (2𝑎 + 1)! = 4𝑎! + 4𝑎 + 1=2(2𝑎! + 2𝑎) + 1
So 𝑥 ! = 2𝑏 + 1 where = 2𝑎! + 2𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
Therefore 𝐱 𝟐 is odd.∎

Study these examples.

Example 2. Proposition Let a, b and c be integers. If 𝑎 ∕ 𝑏 and b ∕ c, then a ∕ c.

Proof: Suppose 𝑎 ∕ 𝑏 and 𝒃 ∕ 𝒄.

By Definition 4, we know 𝑎 ∕ 𝑏 means there is an integer d with b = ad
Likewise, 𝒃 ∕ 𝒄 means there is an integer e for which c = be.
Thus, c = be = (ad)e = a(de), so c = ax for the integer x = de.

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Therefore, 𝑎 ∕ 𝒄. ∎

Example 3. Proposition If x is an even integer, then 𝐱 𝟐 − 𝟔𝐱 + 𝟓 is odd.

Proof: Suppose 𝑥 is an even integer.

By Definition 1, we know 𝑥 = 2𝑎 for some 𝑎 ∈ ℤ
So, 𝑥 ! − 6𝑥 + 5 = (2𝑎)! − 6(2𝑎) + 5
= 4𝑎! − 12𝑎 + 5
= 4𝑎! − 12𝑎 + 4 + 1
= 2(2𝑎! − 6𝑎 + 2) + 1
Thus, we have 𝑥 ! − 6𝑥 + 5 = 2𝑏 + 1 where 𝑏 = 2𝑎! − 6𝑎 + 2 ∈ ℤ
Therefore, 𝑥 ! − 6𝑥 + 5 is odd by Definition 2. ∎

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Mendelson E. (1997)Introduction to Mathematical Logic. Fourth Edition.

International Thomson Publishing, 1997, 440 pp.

Feldman, DV (2004). Lecture on logic and set theory:v.1 Mathematical logic.

American Library Association.

Let’s Check
Complete the proof by filling in the blanks with the correct entries.

1. Proposition If m and n are odd numbers, then m + n is even.

Suppose _________________.
By ___________, we say that 𝑚 = 2𝑎 + 1 and 𝑛 = 2𝑏 + 1
So, 𝑚 + 𝑛 = _______________
= _______________
= _______________
By ___________, 2(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1) is even for some integer
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1 ∈ ℤ.
Therefore, ___________________. ∎

2. Proposition Let x and y be integers. If 𝑥 ! + 𝑦 ! is even then 𝑥 + 𝑦 is even.

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Suppose ________________.
By __________, 𝑥 ! = (2𝑎)! and 𝑦 ! = (2𝑏)!
So x = _____ and y = _____
And x + y = _________
By __________, _______ is even for 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.
Therefore, ____________. ∎

Let’s Analyze
Use direct method to show the proof the following statements.

1. If x is an even integer, then 𝑥 ! is even.

2. If x is an odd integer, then 𝑥 # is odd.
3. If a is an odd integer, then 𝑎! + 3𝑎 + 5 is odd.
4. Suppose 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ. If 𝑎 ∕ 𝑏, then 𝑎! ∕ 𝑏 ! .
5. Suppose x and y are positive real numbers. If 𝑥 < 𝑦, then 𝑥 ! < 𝑦 ! .

In a Nutshell
After getting the first-hand experience in using Direct Method in proving
mathematical statements, state the strengths and weaknesses of this proving
method based on your observation as a summary of this topic.
Strengths:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Weaknesses:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index
• Definition • Greatest Common Divisor • Prime
• Direct Proof • Integer • Proposition
• Division Algorithm • Least Common Multiple • Theorem
• Even • Odd

Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Prove statements by the use of

contraposition.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of Proof by
Contraposition (or Contrapositive Method) and to demonstrate ULOb will be
operationally defined to establish a common frame of reference as to how the
texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter these terms as we
go through the study of these topics. Please refer to these definitions in case you
will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.

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Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the

definition of important terms are already introduced in that section.

Essential Knowledge

Like direct proof, contrapositive proof is used to prove conditional

statements of the form “If P, then Q.” Although it is possible to use direct proof
exclusively, there are occasions where contrapositive proof is much easier.

To understand how contrapositive proof works, imagine that you need to

prove a proposition of the form 𝑷 → 𝑸. We will show that 𝑷 → 𝑸 is logically
equivalent to ~𝑸 → ~𝑷.

𝑷 𝑸 ~𝑸 ~𝑷 𝑷→𝑸 ~𝑸 → ~𝑷
T T F F T T
T F T F F F
F T F T T T
F F T T T T

From the table, we can see that the statements 𝑷 → 𝑸 and ~𝑸 → ~𝑷 are
different ways of expressing exactly the same thing. The expression ~𝑸 → ~𝑷 is
called the contrapositive form of 𝑷 → 𝑸.

Since 𝑷 → 𝑸 is logically equivalent to ~𝑸 → ~𝑷, it follows that to prove 𝑷 → 𝑸

is true, it suffices to instead prove that ~𝑸 → ~𝑷 is true. If we were to use direct
proof to show ~𝑸 → ~𝑷 is true, we would assume ~𝑸 is true and use this to deduce
that ~𝑷 is true. This forms the outline for contrapositive proof.

Contrapositive Proof Outline

Proposition If P, then Q.

Proof: Suppose ~𝑄.

.
.
.
Therefore, ~𝑃. ∎

Study the following examples.

1. Proposition Suppose 𝑥 ∈ ℤ. If 7𝑥 + 9 is even, then x is odd.

Proof: Suppose x is not odd.

Thus, x is even, so x = 2a for some integer a.
Then 7𝑥 + 9 = 7(2𝑎) + 9 = 14𝑎 + 8 + 1 = 2(7𝑎 + 4) + 1.

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So, 7𝑥 + 9 = 2𝑏 + 1, where 𝑏 = 7𝑎 + 4.
Consequently 7𝑥 + 9 is odd.
Therefore, 7𝑥 + 9 is not even. ∎

2. Proposition If 𝑥 ! − 6𝑥 + 5 is even, then x is odd.

Proof: Suppose x is not odd.

