CHAPTER TWO

LEADERSHIP STYLES AND THEORIES

2.1. LEADERSHIP STYLES
After studying this chapter; you will be able to:
 Explain the methods, results, shortcomings, and contributions of the trait and behavior
approaches to leadership and identify their impact on current approaches.
 Present the most significant early theories of leadership and their implications for
current theory and practice of leadership.
Leadership style
 is the typical pattern of behavior a leader uses to influence employees to achieve
organizational goals.
 is the behavior exhibited by a leader during influencing subordinates to accomplish
organizational objectives.
 implies the ways in which the leaders exercise leadership.
 is the ways in which the functions of leadership are carried out.
 is the ways how the leaders behave towards their subordinated in the accomplishment of
the work.
No matter what their traits or skills, leaders carry out their roles in a wide variety of styles.
Therefore, there are many leadership styles from which to choose from a very classical
autocratic approach to a very creative, participative approach. Not everything old was bad and
not everything new was good. Different styles were needed for different situations and each
leader needed to know when to exhibit a particular approach.

Basic leadership styles

There are 4 basic leadership styles. These include;
 Autocratic leadership style
 Bureaucratic leadership style
 Laissez-faire leadership style
 Democratic leadership style
 ABuLaD leadership style
1. Autocratic Leadership Style

Autocratic leadership is the classical approach to leadership style. Autocratic leadership Style is also
known as ‘’I’’ approach. This type of leadership is practiced by the managers concentrating on
power and authority within themselves. Leader expects high degree of compliance by subordinates. A
Leader having this style does not consult staff, nor allowed to give any input. He is dogmatic and
positive in his approach. Manager exhibiting this type of style has the ability and enforces decision by
use of rewards and fear of punishment. As a result, staffs are expected to obey orders without
receiving any explanations.
The manager makes all the decisions and dominates team members. This approach generally results
in passive resistance from team members and requires continual pressure and direction from the
leader in order to get things done. Generally, this approach is not a good way to get the best
performance from a team. However, this style may be appropriate when urgent action is necessary or
when subordinates actually prefer this style.

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Communication tends to be primarily in one direction from manager to follower. Some autocratic
leaders are seen as “benevolent autocrat.” Though they listen considerably to their followers’
opinion before making any decision, the decision remains to be their own. They seemingly consider
their subordinate’s ideas but when it comes to decision making they are more autocratic than
benevolent. An advantage of autocratic leadership is the speed of decision-making, as the leader does
not have to obtain group members approval. However there appears to be a low morale syndrome on
the group members because their views are not given due consideration and may resent the decision
and support the same as little as possible.
Autocratic leaders:
 Rely on threats and punishment to influence staff
 Do not trust staff
 Do not allow for employee input
Generally, this approach is not a good way to get the best performance from a team. However, this
style may be appropriate when;
 Urgent action is necessary or when subordinates actually prefer this style or when there is
limited time in which to make a decision;
 New, untrained staffs do not know which tasks to perform or which procedures to follow;
 Effective supervision provided only through detailed orders and instructions;
 Staff do not respond to any other leadership style;
 A manager’s power challenged by staff;
 Work needs to be coordinated with another department or organization;
Should not be used when:
􀂉 Staff becomes tense, fearful, or resentful
􀂉 Staff expect their opinions heard
􀂉 Staff depend on their manager to make all their decisions
􀂉 Low staff morale, high turnover and absenteeism and work stoppage
2. Bureaucratic Leadership Style
 Manages “by the book”. Everything done according to procedure or policy if not covered
by the book, referred to the next level above.
 A police officer not a leader
 Enforces the rules
Most effective when:
 Staff performing routine tasks over and over
 Staff needs to understand certain standards or procedures.
 Safety or security training conducted
 Staff performing tasks that require handling cash
Ineffective when:
􀂉 Work habits form those are hard to break, especially if they are no longer useful
􀂉 Staff loses their interest in their jobs and in their co-workers
􀂉 Staff do only what is expected of them and no more
3. Democratic Leadership Style
• Also known as participative style
• Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
• Keeps staff informed about everything that affects their work and shares decision making and
problem solving responsibilities.
The leader

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  A coach who has the final say, but gathers information from staff before making a
decision
 Produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time
 Staff likes the trust they receive and respond with cooperation, team spirit, and high
morale
The democratic leader
• Develops plans to help staff evaluate their own performance
• Allows staff to establish goals
• Encourages staff to grow on the job and be promoted
• Recognizes and encourages achievement

Most effective when:

 Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect them.
 Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-solving duties.
 Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a high sense of personal growth and job
satisfaction.
 A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to solve
 Changes must be made or problems solved that affect staff
 Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when …
? Not enough time to get everyone’s input
? Easier and more cost-effective for the manager to make the decision
? Can’t afford mistakes
? Manager feels threatened by this type of leadership
? Staff safety is a critical concern

4. Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

It is also known as the “hands-off”, “free-rein” style. The manager provides little or no direction
and gives staff as much freedom as possible. All authority or power given to the staff and they
determine goals, make decisions, and resolve problems on their own.
An effective style to use …
 Staff highly skilled, experienced, and educated
 Staff has pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own
 Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants used
 Staff trustworthy and experienced
Should not be used …
 Staff feels insecure at the unavailability of a manager
 The manager cannot provide regular feedback to staff on how well they are doing
 Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
 The manager doesn’t understand his or her responsibilities and hoping the staff covers for him
or her.

