THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

This is a system of coordination that is made of ductless glands, that is, the hormones
diffuse directly into the blood stream to other parts of the body.
Hormone
A hormone is a chemical substance secreted by a ductless gland, transported by blood and
has effects on one or more target organs before being destroyed by the liver. A target
organ is any organ that carries out an appropriate response to a stimulus under the influence
of hormones. Any hormone can only have effects on an organ that has receptor sites for it.

The following diagram illustrates the main endocrine glands of the human
body.
Human Endocrine System

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is also called the master gland of the endocrine system. This is because it
secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to function. These hormones
include the following:
 Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): This stimulates the thyroid gland to function
 Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH): This stimulates the adrenal cortex to
secrete hormones
 Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) : This stimulates the tests to function
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): This stimulates formation of follicles in the
ovaries.
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  Luteinizing Hormone (LH): This causes ovulation and formation of the corpus
luteum.
There are other hormones produced by the pituitary gland which are not involved
in stimulating other endocrine glands. These include:
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Also called vasopressin, this hormone stimulates re-
absorption of water from the renal tubule and loop of Henle in the kidneys when the body
has little water. Insufficient or lack of ADH leads to diabetes insipidus(a
condition where an individual passes out large volumes of dilute urine)
 Growth Hormone: This stimulates growth by stimulating synthesis of macromolecules
such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Too much secretion of growth hormone
leads to giantism/gigantism and acromegaly. Gigantism or giantism is a condition
where an individual is abnormally tall and huge. Acromegaly is enlargement of bones
often accompanied by protrusion of the lower jaw. Little secretion of growth hormone
leads to dwarfism, a condition where an individual has physically stunted growth and
appears too small for their age.
 Oxytocin: This causes rhythmic contractions of the uterus wall during child birth and
also stimulates release of milk from mammary glands in the breasts.
 Prolactin: This stimulates milk production by the mammary glands in the breasts.

The Thyroid Gland

It produces a hormone called thyroxine. Thyroxine controls the basal metabolic rate of the
body, stimulates respiration of glucose and fats as well as controlling the growth and
differentiation of cells.

Over production of thyroxine causes hyperactivity which is characterized by an increased

metabolic and heart rate, loss of body mass and extreme irritability. Under production of
thyroxine causes myxoedema and cretinism. Myxoedema is a condition where the basal
metabolic rate and mental development are slow. Cretinism is a condition where the physical,
mental and sexual developments of a child are retarded. A person who suffers from cretinism is
called a cretin. The formation of thyroxine by the thyroid gland requires iodine. Iodine
deficiency causes swelling of the thyroid gland, a condition known as goitre. Over production
of thyroxine also causes goitre.

The Adrenal Gland

This is a pair of glands, each located just above each kidney. They secrete hormones called
aldosterone and adrenaline. Aldosterone hormone is involved in homeostasis. Adrenaline is
called the “fight or flight hormone” and is produced when an individual is angry, scared,
emotionally excited or under stress. It prepares the body for action in the following ways:
 It boosts the changing of glycogen to glucose, thereby increasing glucose levels in
the blood to be used for respiration

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  It increases the breathing rate so that more oxygen is taken in to be used for
energy production
 It increase the heart rate so that more blood containing glucose and oxygen can
be carried to the muscles
 It diverts blood from the gut to the muscles by constricting the blood vessels of the
gut and dilating the blood vessels of the muscles.
 It dilates the pupils in the eyes for increased alertness
 It dilates the bronchi and increases the volume of the thorax so that more air
containing oxygen may be taken in
 It increases the sensitivity of the nervous system for faster response to stimuli
 It causes shivering.
Pancreas

The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine gland. It is considered as an exocrine gland
in
the digestive system where it secretes pancreatic juice through a duct called the
pancreatic duct. In the endocrine system, it secretes insulin and glucagon directly into the
blood stream which regulate blood sugar.

When glucose levels are too high in blood, the pancreas detects the change and secretes
insulin which lowers the levels of glucose in the following ways.
 It stimulates the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen
which is stored in the liver and muscles.
 It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats
are stored under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver,
kidneys, intestines and brain.
 It enables body cells to absorb glucose from the blood and use it.
Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetes mellitus whose
signs and symptoms are:
 Abnormally high levels of glucose in blood
 Presence of glucose in urine
 Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
 Drastic loss of weight
 Loss of sensation in some body parts.

When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas detects and secretes glucagon
which increases glucose levels in blood in the following ways:
 It stimulates the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.
 It causes fats and amino acids to be changed into glucose.

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Effects of under-secretion and over secretion of hormones
Over –secretion or under-secretion of the different hormones have significant effects in the body
as described in the table below
Effects of the Hormones
Hormone Effect of over -secretion Effect of under -secretion
1.Thyroxine  Causes the thyroid gland to  At young age physical and
enlarge, a condition called mental development is
goitre arrested resulting in stunted
 Increased metabolic rate growth and mental
resulting in tissue wasting retardation; a condition
called cretinism
 In adulthood, the rate of
metabolism reduces resulting
in accumulation of fat and
reduced mental activity; a
condition called myxoedema
2.Adrenaline Hyperglycemia(increase in blood Hypoglycemia (reduction in blood
sugar level, hypertension, excessive sugar level) and rapid weight loss
sweating and exhaustion
3.Insulin Fall in blood sugar levels resulting Increase in blood glucose levels
in low energy. Organs like the brain resulting in diabetes mellitus. Water
can malfunction due to large drop may flow out of cells resulting in
in glucose levels resulting in disruption of cellular functions
convulsions, coma and even death
4.Growth hormone Overgrowth leading to gigantic Dwarfism or stunted growth
persons or giant
5.Antidiuretic Diabetes insipidus characterized by
hormone frequent urination
Negative Feedback Mechanism

A negative feedback mechanism is a mechanism whereby levels of substances in the body

are brought back to normal. When there are changes in the internal environment, they are
detected by a monitor (detector) which produces a hormone to return the condition to normal.
The following diagram illustrates negative feedback mechanism in the production of insulin
and glucagon by the pancreas.
Negative Feedback Mechanism