Thus, x is even, so x = 2a for some integer a.
So 𝑥 ! − 6𝑥 + 5 = (2𝑎)! − 6(2𝑎) + 5 = 4𝑎! − 12𝑎 + 5
= 4𝑎! − 12𝑎 + 4 + 1 = 2(2𝑎! − 6𝑎 + 2) + 1.
Therefore 𝑥 ! − 6𝑥 + 5 = 2𝑏 + 1, where 𝑏 = 2𝑎! − 6𝑎 + 2.
Consequently 𝑥 ! − 6𝑥 + 5 is odd.
Therefore, 𝑥 ! − 6𝑥 + 5 is not even. ∎

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Mendelson E. (1997). Introduction to Mathematical Logic .Fourth Edition.

International Thomson Publishing, 1997, 440 pp.

Feldman, DV (2004). Lecture on logic and set theory:v.1 Mathematical logic.

American Library Association.

Let’s Check

Prove the following statements using contraposition.

1. Suppose 𝑛 ∈ ℤ. If 𝑛! is even, then 𝑛 is even.

Proof:

2. Suppose 𝑛 ∈ ℤ. If 𝑛! is odd, then 𝑛 is odd.

Proof:

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Let’s Analyze

Prove the following using both direct and contrapositive methods. Make a short
essay about your preference between the two methods of proof.

Suppose 𝒙 ∈ ℤ. If 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏 is even, then x is odd.

Direct Method Contrapositive Method

Proof: Proof:

Which is more preferable between the two methods?

In a Nutshell
As a summary of this lesson, cite the advantages and disadvantages of using
Contrapositive Proof.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

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Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index
• Contrapositive Proof • Greatest Common Divisor • Prime
• Direct Proof • Integer • Proposition
• Division Algorithm • Least Common Multiple • Theorem
• Even • Odd

Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. Prove statements using contradiction.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of Proof by
Contradiction and to demonstrate ULOc will be operationally defined to establish
a common frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or
career. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of these topics.
Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in
understanding educational concepts.

Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the

definition of important terms are already introduced in that section.

Essential Knowledge

Proof by contradiction is not limited to proving just conditional statements – it

can be used to prove any kind of statement. The basic idea is to assume that the

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statement we want to prove is false, and then show that this assumption leads to
nonsense. We are then led to conclude that we were erroneous to assume the
statement was false, making the statement true. Let us consider this example.

Example 1.
Proposition If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, then 𝑎! − 4𝑏 ≠ 2.

Proof:
Suppose this proposition is false. This means that there exist numbers a and b for
which 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ is true but 𝑎! − 4𝑏 ≠ 2 is false.
Thus, there exist integers 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ for which 𝒂𝟐 − 𝟒𝒃 = 𝟐.
From this equation we get 𝑎! = 4𝑏 + 2 = 2(2𝑏 + 1), so 𝑎! is even.
Since 𝑎! is even, it follows that 𝑎 is even, so 𝑎 = 2𝑐, for some 𝑐 ∈ ℤ.
Plugging 𝑎 = 2𝑐 to 𝒂𝟐 − 𝟒𝒃 = 𝟐, we get (2𝑐)! − 4𝑏 = 2, so 4𝑐 ! − 4𝑏 = 2.
Dividing by 2, we get 2𝑐 ! − 2𝑏 = 1.
Therefore, 1 = 2(𝑐 ! − 𝑏), for some 𝑐 ! − 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.
Since 𝑐 ! − 𝑏 is multiplied by 2, it follows that 1 is even.
Since we know that 1 is not even, something went wrong. In other words, we were
wrong to assume the proposition was false. Thus the proposition is true. ∎

In the proof presented, we showed that a statement 𝑃: (𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ) → (𝑎! − 4𝑏 ≠ 2) is

true. The proof began with the assumption that P was false, that is ~𝑃 was true, and
from this we deduced 𝐶 ∧ ∼ 𝐶. In other words, we proved that ~𝑃 being true compels
𝐶 ∧ ∼ 𝐶 to be true, and this means that we proved that the conditional statement
(∼ 𝑃) → (𝐶 ∧ ∼ 𝐶) is true. To see that this is the same as proving P is true, look at the
following truth table for (∼ 𝑃) → (𝐶 ∧ ∼ 𝐶).
𝑃 𝐶 ∼𝑃 ∼𝐶 𝐶∧∼𝐶 (∼ 𝑃) → (𝐶 ∧ ∼ 𝐶)
T T F F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F F
F F T T F F

Notice that the first and last columns are exactly the same. This means that 𝑃 is
logically equivalent to (∼ 𝑃) → (𝐶 ∧ ∼ 𝐶. This forms the outline for proof by
contradiction.

Proof by Contradiction Outline

Proposition P.

Proof: Suppose ∼ 𝑃.
.
.
.
Therefore, 𝐶 ∧ ∼ 𝐶.∎

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Our next example follows their logic to prove that √2 is irrational. Here is an
applicable definition.
%
Definition. A real number x is rational if 𝑥 = & , for some 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ. The number x is
%
irrational if it is not rational, that is if 𝑥 ≠ & for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ.