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 LEADERSHIP THEORIES

For decades, leadership theories have been the source of numerous studies. In reality as well as
in practice, many have tried to define what allows authentic leaders to stand apart from the
mass! Hence, there are many theories on leadership as there are philosophers, researchers and
professors that have studied and ultimately published their leadership theory. Every leader is
different, and no single theory works for all leaders Therefore, theories are commonly
categorized by which aspect is believed to define the leader the most. The most widespread one's
are:
1. Great Man Theory,
2. Trait Theory,
3. Behavioral Theories.
4. Contingency Theories,

1. GREAT MAN THEORY (Thomas Carlyle, 1847)

This theory is often linked to 19th century philosopher and historian Thomas Carlyle, who commented
that "The history of the world is the biography of great men." This theory is usually contrasted with a
theory that talks about events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of
smaller events cause certain developments to occur.
The Great Man theory assumes that the traits of leadership are intrinsic. That simply means that
great leaders are born they are not made. This theory is based on the belief that leaders are
exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead.
The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a
Great Man would arise, almost by magic. Gender issues were not on the table when the 'Great Man'
theory was proposed. Most leaders were male and the thought of a Great Woman was generally in
areas other than leadership. Most researchers were also male, and concerns about andocentric bias
were a long way from being realized. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until the latter
part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military
and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theory.
2. TRAIT THEORY :Late 1800s to Mid-1940s
This theory is similar to the Great Man theory. In the 1920's and 1930's, leadership research focused
on trying to identify the traits that differentiated leaders from non-leaders. These early leadership
theories were content theories, focusing on "what" an effective leader is, not on 'how' to effectively
lead. The trait approach to understanding leadership assumes that certain physical, social, and
personal characteristics are inherent in leaders. Sets of traits and characteristics were identified to
assist in selecting the right people to become leaders. Physical traits include being young to middle-
aged, energetic, tall, and handsome. Social background traits include being educated at the "right"

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schools and being socially prominent or upwardly mobile. Social characteristics include being
charismatic, charming, tactful, popular, cooperative, and diplomatic. Personality traits include being
self-confident, adaptable, assertive, and emotionally stable. Task-related characteristics include
being driven to excel, accepting of responsibility, having initiative, and being results-oriented.
Trait theories intended to identify traits to assist in selecting leaders since traits are related to
leadership effectiveness in many situations. The trait approach to understanding leadership supports
the use of tests and interviews in the selection of managers. The interviewer is typically attempting to
match the traits and characteristics of the applicant to the position. For example, most interviewers
attempt to evaluate how well the applicant can work with people.

Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people
having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by
studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be
found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders. Stogdill (1974) identified the
following traits and skills as critical to leaders.
Traits Skills
 Adaptable to situations  Clever (intelligent)
 Alert to social environment  Conceptually skilled
 Ambitious and achievement orientated  Creative
 Assertive  Diplomatic and tactful
 Cooperative  Fluent in speaking
 Decisive  Knowledgeable about group task
 Dependable  Organized (administrative ability)
 Dominant (desire to influence others)  Persuasive
 Energetic (high activity level)  Socially skilled
 Persistent
 Self-confident

McCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four primary traits by
which leaders could succeed or 'derail':
 Emotional stability and composure: Calm, confident and predictable, particularly when under
stress.
 Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering up.
 Good interpersonal skills: Able to communicate and persuade others without resort to
negative or coercive tactics.
 Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having a narrow
(and narrow-minded) area of expertise.
Limitations / Short coming of Trait theory
1. All the leaders may not possess all the traits & many of non leaders may possess most or
all of them.
2. The trait approach gives no guidance as to how much of any trait a person should have.
3. It doesn’t indicate the best style of leadership.
4. It ignores situational factors.

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 3. BEHAVIORAL LEADERSHIP THEORY: Mid 1940s to Early1970s
The results of the trait studies were inconclusive. Traits, amongst other things, were hard to measure.
How, for example, do we measure traits such as honesty, integrity, loyalty, or diligence? Another
approach in the study of leadership had to be found.
After the publication of the late Douglas McGregor's classic book The Human Side of Enterprise in
1960, attention shifted to ‘behavioral theories’. McGregor was a teacher, researcher, and consultant
whose work was considered to be "on the cutting edge" of managing people. He influenced all the
behavioral theories, which emphasize focusing on human relationships, along with output and
performance.
Behavior theory focuses on what an effective leader “does.” Leadership is not something you are
born with, nor do you need a set of commonly accepted traits. However, effective leadership is
dependent on the right behavior.
Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at what
leaders actually do. If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be
relatively easy for other people to act in the same way. This is easier to teach and learn then to adopt
the more ephemeral 'traits' or 'capabilities'.
Behavioral leadership theory is a big leap from trait theory, in that it assumes that leadership
capability can be learned, rather than being inherent. This opens the floodgates to leadership
development, as opposed to simple psychometric assessment that sorts those with leadership potential
from those who will never have the chance.
A behavioral theory is relatively easy to develop, as you simply assess both leadership success and
the actions of leaders. With a large enough study, you can then correlate statistically significant
behaviors with success. You can also identify behaviors which contribute to failure, thus adding a
second layer of understanding.
Focusing on behaviors provides several advantages over a trait approach:
 Behaviors can be observed more objectively than traits.
 Behaviors can be measured more precisely and more accurately than traits
 As opposed to traits, which are either innate or develop early in life, behaviors can be
taught.
These factors provided a clear benefit to the military and various other organizations with a practical
interest in leadership. Instead of identifying leaders who had particular personality traits, they could
focus on training people to perform effective leadership behaviors. The early work of Lewin and his
associates (Lewin and Lippit, 1938; Lewin, Lippit, and White, 1939) concerning democratic,
autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership laid the foundation for the behavior approach to leadership.
Democratic leaders were defined as those who consult their followers and allow them to participate
in decision making, autocratic leaders as those who make decisions alone, and laissez-faire leaders
as those who provide no direction and do not become involved with their followers. Although the
three types of leadership style were clearly defined, the research failed to establish which style would
be most effective or which situational factors would lead to the use of one or another style.
Furthermore, each of the styles had different effects on subordinates. For example, laissez-faire
leadership, which involved providing information but little guidance or evaluation, led to frustrated
and disorganized groups that, in turn, produced low-quality work. On the other hand, autocratic
leadership caused followers to become submissive, whereas groups led by democratic leaders were
relaxed and became cohesive.
Different researches have been conducted about behavioral studies. Some of them are:

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 1. Ohio State Studies
2. Michigan studies
3. Theory X, Y & Z
4. Managerial /leadership/ Grid
Let’s discuss these points one by one.
1. Ohio State Studies
− Most comprehensive and replicated studies of behavioral theories began at Ohio State University
in the late 1940s. Research focused on identifying independent dimensions of leader behavior, which
eventually were narrowed to two:
− Initiating structure: the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure their role
and those of employees in the search for goal attainment. This includes behavior that
attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals
− Consideration: The extent to which a person is likely to have job relationships
characterized mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings.
This type of leader shows concern for his followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and
satisfaction
−Leaders high in initiating structure and consideration (H-H) tended to achieve higher employee
performance than L-H, H-L, or L-L. High in initiating structure tended to have greater rates of
grievances, absenteeism, turnover, and lower levels of job satisfaction
2. University of Michigan Studies
− Studies at Michigan at the same time as the Ohio State studies have similar research objectives.
They also came up with two dimensions:
− Employee-oriented: leaders emphasized interpersonal relations; take a personal interest
in the needs of their employees and the individual differences of employees.
− Production-oriented: emphasize the technical or task aspects of their job and emphasize
accomplishing the group’s tasks.
− Researchers favored the leaders who were employee-oriented in their behavior because they were
associated with higher group productivity and higher job satisfaction. Production-oriented leaders
tended to be associated with low grow productivity and low worker satisfaction
3. Theory X, Y and Theory Z
Douglas McGregor described Theory X and Theory Y in his book, The Human Side of Enterprise.
Theory X and Theory Y each represent different ways in which leaders view employees. Theory X
managers believe that employees are motivated mainly by money, are lazy, uncooperative, and have
poor work habits. Theory Y managers believe that subordinates work hard, are cooperative, and have
positive attitudes.

Theory X managers believe that: Theory Y managers believe that:

 The average human being has an inherent  The expenditure of physical and mental effort in
dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. work is as natural as play or rest, and the average
 Because of this human characteristic, most human being, under proper conditions, learns not
people must be coerced, controlled, only to accept but to seek responsibility.
directed, or threatened with punishment to  People will exercise self-direction and self-
get them to put forth adequate effort to control to achieve objectives to which they are
achieve organizational objectives. committed.
 The average human being prefers to be  The capacity to exercise a relatively high level of
directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the

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 relatively little ambition, and wants security solution of organizational problems is widely, not
above all else. narrowly, distributed in the population, and the
intellectual potentialities of the average human
being are only partially utilized under the
conditions of modern industrial life.

It can therefore be seen that a leader holding Theory X assumptions would prefer an autocratic style,
whereas one holding Theory Y assumptions would prefer a more participative style. So theory-x may
be said to be negative & pessimistic one & theory -y may be said to be positive & optimistic.
Theory Z (Ouchi 1981)
− Basic assumption is that workers are the key to high productivity. Management’s role is to
structure the work situation in such a way that employees can work together more effectively.
− It builds on management practices commonly used in Japan and argues that the work climate in the
U.S. is missing key attributes:
− Long-term employment: employees should expect to work in a single organization for all
or most of their careers and to accept a variety of responsibilities.
− Trust: Employees should believe that their contributions over a lifetime will be rewarded
in an equitable and just manner.
− Discernment: Employees should develop norms of behavior that emphasize the utility of
working together with other employees to improve productivity
− Intimacy: Employees should develop close personal relationships that reflect values such
as care, unselfishness, and sacrifice for others
Management strategies that can be used to accomplish these attributes are:
− Close and frequent personal contact between supervisors and subordinates
− Relatively flat organizational structures consisting of a few hierarchical levels
− Group involvement using techniques such as quality circles
− Use a family approach in that management can adopt a paternalistic attitude towards
subordinates
− Use of selection, training, compensation, promotion, and appraisal strategies that
reinforce communal and familial values of the organization
4. Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid
In the 1940s, in an attempt to identify the behavioral characteristics of successful leaders, Blake and
Mouton identified two fundamental drivers of managerial behavior: the concern for getting the job
done, and the concern for people doing the work.
They argued that, on the one hand, an exclusive concern for production at the expense of the needs of
those engaged in production, leads to dissatisfaction and conflict, thus adversely affecting
performance; but that, on the other hand, an excessive concern to avoid conflict and maintain good
relationships is also detrimental to the achievement of goals and objectives.
In order to provide a framework for describing management behaviors, the two variables of “concern
for production” and “concern for people” were plotted on a grid showing nine degrees of concern
for each, from 1 indicating a low level of concern, to 9 indicating a high level of concern. Five
positions on the grid represent five differing managerial behavior patterns. The first number refers to
a leader's production or task orientation; the second, to people or employee orientation.

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 The Blake Mouton Managerial Grid (Blake & Mouton, 1964)
a. Impoverished management
The impoverished style is located at the lower left-hand corner of the grid, point (1, 1). Minimum
effort is exerted to get the work done. It is a delegate-and-disappear management style. It is
characterized by low concern for both people and production. Basically it is a lazy approach that
avoids as much work as possible. He (or she) avoids getting into trouble. His main concern is not to
be held responsible for any mistakes. Managers use this style to preserve job and job seniority,
protecting themselves by avoiding getting into trouble. As a result, disorganization, dissatisfaction
and disharmony due to lack of effective leadership are present. The primary objective of the
impoverished style is for managers to stay out of trouble.
Impact on employees:
 Employees have a high degree of dissatisfaction
 No harmony within the group
 High turn over
Impact on organization:
 Inefficient operation

b. Authority-compliance (The Produce or Perish style)

The authority-compliance (produce or perish style) is located at the lower right-hand corner of the
grid, point (9, 1). A high concern for production and a low concern for people characterize it. S/he is
authoritarian or compliance leader. A task-oriented manager, he has a high concern for production
and a low concern for people. He finds employee needs unimportant and simply a means to an end.
He provides his employees with money and expects performance back. There is little or no allowance
for cooperation or collaboration. He pressures his employees through rules and punishments to
achieve the company goals. Heavily task-oriented people are very strong on schedules. They are
intolerant of what they see as dissent (it may just be someone’s creativity). This dictatorial style is
based on Theory X of Douglas McGregor. It is often applied by companies on the edge of real or
perceived failure, such as in Crisis Management. In this case, whilst high output is achievable in the
short term, much will be lost through an inevitable high labor turnover.
Impact on employees:
 Employees experience a high level of dissatisfaction
 High level of conflict within the group