Example 2.
Proposition The number √2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose that √2 is not irrational, then it is rational. So there exist integers a and b for
%
which √2 = & . Let this fraction be fully reduced to its lowest term. In particular, this
means a and b are not both even, otherwise it can still be reduced. Squaring both
%!
sides of the equation, we get 2 = &! which is equal to 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐𝒃𝟐 . This follows that 𝑎! is
even since it is equal to 2 times 𝑏 ! for some 𝑏 ! ∈ ℤ. As proven in the Example 1, 𝑎!
being even implies 𝑎 is even. Thus, b is not even. Now, since 𝑎 is even there is an
integer 𝑐 for which 𝑎 = 2𝑐. Using 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐𝒃𝟐 , we get (2𝑐)! = 2𝑏 ! , and 4𝑐 ! = 2𝑏 ! ,
hence 𝑏 ! = 2𝑐 ! . This means 𝑏 ! is also even and 𝑏 is even. But previously we
deduced that 𝑏 is not even. Therefore we have the contradiction 𝑏 is even and 𝑏 is
odd. ∎

Example 3.
Proposition There are infinitely many prime numbers.
Proof:
Suppose there are only finitely many prime numbers. Then we can list all the prime
numbers as 𝑝' , 𝑝! , 𝑝# , … , 𝑝( , where 𝑝' = 2, 𝑝! = 3, 𝑝# = 5, and so on. Thus 𝑝( is the
nth and largest prime number. Now consider the number 𝑎 = (𝑝' 𝑝! 𝑝# … 𝑝( ) + 1, that
is 𝑎 is a product of all prime numbers, plus 1. Now 𝑎, like any natural number, has at
least one prime divisor, and that means 𝑝) ∕ 𝑎 for at least one of our 𝑛 prime numbers
𝑝) . Thus there is an integer 𝑐 for which 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑝) , which is to say
(𝑝' 𝑝! 𝑝# ∙∙∙ 𝑝)*' 𝑝) 𝑝)+' ⋅⋅⋅ 𝑝( ) + 1 = 𝑐𝑝) .

Dividing both sides of this by 𝑝) gives us

'
(𝑝' 𝑝! 𝑝# ∙∙∙ 𝑝)*' 𝑝)+' ⋅⋅⋅ 𝑝( ) + = 𝑐,
, "
So
'
,"
= 𝑐 − (𝑝' 𝑝! 𝑝# ∙∙∙ 𝑝)*' 𝑝)+' ⋅⋅⋅ 𝑝( ).
The expression on the right is an integer, while the expression on the left is not an
integer. These numbers can’t be equal, so this is a contradiction. ∎

In proving conditional statements using contradiction, the outline is:

30
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Proving a Conditional Statement Using Contradiction Outline

Proposition If 𝑃, then 𝑄.

Proof: Suppose 𝑃 and ~𝑄.

.
.
.
Therefore, 𝐶 ∧ ∼ 𝐶. ∎

Study this additional example.

Example 4.
Proposition Suppose 𝑎 ∈ ℤ. If 𝑎! is even, then 𝑎 is even.
Proof:
Suppose 𝑎! is even and 𝑎 is not even.
Then 𝑎! is even and 𝑎 is odd.
Since 𝑎 is odd, there is an integer 𝑐 for which 𝑎 = 2𝑐 + 1.
Then 𝑎! = (2𝑐 + 1)! = 4𝑐 ! + 4𝑐 + 1 = 2(2𝑐 ! + 2𝑐) + 1, so 𝑎! is odd.
Thus, 𝑎! is even and 𝑎! is not even, a contradiction. ∎

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Feldman, DV (2004). Lecture on logic and set theory:v.1 Mathematical logic.

American Library Association.

Let’s Check

Use proof by contradiction to prove the following statements.

1. Suppose 𝑛 ∈ ℤ. If 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛! is odd.

2. Suppose 𝑛 ∈ ℤ. If 𝑛! is odd, then 𝑛 is odd.
3. Prove that √3 is irrational.
4. If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, then 𝑎! − 4𝑏 − 2 ≠ 0.
5. If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, then 𝑎! − 4𝑏 − 3 ≠ 0.

Let’s Analyze

Choose one statement/proposition from the activity in the section Let’s Check and

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prove it using the three methods: Direct, Contraposition and Contradiction.

Proposition _______________________________________.

Direct Method Contrapositive Method Proof by Contradiction

In a Nutshell

Now that you are familiar with three methods of proving, make a list of the
advantages of using proof by Contradiction over the other two methods of proving.

1. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index
• Contradiction • Odd • Proposition
• Even • Prime Numbers • Rational
• Irrational • Proof • Truth Table

Big Picture in Focus: ULOd. Create proof by mathematical

induction.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of

Mathematical Induction and to demonstrate ULOd will be operationally defined
to establish a common frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen
field or career. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of
these topics. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty
in the in understanding educational concepts.

Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the

definition of important terms are already introduced in that section.

Essential Knowledge

This portion explains a dominant technique called mathematical induction

(or induction). To start off the discussion, let’s examine the kinds of statements in
which induction is used to prove. Consider this statement.

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The sum of the first n odd natural numbers is equal to 𝑛! .

The following table illustrates what the statement says. Each row is headed by
a natural number n, followed by the sum of the first n odd natural numbers, followed
by 𝑛! .

𝑛 Sum of the first 𝑛 odd natural numbers 𝑛!

1 1= ………. 1
2 1 + 3 = ……… 4
3 1 + 3+ 5 = ………. 9
4 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = …………. 16
5 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = …………. 25
. . .
. . .
. . .
𝑛 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + ∙∙∙ + (2𝑛 − 1) = …………… 𝑛!
. . .
. . .
. . .

Note that in the first five lines of the table, the sum of the first 𝑛 odd natural
numbers truly adds up to 𝑛! . Notice also that these first five lines indicate that the nth
odd natural number is 2n – 1. The table raises a question: Does the sum 1 + 3 + 5 + 7
+ 9 + 11 + ∙∙∙ + (2𝑛 − 1) always equal 𝑛! ? Are the following statements true?

𝑆' : 1 = 1!
𝑆! : 1 + 3 = 2!
𝑆# : 1 + 3 + 5 = 3!
𝑆( : 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛!

The mathematical induction is designed to answer these kinds of question. It

is used when we have a set of statements and we need to prove that they are true.
The following gives our outline for proof by mathematical induction.

Proof by Induction Outline

Proposition The statement 𝑆' , 𝑆! , 𝑆# , 𝑆- , … are all true.
Proof:
(1) Prove that the first statement 𝑆' is true.
(2) Given any integer 𝑘 ≥ 1, prove that the statement 𝑆) → 𝑆)+' is true.
It follows by mathematical induction that every 𝑆( is true. ∎

In this setup, the first step (1) is called the basis step. Because 𝑆' is usually a
simple statement, the basis step is often quite easy to do. The second step (2) is
called the inductive step. In this step, direct proof is often used to prove 𝑆) → 𝑆)+' ,

34
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so this step is usually carried out by assuming 𝑆) is true and showing this compels
𝑆)+' to be true. The assumption that 𝑆) is true is called the inductive hypothesis.