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 Impact on organization:
 High employee turnover
 Peak performance is short lived

c.Country Club management

The country club style is located at the upper left-hand corner of the grid, point (1, 9). It is
characterized as a high concern for people and a low concern for production. He pays much
attention to the security and comfort of the employees. He hopes that this will increase performance.
He is almost incapable of employing the more punitive, coercive and legitimate powers. This inability
results from fear that using such powers could jeopardize relationships with the other team members.
The organization will end up to be a friendly atmosphere, but not necessarily very productive. The
primary objective of the country club style is to create a secure and comfortable atmosphere and trust
that subordinates will respond positively. But a low focus on task may give questionable results.
Impact on employees:
 Employees are Happy
 Good team harmony
Impact on organization:
 Low productivity
d. Middle of the road management
The middle-of-the-road style is located at the middle of the grid, point (5, 5). A balance between
workers' needs and the organization's productivity goals characterize it. The primary objective of the
middle-of-the-road style is to maintain employee morale at a level sufficient to get the organization's
work done. Doing enough to get things done, but not pushing the boundaries of what may be possible.
Impact on employees:
 Employees are not really discontent nor are they happy
 Good harmony within the group
Impact on organization:
 Average performance

e. Team Management
The team style is located at the upper right-hand of the grid, point (9, 9). It is characterized by a high
concern for people and production. Motivation is high. This soft style is based on the propositions of
Theory Y of Douglas McGregor. The manager encourages teamwork and commitment among
employees. This style emphasizes making employees feel part of the company-family, and involving
them in understanding organizational purpose and determining production needs. This method relies
heavily on making employees feel they are constructive parts of the company. And this will result in a
team environment organization based on trust and respect, which leads to high satisfaction and
motivation and, as a result, high production.
Impact on employees:
 Employees are forming a highly cohesive team
 Employees are satisfied
 Employees are motivated and work as a team

Impact on organization:

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  Low employee turnover
 Attracts highly skills employees
 Efficient organization

4. THE CONTINGENCY (SITUATIONAL) THEORY: Early 1960s to Present

Even before the behavior approach's lack of success in explaining and predicting leadership
effectiveness became evident, a number of researchers were calling for a more comprehensive
approach to understanding leadership. Specifically, researchers recommended that situational
factors, such as the task and type of work group, be taken into consideration. It, however, was not
until the 1960s that this recommendation was applied. In the 1960s, spearheaded by Fred Fiedler,
whose Contingency Model of leadership is discussed later in this part, leadership research moved
from simplistic models based solely on the leader to more complex models that take a contingency
point of view. The primary assumption of the contingency view is that the personality, style, or
behavior of effective leaders depends on the requirements of the situation in which the leaders find
themselves.
Advocators of this theory argue that the practice of leadership is too complex to represent by unique
traits or behaviors. They also propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon
situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of
decision-making i.e. leaders are products of a given situation; what is effective in one situation may
not be effective in other situation.
Generally, they argue that effective leadership is really a function of the interaction of several
variables, including
 superior - subordinate relationships;
 the power distribution between superior and subordinate;
 the degree to which the job is structured;
 Expectations and behavior of superiors;
 Subordinate characteristics, anticipation and behavior;
 Organizational culture and policies;
Leadership is strongly affected by a situation from which a leader emerges and in which he works.
Hence, leadership is a function of the leader, the followers and the situations.
Situational theory attempts to discover that the no one unique set of leadership traits were largely
successful. As to modern management theorists, leadership is more complex, it cannot be represented
by one set of traits or by single set of behavior, and effective leadership behavior depends on the
environment or the situation.
The major theories contributing towards this school of thought are described below.
A. Fiedler's Contingency Model
Fiedler's contingency theory postulates that there is no single best way for managers to lead.
Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager. The solution to a
managerial situation is contingent on the factors that impinge on the situation. For example, in a
highly routine (mechanistic) environment where repetitive tasks are the norm, a relatively directive
leadership style may result in the best performance, however, in a dynamic environment a more
flexible, participative style may be required.
He also proved that effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader’s
style of interacting in his subordinates & the degree to which the situation gives control & influence
to the leader. People become leaders not only because of the attributes of their personalities but also
because of various situations & their interaction in group members.

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 He identified 3 situational dimensions that influence the leader’s effectiveness.
a. Leader - member relations: refers to the degree of confidence, trust & respect the followers
have in their leader.
b. Task structure: the degree to which the job assignments of subordinates are structured or
unstructured. If tasks are clear/ structure the quality of performance easily controllable &
employees are responsible for their performance.
c. Position power: it is a degree of influence a leader has for living, promoting, firing, salary
increase etc. It refers to the power inherent in the leadership position to reward or punish. A
leader with clear & considerable position power can obtain good followership more easily.
 These factors together determine how favorable the situation is for the leader. Good member -
leader relations, high task structure & strong position power indicates the most favorable
situation.
B. Path-goal theory
It is a model developed by Robert House and his colleagues, which combines the Ohio State research
on initiating structure and consideration with the expectancy theory of motivation. Effective leaders
increase motivation and satisfaction among subordinates when they help them pursue important goals
and help subordinates see the goal. Essence of the theory is that it is the leader’s job to assist their
followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction and/or support needed to ensure that their
goals are compatible with the overall goals of the organization. Role of the leader is to clarify the path
to help followers get to their goals and to make the journey along that path easier by reducing
roadblocks and pitfalls. Leader’s behavior is acceptable to subordinates if they view the leader as an
immediate source of future source of satisfaction.
Leader’s behavior is motivational if it:
− Makes the subordinate’s satisfaction contingent on performance
− Provides the coaching guidance, support, and rewards necessary for effective performance
In contrast to Fielder’s contingency model, path-goal theory assumes that managers can alter their
leadership style as needed.
According to path goal theory, factors influencing the contingency relationship are:
− Environmental factors beyond the control of the leader (e.g., task structure, formal authority
system, and work group)
− Personal characteristics of the subordinates (e.g., locus of control, experience, and perceived
ability)
Path-goal model provides a framework for explaining and predicting leadership effectiveness that has
developed a solid, empirical foundation. Leader will be ineffective when their behavior is redundant
with the sources of environmental structure or incongruent with subordinate characteristics.
C. The Hersey-Blanchard Model of Leadership
The Hersey-Blanchard Leadership Model also takes a situational perspective of leadership. This
model points that the developmental levels of a leader's subordinates play the greatest role in
determining which leadership styles (leader behaviors) are most appropriate. Their theory is based
on the amount of direction (task behavior) and socio-emotional support (relationship behavior) a
leader must provide given the situation and the "level of maturity" of the followers.
 Task behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties and
responsibilities to an individual or group. This behavior includes telling people what to do,
how to do it, when to do it, where to do it, and who's to do it. In task behavior the leader
engages in one-way communication.