Now let’s go back to our first statement and make it our first example.
Example 1.
Proposition If 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, then 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛! .
Proof:
(1) Observe that if 𝑛 = 1, this statement is 1 = 1! , which is obviously true.
(2) We must prove 𝑆) → 𝑆)+' for any 𝑘 ≥ 1. That is, we must show that if
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2𝑘 − 1) = 𝑘 ! , then 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2(𝑘 + 1) − 1) = (𝑘 +
1)! . We use direct proof. Suppose 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2𝑘 − 1) = 𝑘 ! . Then:

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ +(2(𝑘 + 1) − 1) =
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2𝑘 − 1) + (2(𝑘 + 1) − 1) =
(1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2𝑘 − 1)) + (2(𝑘 + 1) − 1) =
𝑘 ! + k2(𝑘 + 1)l − 1) = 𝑘 ! + 2𝑘 + 1
= (𝑘 + 1)!

Thus 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2(𝑘 + 1) − 1) = (𝑘 + 1)! . This proves that 𝑆) → 𝑆)+' .

I follows by induction that 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +∙∙∙ +(2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛! for every 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.∎

Example 2.
Proposition If 𝑛 is a non-negative integer, then 5 ∕ (𝑛. − 𝑛).
Proof:
Observe that the first non-negative integer is 0, so the basis step involves 𝑛 = 0.
(1) If 𝑛 = 0, this statement is 5 ∕ (0. − 0) or 5 ∕ 0, which is obviously true.
(2) Let 𝑘 ≥ 0. We need to prove that if 5 ∕ (𝑘 . − 𝑘), then 5 ∕ ((𝑘 + 1). − (𝑘 + 1)).
We use direct proof. Suppose 5 ∕ (𝑘 . − 𝑘). Thus, 𝑘 . − 𝑘 = 5𝑎 for some 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
Observe that
(𝑘 + 1). − (𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘 . + 5𝑘 - + 10𝑘 # + 10𝑘 ! + 5𝑘 + 1 − 𝑘 − 1
= (𝑘 . − 𝑘) + 5𝑘 - + 10𝑘 # + 10𝑘 ! + 5𝑘
= 5𝑎 + 5𝑘 - + 10𝑘 # + 10𝑘 ! + 5𝑘
= 5(𝑎 + 𝑘 - + 2𝑘 # + 2𝑘 ! + 𝑘).

This shows (𝑘 + 1). − (𝑘 + 1) is an integer multiple of 5, so 5 ∕ ((𝑘 + 1). − (𝑘 + 1)).

Now, we have shown that 5 ∕ (𝑘 . − 𝑘) implies 5 ∕ ((𝑘 + 1). − (𝑘 + 1)). ∎

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Feldman, DV (2004). Lecture on logic and set theory:v.1 Mathematical logic.

American Library Association.

35
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Let’s Check

Create a mathematical induction to prove each of the following statements.

(! +(
1. For every integer 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, it follows that 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +∙∙∙ +𝑛 = !
.
(((+')(!(+')
2. For every integer 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, it follows that 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! +∙∙∙ +𝑛 =
!
1
.
3. For any integer 𝑛 ≥ 0, it follows that 3 ∕ (5!( − 1).
4. For any integer 𝑛 ≥ 0, it follows that 24 ∕ (5!( − 1).
5. For any integer 𝑛 ≥ 0, it follows that 6 ∕ (𝑛# − 𝑛).

Let’s Analyze

What makes induction the dominant method of proof used in mathematics? Consider
elaborating the parts of its proof.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

In a Nutshell

Considering the four methods of proof in this chapter, which do you think is the most
useful and relevant for you? Why?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index
• Basis step • Inductive step • Mathematical induction
• Induction • Inductive hypothesis

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Big Picture C

Week 6-7: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to:
a. Define a set and its kinds and write sets using appropriate notations;
b. Define subset of a set; and
c. Solve problems involving algebra of sets.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Define a set and its kinds and write
sets using appropriate notations.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of sets and
to demonstrate ULOa will be operationally defined to establish a common frame
of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will
encounter these terms as we go through the study of these topics. Please refer
to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding
educational concepts.

Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the

definition of important terms are already introduced in that section.

Essential Knowledge

A set is a collection of objects. It may be well-defined or not. If we know

precisely the object or objects that comprise a set, then it is well-defined; otherwise, it
is not well-defined.

Examples of well-defined sets: a. The set of months of the year

b. The set of positive natural numbers

Examples of not well-defined sets: a. The set of beautiful ladies

b. The set of delicious desserts

In this chapter, we will only work with the well-defined sets.

Set Notations
There are two ways in representing a set.
1. Roster Notation – requires listing of elements
Examples:
a. The set of letters in the word math: {m, a, t, h}

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b. The set of whole numbers: {0, 1, 2, 3, …}

c. The set of primary colors: {red, blue, yellow}
d. The set of positive integers: {1, 2, 3, 4, …}

2. Set – Builder Notation – involves describing the elements of a set

Examples:
a. {m, a, t, h}= {x | x ∈ letter in the word math}
(Read as “the set of all x such that x is a letter in the word math”)
b. {0, 1, 2, 3, …}= {x | x ∈ 𝕎}
c. {red, blue, yellow}= {x | x ∈ primary color}
d. {1, 3, 5, 7}= {x | x ∈ odd ℕ}

Kinds of Sets
1. Empty or Null Sets – sets having no element
Examples: a. {x | x ∈ 𝕎 < 0}
b. {x | x ∈ day of the week starting with A}

2. Finite Sets– sets having limited number of elements

Examples: a. {x | x ∈ positive multiple of 3 less than 30}
b. {x | x ∈ month of the year with 31 days}

3. Singleton or Unit Sets – finite sets containing only one element

Examples: a. {x | x ∈ even prime number}
b. {x | x ∈ odd number between 4 and 6}

4. Infinite Sets – sets having countless elements

Examples: a. {x | x ∈ ℕ}
b. {x | x ∈ even number divisible by 4}

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Tour lakis, G. (2003). Lectures in logic and set theory : Volume 2, set theory. ProQuest
E book Central [Link]

Kennedy, J., & Kossak, R. (Eds.). (2011). Set theory, arithmetic, and foundations of
mathematics : Theorems, philosophies. ProQuest E book
Central [Link]

Let’s Check

Activity 1. Write the word RIGHT if the statement is a well-defined set and WRONG
if it is not.

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________1. Days in a week beginning with a letter T

________2. Difficult items in a test
________3. Boys in this class
________4. BSED students in UM Tagum College
________5. Positive integers not more than 2
________6. Even numbers
________7. Species of fish
________8. Active teachers in the public school
________9. Rivers in the Philippines
________10. Beautiful flowers in the park

Activity 2. Write each the following sets using the Roster Notation.
1. Days of the week ______________________
2. Whole numbers less than 6 ______________________
3. Distinct letters in the word Philippines ______________________
4. Months of the year beginning with letter J ______________________
5. Colors of the rainbow ______________________

Activity 3. Write each of the following sets using the Set – Builder Notation.
1. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ______________________
2. {a, e, i, o, u} ______________________
3. {Saturday, Sunday} ______________________
4. {m, a, n, g, o} ______________________
5. {3, 6, 9, 12, …} ______________________

Let’s Analyze
Make five (5) sets of your own. Write them in Roster and Set – Builder Notations. Identify
the kind of set that you formed.
The first one is a sample.
Roster Set – Builder Kind
1. Whole number less than 2 {0, 1} {x | x is a whole number < 2} Finite Set

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2. ______________________ __________ __________________ _______

3. ______________________ __________ __________________ _______

4. ______________________ __________ __________________ _______
5. ______________________ __________ __________________ _______
6. ______________________ __________ __________________ _______

In a Nutshell
The concept of sets is fundamental in mathematics. Its notion is common in our
everyday experiences – sets of books, electronic gadgets, furniture, and so on. State
the importance of this lesson in your everyday life.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

41
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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5.

Keywords Index
• Empty Set • Null Set • Set-builder Notation
• Finite Set • Roster Notation • Singleton/Unit Set
• Infinite Set • Set

Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Define subset of a set.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of subsets
of a set and to demonstrate ULOb will be operationally defined to establish a
common frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or
career. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of these topics.
Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in
understanding educational concepts.

Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the

definition of important terms are already introduced in that section.

Essential Knowledge

Given two sets A and B, we say that A is a subset of B if every element of A

is also in B. Another way to define subset is A is a subset of B if every element is
contained in B. This is denoted by the notation:
𝑨⊆𝑩

To illustrate subsets, a Venn Diagram

is shown at the right.

In the given diagram, A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. All elements of A are in B,
thus the diagram shows that A is inside B. This completely proves that 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩.

Given another two sets P and Q, we say that P is not a subset of Q if not every

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element of P is in Q. The statement “P is not a subset of Q” is denoted by:

𝑷 ⊈𝑸

Given two sets A and B, if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and A ≠ B, then A is said to be a proper

subset of B if the subset A has smaller or incomplete elements than set B. In other
way, a subset that is smaller than the complete set is referred to as a proper subset.
By notation, it is denoted by:
𝑨⊂𝑩

Take a look at this example.

Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {3, 1, 2, 5, 4}, what is the relationship

between A and B?

Recall that the order in which the elements appear in a set is not important. Looking
at the elements of these sets, we can deduce that:
• A is a subset of B since all elements in A are also in B. (𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩)
• B is a subset of A since all elements in B are also in A. (𝑩 ⊆ 𝑨)
• Then both sets A and B have the same elements. (𝑨 = 𝑩)
Taking into consideration the concept of proper subset, we can say that A is not a
proper subset of B, denoted as 𝑨 ⊄ 𝑩, since 𝑨 = 𝑩, violating the condition set for a
“proper” subset. Likewise, we can say that 𝑩 ⊄ 𝑨.

The notations for subsets are shown below.

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Symbol Meaning
⊆ is a subset of
⊈ is not a subset of
⊂ is a proper subset of
⊄ is not a proper subset of

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Tour lakis, G. (2003). Lectures in logic and set theory : Volume 2, set theory. ProQuest
E book Central [Link]

Kennedy, J., & Kossak, R. (Eds.). (2011). Set theory, arithmetic, and foundations of
mathematics : Theorems, philosophies. ProQuest E book
Central [Link]

Let’s Check
Given the sets below, tell whether each of the following statements is true or false.
S = {w, o, r, t, h, y}
T= {w, o, r, t, h}
U = {t, h, y}
V = {h, u, r, t}
W = {t, h, r, o, w}
X={}

_____1. U ⊆ S _____6. T ⊂ W
_____2. S ⊆ T _____7. U ⊂ S
_____3. T ⊈ W _____8. W ⊂ S
_____4. V ⊆ S _____9. V ⊂ S
_____5. X ⊆ U _____10. W ⊄ X

Let’s Analyze

List all the subsets (and proper subsets) of these sets.

1. A = {1}

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2. B = {2, 4, 6}

3. C = {l, o, v, e}

4. D = {s, t, u, d, y}

5. E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

In a Nutshell

List 5 important things that you have learned about subsets and proper subsets of a
set.

1. _____________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

45
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

5.

Keywords Index
• Equal Sets • Subset
• Proper subset • Venn Diagram

Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. Solve problems involving algebra

of sets.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of subsets
of a set and to demonstrate ULOb will be operationally defined to establish a
common frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or
career. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of these topics.
Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in
understanding educational concepts.

Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the

definition of important terms are already introduced in that section.

Essential Knowledge

Here are the different operations on sets also known as the algebra of sets.