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  Relationship behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multi-way
communications. This includes listening, facilitating, and supportive behaviors. In
relationship behavior the leader engages in two-way communication by providing socio-
emotional support.
 Maturity is the willingness and ability of a person to take responsibility for directing his or
her own behavior. People tend to have varying degrees of maturity, depending on the specific
task, function, or objective that a leader is attempting to accomplish through their efforts.
In summary, therefore, leader behaviors fall along two continua:
Directive Behavior Supportive Behavior
• One-Way Communication • Two-Way Communication
• Followers' Roles Clearly Communicated • Listening, providing support and
• Close Supervision of Performance encouragement
• Facilitate interaction Involve follower in
decision-making
For Blanchard the key situational variable, when determining the appropriate leadership style, is the
readiness or developmental level of the subordinate(s). As a result, four leadership styles result:
 Directing: The leader provides clear instructions and specific direction. This style is best
matched with a low follower readiness level.
 Coaching: The leader encourages two-way communication and helps build confidence and
motivation on the part of the employee, although the leader still has responsibility and
controls decision making. Selling style is best matched with a moderate follower readiness
level.
 Supporting: With this style, the leader and followers share decision making and no longer
need or expect the relationship to be directive. Participating style is best matched with a
moderate follower readiness level.
 Delegating: This style is appropriate for leaders whose followers are ready to accomplish a
particular task and are both competent and motivated to take full responsibility. Delegating
style is best matched with a high follower readiness level.
To determine the appropriate leadership style to use in a given situation, the leader must first
determine the maturity level of the followers in relation to the specific task that the leader is
attempting to accomplish through the effort of the followers. As the level of followers' maturity
increases, the leader should begin to reduce his or her task behavior and increase relationship
behavior until the followers reach a moderate level of maturity. As the followers begin to move into
an above average level of maturity, the leader should decrease not only task behavior but also
relationship behavior. Once the maturity level is identified, the appropriate leadership style can be
determined.
D. Tannenbaum & Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum
One criticism of early work on leadership styles is that they looked at styles too much in black and
white terms. The autocratic and democratic styles or task-oriented and relationship-oriented styles
which they described are extremes, whereas in practice the behavior of many, perhaps most, leaders
in business will be somewhere between the two. Contingency theorists Tannenbaum and Schmidt
suggested the idea that, leadership behavior varies along a continuum and that as one moves away
from the autocratic extreme the amount of subordinate participation and involvement in decision
taking increases. They also suggested that the kind of leadership represented by the democratic
extreme of the continuum will be rarely encountered in formal organizations.
Four main leadership styles can be located at points along such a continuum:

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 • Autocratic: The leader takes the decisions and announces them; expecting subordinates to
carry them out without question (the Telling style).
• Persuasive: At this point on the scale the leader also takes all the decisions for the group
without discussion or consultation but believes that people will be better motivated if they are
persuaded that the decisions are good ones. He or she does a lot of explaining and 'selling' in
order to overcome any possible resistance to what he or she wants to do. The leader also puts
a lot of energy into creating enthusiasm for the goals he or she has set for the group (the
Selling style).
• Consultative: In this style the leader confers with the group members before taking decisions
and, in fact, considers their advice and their feelings when framing decisions. He or she may,
of course, not always accept the subordinates' advice but they are likely to feel that they can
have some influence. Under this leadership style the decision and the full responsibility for it
remain with the leader but the degree of involvement by subordinates in decision taking is
very much greater than telling or selling styles (the Consulting style).
• Democratic: Using this style the leader would characteristically lay the problem before his or
her subordinates and invite discussion. The leader's role is that of conference leader, or
chair, rather than that of decision taker. He or she will allow the decision to emerge out of
the process of group discussion, instead of imposing it on the group as its boss (the Joining
style). What distinguishes this approach from previous discussions of leadership style is that
there will be some situations in which each of the above styles is likely to be more
appropriate than the others.
• Telling: In an emergency, a telling style may be most appropriate and would normally be
considered justified by the group (as long as the general climate of that group is supportive
and mature).
• Selling: The selling style would tend to fit situations in which the group leader, and he or she
alone, possesses all the information on which the decision must be based and which at the
same time calls for a very high level of commitment and enthusiasm on the part of group
members if the task is to be carried through successfully.
• Consulting: The consulting style is likely to be most appropriate when there is time in which to
reach a considered decision and when the information on which the decision needs to be
based lies among the members of the group.
• Joining: The joining style is appropriate under similar conditions, with the important
exception that this is likely to be appropriate only in those instances where the nature of the
responsibility associated with the decision is such that group members are willing to share it
with their leader, or alternatively the leader is willing to accept responsibility for decisions
which he or she has not made personally.
E. Adair’s Action-Centered Leadership Model
John Adair has a long pedigree in the world of leadership. The Adair model is that the action-
centered leader gets the job done through the work team and relationships with fellow managers and
staff. According to Adair's explanation an action-centered leader must:
• direct the job to be done (task structuring)
• support and review the individual people doing it
• Co-ordinate and foster the work team as a whole