Union of Sets. Let 𝐴, and 𝐵 be any two sets. The union 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is defined as the set
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }. This includes the idea that 𝑥 is an element of both 𝐴
and 𝐵

Intersection of Sets. Let 𝐴, and 𝐵 be any two sets. The intersection 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is defined
as the set 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }.

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Set Difference. Let 𝐴, and 𝐵 be any two sets. The set difference 𝐴 − 𝐵 is defined as
the set 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 }

Complement of a Set. Let 𝐴 be any subset of the universal set 𝑈. The complement
𝐴′ is defined as the set 𝐴′ = {𝑥| 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈}.

With the above set operations, we have the following laws of the algebra of sets

1. Commutative laws
Let 𝐴, and 𝐵 be any two finite sets.
i. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴
ii. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴

2. Associative laws
For any three finite sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶
i. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
ii. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

3. Idempotent laws
For any finite set 𝐴
i. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴

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ii. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴

4. Distributive laws
For any three finite sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶
i. 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
ii. 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)

Note: These laws indicate that the union distributes over intersection and the
intersection distributes over union of sets.

5. De Morgan’s laws
Let 𝐴, and 𝐵 be any two finite sets.
i. 𝐴 − (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 − 𝐶)
ii. 𝐴 − (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 − 𝐶)

These laws can also be expressed as follows:

i. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′
ii. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′

Cartesian Product

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets, then the Cartesian product, 𝐴 × 𝐵, of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of all
ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵.

We use the notation 𝐴 × 𝐵 for the Cartesian product of 𝐴 and 𝐵, and using set builder
notation, we can write

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵}

We are used to read 𝐴 × 𝐵 as "𝐴 cross 𝐵." In the case where the two sets are the
same, we write 𝐴! for 𝐴 × 𝐴. That is,

𝐴! = 𝐴 × 𝐴 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) | 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴}

Cartesian Product is not be commutative for any sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. That is 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐵 × 𝐴,

unless 𝐴 = 𝐵.

Illustrative Example: Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏} and 𝐵 = {1, 2}. We have

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2)} and

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𝐵×𝐴= {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏)}

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Tourlakis, G. (2003). Lectures in logic and set theory : Volume 2, set theory. ProQuest
Ebook Central [Link]

Kennedy, J., & Kossak, R. (Eds.). (2011). Set theory, arithmetic, and foundations of
mathematics : Theorems, philosophies. ProQuest Ebook
Central [Link]

Let’s Check

Given the following sets,

U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}

M = {2, 3, 4, 7, 10}
N = {0, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10}
P = {1, 2, 3, 8, 10, 12}
Find:
1. M ⋃ N
2. (M ⋃ N)’
3. N ∩ P
4. M’
5. M’ U P
6. (P ∩ M)’
7. N’ U M’
8. N – M
9. [(M U N) U P]’
10. M x N

Let’s Analyze

1. Create a Venn diagram to show the relationship among the sets.

U is the set of whole numbers from 1 to 15.
A is the set of positive multiples of 3 less than 15.
B is the set of prime numbers between 1 and 10.
C is the set of odd numbers less than 12.
2. Determine each of the following sets using Venn Diagram.
a. 𝐴 x 𝐵
b. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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c. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)2
d. 𝐴2 ∩ 𝐵
e. 𝐶 ∪ 𝐵2

In a Nutshell

Summarize the Algebra of Sets by writing your own key words, preferably 1- 2
words, for each operation.

Union of Sets _____________________

Intersection of Sets _____________________
Set Difference _____________________
Complement of a Set _____________________
Cartesian Product _____________________

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index
• Algebra of Sets • Ordered Pairs • Union of Sets

50
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• Cartesian Product • Set Difference • Universal Set

• Complement of a Set • Set Operations • Venn Diagram
• Intersection of Sets

Big Picture D

Week 8-9: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to:

a. Determine if a given set is a POSET; and

b. Identify whether a POSET is a LATTICE or not.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Determine if a given set is a poset.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of partially
ordered sets and to demonstrate ULOa will be operationally defined to establish
a common frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or
career. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of these topics.
Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in
understanding educational concepts.

Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the

definition of important terms are already introduced in that section.

Essential Knowledge

The term “POSET” is short for “partially-ordered set”. It is a set whose

elements are ordered but not all pairs of elements are required to be comparable
in the order.

A partially-ordered set, or poset, is a pair P = (X, ≤), where X is a nonempty

set and ≤ is a partial order on X; that is, for x, y, and z ∈ X:
(1) x ≤ x or if x ∈ X does (x, x) ∈ S hold (reflexivity),
(2) x ≤ y and y ≤ x imply x = y or if (x, y) ∈ S, then (y, x) ∉ S (anti-
symmetry),
(3) x ≤ y and y ≤ z imply x ≤ z or if (x, y) ∈ S and (y, z) ∈ S, then (x, z) ∈ S

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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(transitivity)

Let us consider the following examples.

1. Given A = {p, q, r} and we take a subset of AxA, and we’ll name it B and
B = {(p, p), (q, q,), (r, r), (p, r), (q, r)}. Let us find out if B is a POSET.

Solution:

(1) Test of reflexivity:

The subset B is reflexive since it contains (p, p), (q, q) and (r, r).
(2) Test of Anti-symmetry:
B is anti-symmetric as (p, r) and (q, r) do not have their symmetric pairs
(r, p) or (r, q) in the set. Moreover, it also contains (p, p), (q, q), and (r, r)
in which the elements are equal to each other.
(3) Test of Transitivity:
The subset contains (q, q) and (q, r). Therefore according to the definition
of a transitive relation, it must contain (q, r), which, you can see, is already
present in it. It also has (p, p) and (p, r) which must also include (p, r). So
it is transitive.
Since the three conditions have been satisfied, we can conclude that B is a
POSET.

2. Given: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}
Determine if (A, R) is a POSET.

Solution:

(1) Test of reflexivity:

(1, 1) ∈ R.
(2, 2) ∈ R.
(3, 3) ∈ R.
(4, 4) ∈ R.
Therefore, it is reflexive.
(2) Test of Anti-symmetry:
(1, 2) ∈ R, but (2, 1) ∉ R.
(2, 3) ∈ R, but (3, 2) ∉ R.
Therefore, it is anti-symmetric.
(3) Test of Transitivity:
(1, 3) and (3, 4) ∈ R, so (1, 4) ∈ R
(1, 3) and (3, 3) ∈ R, so (1, 3) ∈ R
Therefore, it is transitive.

The three conditions have been satisfied, we can conclude then (A, R) is a
POSET.

52
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

Self-Help:
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

3G E-learning (2019). Essentials of Number Theory: World Edition. New York, NY: 3G
E-learning.
Dio, Ryan V. (2017). Number Theory: a Primer. Quezon City: Great Books Trading.

Let’s Check

Test if the given sets are (1) reflexive, (2) anti-symmetric, and (3) transitive.
(1) (2) (3)

1. {(a, b), (a, a), (b, b)} ____ ____ ____

2. {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 1),(2, 3), (3, 3),
(1, 3), (3, 2)} ____ ____ ____

3. {(0, 1), (0, 0), (0, 3), (3, 3)} ____ ____ ____

4. AxB, if A = {2, 4} and B = {1, 2, 4} ____ ____ ____

5. {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2)} ____ ____ ____

Let’s Analyze

Determine if (A, R) is a POSET, if:

1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 1), (3, 4)}

2. A = {a, b, c}
R = {(a, b), (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (a, c), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b)}

3. A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(4, 4), (4, 3), (4, 2), (4, 1), (4, 0), (3, 3), (3, 2), (3, 1), (3, 0), (2, 2), (2, 1), (2,
0), (1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 0)}

In a Nutshell

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

In your own words, when can you say that a set is a partially-ordered set or POSET?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index
• Anti-symmetric • Poset • Transitive
• Partially-ordered set • Reflexive

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Identify whether a poset is a lattice

or not.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of lattices
and to demonstrate ULOb will be operationally defined to establish a common
frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You
will encounter these terms as we go through the study of these topics. Please
refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in
understanding educational concepts.

Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the

definition of important terms are already introduced in that section.

Essential Knowledge

Partially-ordered sets or POSETs can be represented in a simple diagram

called the Hasse diagram.
Let's see what a Hasse diagram is. For this, we will consider a set B, as
B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. Let's perform the Cartesian product of set B with itself.
BxB = {(3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6),
(6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)}
From this Cartesian product, let us create another set R having the following
pairs of elements:
R = {(3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (5,5), (5,6), (6,6)}
Next, we will represent each of the pairs as a graph. For example, for the pair
(3,4), we will draw an edge starting from 3 and ending at 4.
The pair (3, 3) would start and end on itself, thus creating a loop. See the
figure:

55
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Of course, we don’t always need to start with the complete relation in the
partial order and then trim everything. We can build a Hasse diagram directly from
the partial order. Take this example:

Draw the Hasse Diagram for the following partial ordering: {(a, b) | a∕b } on
the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}. These are the divisors of 60 which
form the basis of the ancient Babylonian base-60 numeral system.

As you can observe, 1 is connected to 2 because 1 divides 2, in the same

way as 2 is connected to 4 since 2 divides 4. In the similar manner, 3, 6 and 12 are
connected since 3 divides 6 and 6 divides 12. On the other hand, 3 is not connected
to 5 because 3 does not divide 5. This Hasse diagram helps us easily determine a
lattice.

Definition:
A lattice is a partially ordered set or POSET in which every pair of elements
has both:
– a least upper bound (LUB) and
– a greatest lower bound (GLB)

Example 1. Is this a lattice?

56
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The diagram shows that (b, c) does not have connection, which shows the
pair does not have a least upper bound (LUB).

Example 2. Is this a lattice?

In this example, we let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} and R = {(a, c), (a, e), (b, d), (b, f), (c,
g), (d, g), (e, g), (f, g)}. We can say that (A, R) is NOT a lattice. Though a and b are
the greatest lower bounds of c, d, e, and f, labeled as area Y, a and b, themselves
are not comparable. In other words, to show that a partial order is not a lattice
using a Hasse diagram, it is sufficient to find a pair that does not have an LUB or a
GLB. For a pair not to have an LUB/GLB, the elements of the pair must first ne
incomparable.

Let’s Check

Make a Hasse diagram for the following sets.

1. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 1), (3, 4)}

2. A = {a, b, c}
R = {(a, b), (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (a, c), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b)}

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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3. A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(4, 4), (4, 3), (4, 2), (4, 1), (4, 0), (3, 3), (3, 2), (3, 1), (3, 0), (2, 2), (2, 1), (2,
0), (1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 0)}

4. 𝑆1 = {1, 2, 3, 6} : Factors of 6 following the partial order {(a, b) | a∕b }.

5. 𝑆'3 = {1, 2, 5, 10} : Factors of 10 following the partial order {(a, b) | a∕b }.

Let’s Analyze

Identify whether each of the following posets is a lattice or not.

1. S = {a, b, c}
R = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c}, {a, b, c}}

2. 𝑆!-

3. 𝑆#1

In a Nutshell

In your own words, how do you define a lattice?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________

Question & Answer (Q&A)

You are free to list down all the emerging questions or issues in the provided spaces
below. These questions or concerns may also be raised in the LMS or other modes.
You may answer these questions on your own after clarification. The Q&A portion helps
in the review of concepts and essential knowledge.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

58
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BSED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

2.

3.

4.

5.

Keywords Index
• Greatest Lower Bound • Lattice • Poset
• Hasse diagram • Least Upper Bound

Course Schedule

Please be mindful of the schedules below to avoid future problems in complying with
your requirements.