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 Action-Centered Leadership Model (Adair, 1973)
His famous three circle diagram is a simplification of the variability of human interaction, but is a
useful tool for thinking about what constitutes an effective leader/manager in relation to the job
he/she has to do. The effective leader/manager carries out the functions and exhibits the behaviors
depicted by the three circles. Situational and contingent elements call for different responses by the
leader. Hence imagine that the various circles may be bigger or smaller as the situation varies i.e. the
leader will give more or less emphasis to the functionally-oriented behaviors according to what the
actual situation involves. The challenge for the leader is to manage all sectors of the diagram:

Task • define the task

• make the plan
• allocate work and resources
• control quality and rate of work
• check performance against plan
• adjust the plan
Team • maintain discipline
• build team spirit
• encourage, motivate, give a sense of purpose
• appoint sub-leaders
• ensure communication within group
• develop the group
Individual • attend to personal problems
• praise individuals
• give status
• recognize and use individual abilities
• develop the individual

Applying What You Learn: Putting the Contingency Model to Work

Fiedler's contingency model suggests that instead of focusing on changing their style, leaders should
learn to understand and manage the situations in which they lead. Chances, however, are that most of
the leadership training programs you may attend will focus on changing the leaders' style to adapt to
different situations. Here's how you can take advantage of those training programs while following
the contingency model's recommendations:
 Remember that learning will take place when you challenge yourself to undertake and master
behaviors that do not come easily and therefore may be outside your comfort zone or
primary motivation area.
 Regardless of your style, you can always learn new behaviors and expand your current
range.

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  All training, by design or default, will expose you to many new leadership situations. Take
the opportunity to practice analyzing them to ascertain situational control.
 Do not expect miracles or even quick changes. Increasing your effectiveness as a leader is a
long journey.
2.5. NEW MODELS FOR LEADERSHIP

For many people, the concept of leadership conjures up images of political or organizational leaders
who accomplish seemingly impossible feats. When asked to name leaders, people often mention
Martin Luther King Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, and John F. Kennedy. These leaders and others like them
exude confidence and engender strong emotional responses in their followers. They change their
followers, organizations, and society and even alter the course of history. They are leaders who have
a special relationship with their followers that goes beyond setting goals, using resources, and
conducting business. The most-current approaches to leadership focus on leaders, who create special
and long-lasting relationships or bonds with their followers and, through such bonds, are able to
reach goals and, in some cases, achieve extraordinary results. The concepts presented in this chapter
address the different ways (models) in which leaders establish that bond and the approach they take
in engaging their followers.
The models in this are part of what some researchers have called a "new paradigm for leadership"
(Bryman, 1992). Although they have many differences, their common themes are inspiration, vision,
and focus on the relationship between leaders and followers.. These models, however, go beyond the
study of that relationship by highlighting inspiration and vision. Because they dominate the field of
the leadership with considerable new research devoted to the concepts and because they do not rely
fully on contingency approaches, they are presented separately here.

1. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL

How do leaders create and sustain revolutionary change in organizations? What style of leadership
is needed to motivate followers to undertake organizational transformations? Several researchers
proposed transformational leadership concepts to answer these questions and to describe and explain
how leaders succeed in achieving large-scale change in organizations. James MacGregor Burns
s(1978) writing in his book ‘Leadership’ was the first to put forward the concept of “transforming
leadership”. To Burns transforming leadership “is a relationship of mutual stimulation and
elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents”. Burns
went on to also further define it by suggesting that:
“[Transforming leadership] occurs when one or more persons engage with others in
such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation
and morality…”
According to him transformational leadership theory suggests that some leaders, through their
personal traits and their relationships with followers, go beyond a simple exchange of resources and
productivity. Transformational leadership includes three factors-charisma and inspiration,
intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration-that, when combined, allow a leader to achieve
large scale change.
a. Charisma and Inspiration
The concept of charisma is one of the three central elements of transformational leadership. The
word charisma means "an inspired and divine gift." Charismatic leaders have the gift are divinely

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endowed with grace and talent. Charismatic leaders capture the imagination and inspire their
followers' devotion and allegiance.
Requirements of charismatic leaders
 The leader characteristics
 The follower characteristics
 The situation

Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

Charismatic leaders share several common personality and behavioral characteristics and traits.
Although many of the traits-such as self-confidence, energy, and the ability to communicate well-are
related to all types of leadership, their combination is what sets apart the charismatic leaders.
One characteristic that defines charismatic leaders is their self-confidence in their own abilities and
in the correctness and the moral righteousness of their beliefs and actions. The self-confidence is
accompanied by an apparent lack of internal conflict. Charismatic leaders seem to know they are
right and project that confidence. Their high level of confidence in their actions motivates their
followers and creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. The more confident the leader is, the more motivated
the followers are, which further emboldens the leader and encourages the followers to carry out the
leader's wishes wholeheartedly. The charismatic leader's ability to express positive emotions is
further linked to a positive mood in followers, which increases the attraction to the leader and his or
her effectiveness. Positive expressions, motivation, and hard work increase the chances of success,
which provides proof of the leader's righteousness.
Charismatic leaders generally exhibit high energy levels, along with self-confidence. They are
enthusiastic about their ideas and actions, are highly expressive, and use nonverbal cues to lend
dramatic support to their well-crafted verbal message. Their exceptional articulation skills that help
them express their excitement and communicate the content of their ideas to their followers are a
primary tool in persuading followers to join in their vision. With excellent communication skills,
charismatic leaders define and frame the mission of the organization or the group in a way that
makes it meaningful and relevant to followers. The process of framing puts the leader's goals in a
worthwhile context that is used to draw and motivate followers.
Charismatic leaders carefully craft their message and present themselves as role models to their
followers. They use active impression management to support their image. They "walk the talk,"
whether it is through the self-sacrifice that they demand of their followers or the self-control they
demonstrate.

Characteristics of Followers

Because charismatic leadership results from an interaction and relationship between, a leader and
followers, the followers of such leaders generally display certain characteristics. Without the leader
and the follower characteristics, no charismatic relationship can form. First and foremost, followers
hold the leader in high esteem. They are strongly devoted to him or her, and an intense emotional
bond forms between the leader and the followers. These followers admire their leader; emulate the
leader's behaviors and mannerisms, including talking, dressing, and acting like the leader. The
intense emotional bond and attraction to the leader create a situation whereby followers obey without
question. They have confidence in the vision and direction. Once the identification process takes
place, complete internalization of the leader's values and aspirations occurs. In addition, some

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followers' personality traits are linked to the development of charismatic relationships. In particular,
self-monitoring and self-concept might affect how the charismatic relationship develops.

The Charismatic Situation

The final element of charismatic leadership is the situation. A crisis causes followers to look for new
solutions. During a time of crisis, followers are ready for change. If an individual is able to capture
and represent the needs and aspirations of the group, that individual is likely to become the group
leader. In addition, individuals who demonstrate competence and loyalty to a group and its goals are
provided with "credit" that they can spend to assume leadership roles. This idiosyncrasy credit allows
certain individuals to emerge as leaders and change the direction of the group. Because of the strong
emotional impact of charismatic leaders, followers provide them with tremendous flexibility (credit)
to lead the group into new territory.

b. Intellectual Stimulation

The second factor in transformational leadership is the leader's ability to motivate followers to solve
problems by challenging them intellectually and encouraging them to come up with creative
solutions. The leaders and the group question existing values and assumptions and search for new
answers (Shin and Zhou, 2003). By encouraging them to look at problems in new ways requiring new
solutions and by triggering controversial discussion and debate, the leader pushes followers to
perform beyond what they previously considered possible. The charismatic bond provides support
and encouragement in this endeavor and prevents followers from feeling isolated. Intellectual
stimulation includes a strong empowering component, which assures followers of their abilities and
capabilities, and enables them to search out new solutions. Transformational leadership has been
shown to create empowerment that, in turn, increases team effectiveness.

c. Individual Consideration

The leader treats each follower differently but equitably, providing all with individual attention. As a
result, followers feel special, encouraged, motivated, developed, and perform better. The leader's
individual consideration further allows for matching each follower's skills and abilities to the needs
of the organization. The three factors; charisma/inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individual
consideration-combine to allow the leader to undertake the necessary changes in an organization.
The charismatic emotional bond overcomes the psychological and emotional resistance to change.
The intellectual stimulation provides the new solutions and innovation and empowers followers. The
individual relationship between the leader and follower encourages followers and provides them with
additional motivation.

Some Negative Consequences of Charismatic Leaders

• Being in awe of the leader reduces good suggestions by followers.
• Desire for leader acceptance inhibits criticism by followers.
• Adoration by followers creates delusions of leader infallibility.
• Excessive confidence and optimism blind the leader to real dangers.
• Denial of problems and failures reduces organizational learning.

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 • Risky, grandiose projects are more likely to fail.
• Taking complete credit for successes alienates some key followers.
• Impulsive, nontraditional behavior creates enemies as well as believers.
• Dependence on the leader inhibits development of competent successors.
• Failure to develop successors creates an eventual leadership crisis.

2. TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL

Developed initially by George Graen and Steven Ginsburgh (1977).Transactional leadership is most
often explained as a cost-benefit exchange between leaders and their followers. The transaction or
exchange involves something of value between what the leader possesses or controls and what the
follower wants in return for his/her services.
Transactional leadership involves leaders clarifying goals and objectives, communicating to organize
tasks and activities with the cooperation of their employees to ensure that wider organizational goals
are met. The success of this type of leader–follower relationship depends on the acceptance of
hierarchical differences and the ability to work through this mode of exchange. Transactional
leadership is based on the assumption that subordinates and systems work better under a clear chain
of command. The implicit belief in the leader–follower relationship is that people are motivated by
rewards and penalties and those interpersonal relations can be characterized as more or less
rational exchanges between agents exercising the power of choice. Despite numerous leadership
studies highlighting the limitations of this approach, transactional leadership remains popular
among leaders and managers.
The transactional model should not be taken to a rigid extreme, but the concept has an appealing
clarity. Ultimately, people must know what they need to accomplish and what others expect from
them. Without this, communication will always be flawed.
The difficulty in transactional leadership is that the concept doesn't apply well to all circumstances or
cultures. For example, job-performance-and-reward model doesn't pertain to volunteer efforts, where
the reward is usually something other than what the leader can directly provide.

Transformational and Transactional Behaviors

Transformational Behaviors
Idealized influence
Individualized consideration
Inspirational motivation
Intellectual stimulation
Transactional Behaviors
Contingent reward
Active management by exception
Passive management by exception

3. SERVANT LEADERSHIP MODEL

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The term “servant leader” was first coined in 1970 essay by Robert K. Greenleaf (1904-1990)
entitled, the servant as leader. He said that the servant leader is one who is servant first. Greenleaf
concludes that “people will freely respond only to individuals who are chosen as leaders, because
they are proven and trusted as servants.” Once again, this gets back to fulfilling people’s needs and
when these needs are met, people grow and transform the organization. Greenleaf challenges us to
look at broader needs, even those needs outside the organization. He contends that we must listen
and in some cases withdraw in order to understand a situation and we intervene appropriately in a
servant role. Greenleaf also views leadership as foresight – having the ability to see how things might
be in the future and acting in the presence to move the organization in that direction.
Servant Leadership requires that we look at stakeholders needs. We must understand the external
environment things like marketplace trends. We must work hard at getting processes and systems
aligned for strategic execution. Much of what leaders do is to serve the cause or another way to put
it: Spend time on the important non-urgent activities that ultimately will make the significant
difference. It’s not just about managing our time until retirement or doing what’s residing in our in
basket. We literally do different things that make us servant leaders to the organization.