Activity Date Where to

Submit
Big Picture A
ULOa: Let’s Check Activities August 24, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOa: Let’s Analyze Activities August 24, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOa: In a Nutshell Activities August 26, 2022 LMS
ULOa: Question & Answer List August 26, 2020 LMS
ULOb: Let’s Check Activities August 31, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOb: Let’s Analyze Activities August 31, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOb: In a Nutshell Activities September 2, 2020 LMS
ULOb: Question & Answer List September 2, 2020 LMS
First Exam September 4, 2020 LMS
Big Picture B
ULOa: Let’s Check Activities September 7, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOa: Let’s Analyze Activities September 7, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOa: In a Nutshell Activities September 8, 2020 LMS
ULOa: Question & Answer List September 8, 2020 LMS
ULOb: Let’s Check Activities September 10, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOb: Let’s Analyze Activities September 10, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOb: In a Nutshell Activities September 11, 2020 LMS

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

ULOb: Question & Answer List September 11, 2020 LMS

ULOc: Let’s Check Activities September 14, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOc: Let’s Analyze Activities September 14, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOc: In a Nutshell Activities September 15, 2020 LMS
ULOc: Question & Answer List September 15, 2020 LMS
ULOd: Let’s Check Activities September 16, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOd: Let’s Analyze Activities September 16, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOd: In a Nutshell Activities September 17, 2020 LMS
ULOd: Question & Answer List September 17, 2020 LMS
Second Exam September 18, 2020 LMS

ULOa: Let’s Check Activities September 21, 2020 CC’s E-mail

ULOa: Let’s Analyze Activities September 21, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOa: In a Nutshell Activities September 23, 2020 LMS
ULOa: Question & Answer List September 23, 2020 LMS
ULOb: Let’s Check Activities September 24, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOb: Let’s Analyze Activities September 24, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOb: In a Nutshell Activities September 25, 2020 LMS
ULOb: Question & Answer List September 25, 2020 LMS
ULOc: Let’s Check Activities September 28, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOc: Let’s Analyze Activities September 28, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOc: In a Nutshell Activities September 30, 2020 LMS
ULOc: Question & Answer List September 30, 2020 LMS
Third Exam October 2, 2020 LMS

ULOa: Let’s Check Activities October 6, 2020 CC’s E-mail

ULOa: Let’s Analyze Activities October 6, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOa: In a Nutshell Activities October 7, 2020 LMS
ULOa: Question & Answer List October 7, 2020 LMS
ULOb: Let’s Check Activities October 9, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOb: Let’s Analyze Activities October 9, 2020 CC’s E-mail
ULOb: In a Nutshell Activities October 13, 2020 LMS
ULOb: Question & Answer List October 13, 2020 LMS
Final Exam October 15-16, 2020 LMS

Please note that this schedule may change from time to time. It is advisable that you
always keep in contact with your teacher for updates and always check your LMS or
Group Chatrooms.

60
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

Online Code of Conduct

• All teachers/Course Coordinators and students are expected to abide by an

honor code of conduct, and thus everyone and all are exhorted to exercise self-
management and self-regulation.
• Faculty members are guided by utmost professional conduct as learning
facilitators in holding DED conduct. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with
properly under existing guidelines, specifically on social media conduct (OPM 21.15)
and personnel discipline (OPM 21.11).
• All students are likewise guided by professional conduct as learners in
attending DED courses. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with properly under
existing guidelines, specifically in Section 7 (Student Discipline) in the Student
Handbook.
• Professional conduct refers to the embodiment and exercise of the University’s
Core Values, specifically in the adherence to intellectual honesty and integrity;
academic excellence by giving due diligence in virtual class participation in all lectures
and activities, as well as fidelity in doing and submitting performance tasks and
assignments; personal discipline in complying with all deadlines; and observance of
data privacy.
• Plagiarism is a serious intellectual crime and shall be dealt with accordingly.
The University shall institute monitoring mechanisms online to detect and penalize
plagiarism.
• All borrowed materials uploaded by the teachers/Course Coordinators shall be
properly acknowledged and cited; the teachers/Course Coordinators shall be
professionally and personally responsible for all the materials uploaded in the online
classes or published in SIM/SDL manuals.
• Teachers/Course Coordinators shall devote time to handle DED courses and
shall honestly exercise due assessment of student performance.
• Teachers/Course Coordinators shall never engage in quarrels with students
online. While contentions intellectual discussions are allowed, the teachers/Course
Coordinators shall take the higher ground in facilitating and moderating these
discussions. Foul, lewd, vulgar and discriminatory languages are absolutely
prohibited.
• Students shall independently and honestly take examinations and do
assignments, unless collaboration is clearly required or permitted. Students shall not
resort to dishonesty to improve the result of their assessments (e.g. examinations,
assignments).
• Students shall not allow anyone else to access their personal LMS account.
Students shall not post or share their answers, assignment or examinations to others
to further academic fraudulence online.
• By handling DED courses, teachers/Course Coordinators agree and abide by
all the provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and
protocols in handling online courses.
• By enrolling in DED courses, students agree and abide by all the provisions of
the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and protocols in handling
online courses.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
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Telefax: (084)655-9591 Local 116

Monitoring of OBD and DED

• The Deans, Asst. Deans, Discipline Chairs and Program Heads shall be
responsible in monitoring the conduct of their respective DED classes through the
LMS. The LMS monitoring protocols shall be followed, i.e. monitoring of the conduct
of Teacher Activities (Views and Posts) with generated utilization graphs and data.
Individual faculty PDF utilization reports shall be generated and consolidated by
program and by department.
• The Academic Affairs and Academic Planning & Services shall monitor the
conduct of LMS sessions. The Academic Vice Presidents and the Deans shall
collaborate to conduct virtual CETA by randomly joining LMS classes to check and
review online the status and interaction of the faculty and the students.
• For DED, the Deans and Program Heads shall come up with monitoring
instruments, taking into consideration how the programs go about the conduct of DED
classes. Consolidated reports shall be submitted to Academic Affairs for endorsement
to the Chief Operating Officer.

Course prepared by:

RONNIE F. GARCIA

Course reviewed by:

RUSSEL J. APORBO, MEAL

BSED Program Head

Approved by:

GINA FE G. ISRAEL, EdD

Dean of College

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