Difference between Transforming and Transactional Leadership

One reason why James MacGregor Burns’s (1978) theory of transforming leadership is the most
prominent leadership theory is because it accounts for both ethics and effectiveness. Burns
distinguishes between transforming and transactional leadership. Transactional leadership rests on
the values found in the means of an act. These are called modal values, which include responsibility,
fairness, honesty and promise keeping, etc. Transactional leadership helps leaders and followers
reach their own goals by supplying lower level wants and needs so that they can move up to higher
needs. Transforming leadership is when leaders and followers morally elevate each other to various
stages of morality and need. Through this process, leaders empower their followers to become
leaders. Burns’s theory describes effective leadership as the ability to bring about change. Ethical
leadership is based on leader–follower relations that consist of an ongoing dialogue about values.
Transforming leadership is also concerned with end-values. The quality of all aspects of leadership
rests on how well they promote the end values of liberty, justice, equality and happiness. These are
lofty moral standards, but the relationship between what leaders are and what they should be is the
main point of studying leadership ethics.

2.6. LEADERSHIP SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES

Skills are abilities to do something expertly and well, and they are necessary to operate activities
successfully. Skills are not necessarily inborn but can be developed/ acquired. The skills are
necessary to accomplish or understand the specific kind of work being done in an organization or
ability to perform work using specific knowledge, methods, procedures, techniques and resources in a
specialized field. Leaders need mental capacity to understand the overall workings of the
organization and its environment; to grasp how all the parts of the organization fit together, and to
view the organization in a holistic manner.
Competencies are the underlying characteristics of people that lead to superior performance. These
include the person’s knowledge, natural and learned abilities, values, and personality traits. Since
the beginning of recorded civilization, people have been interested in personal characteristics that
distinguish great leaders from the rest of us. Generally, leaders need to have the following
competencies.

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 1. Understanding the Needs and Characteristics of the Post
Each individual participant of the group has certain needs and characteristics.
1. A leader should understand his or her own needs and characteristics.
2. A leader should understand the needs and characteristics of each participant of the group.
This helps the leader to deal with each person as an individual, to treat that individual with
respect, and to help the person grow.
3. This understanding helps in planning the program and in getting things done.
4. This understanding creates trust and builds confidence among group participants.
Through conversation and informal surveys of post participants, try to find out:
 Why they joined your post?
 What they expect from the post’s program?
 What their major interests are?
 What their plans for the future are?
2. Knowing and Using the Resources of the Group
Resources include all those things necessary to do a job. Resources also include people, because
people have knowledge and skills. Knowledge is what a person learns through familiarity or
experience—what you know. Skill is the ability to use what you know. Attitude includes the desire to
do something—motivation—and the belief that you can do it—confidence. When the leader uses the
knowledge and skills of group participants to get a job done, the participants gain experience and
improve skills. They also develop a positive attitude toward using a skill.
Keep the post’s program capability inventory up to date and use it in planning.
Understand the purpose and resources of your participating organization.
 Survey the participants’ parents; include them in your program capability inventory.
Find out your post participants’ skills, interests, and resources.
3. Communicating
To improve your skills in getting information:
 Pay attention and listen carefully.
 Make notes and sketches.
 Ask questions and repeat your understanding of what was said.
To improve your skills in giving information:
 Be sure others are listening before you speak.
 Speak slowly and clearly.
 Draw diagrams, if needed. Ask those receiving information to take notes.
 Have the listeners repeat their understanding of what was said.
 Encourage questions.
4. Planning
Planning is an important part of everything we do in exploring. The following is a simple process for
planning:
 Consider the task and objectives. What do you want to accomplish?
 Consider the resources—equipment, knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
 Consider the alternatives. Brainstorm.
 Reach a decision, evaluating each option.
 Write the plan down and review it with the post.
 Execute the plan.
 Evaluate the plan.
5. Controlling Group Performance

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A leader influences the performance of the group and individual participants through his or her
actions. Why is control needed? A group needs control as an engine needs a throttle— to keep it from
running itself into the ground. A group works together best when everybody is headed in the same
direction. If a plan is to be properly carried out, someone must lead the effort. Control is a function
that the group assigns to the leader to get the job done.
Control happens as a result of recognizing the difference between where the group is and where the
group is going. The leader is responsible for developing a plan to help the group get to its goal.
Setting the example is the most effective way of controlling the group. When working with post
participants, do the following:
• Continually observe the group. Know what is happening and the attitude of the group.
• Make your instructions clear and pertinent.
• Pitch in and help when necessary.
• Quickly deal with disruption.
• Guide the post toward self-discipline.
6. Evaluating
Evaluating helps measure the performance of a group in getting a job done and working together. It
suggests ways in which the group can improve its performance. There are two basic categories of
evaluation questions. After any event or activity, ask these questions:
Getting the job done
• Was the job done?
• Was the job done right?
• Was the job done on time?
Keeping the group together
• Were relationships between group participants helped or hurt?
• Was participation equally distributed among group participants?
• Did the group enjoy the activity?
• Did the group handle conflicts well?
7. Setting the Example
Setting the example is probably the most important leadership skill. It is the most effective way to
show others the proper way to conduct themselves, and is even more effective than verbal
communication. Without this skill, all the other skills will be useless.
8. Sharing Leadership
While there are various ways to exercise leadership, the goal of exploring leadership is exemplified in
a quote from the ancient Chinese philosopher, Lao-Tzu: “But of a good leader . . . When the work is
done, his aim fulfilled, they will say, ‘We did these ourselves.’ ” The Exploring leader wants to give
post participants the skills he or she possesses, not to use those skills in ways that keep the post weak
or dependent. He or she offers leadership opportunities to post participants and teaches them the
skills they need.
9. Counseling
Counseling is important
• To help people solve problems
• To encourage or reassure
• To help an Explorer reach his or her potential

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Counseling can be effective when a person is
• Undecided—he or she can’t make a decision
• Confused—he or she doesn’t have enough information or has too much information
• Locked in—he or she doesn’t know any alternatives
How do you counsel?
• First, try to understand the situation. Listen carefully. Summarize, check the facts. Paraphrase
to make sure you understand.
• Second, help list as many options as possible.
• Third, help list the disadvantages of the options.
• Fourth, help list the advantages of the options.
• Finally, let the person decide on a solution. The counselor’s role is to give encouragement and
information, not advice.

10. Representing the Group

Where do you represent the post? Post leaders represent the post at post committee meetings,
Advisors’ meetings, officers’ meetings, and planning conferences, and to the participating
organization. The leader represents the post in two situations:
• Without consultation—when he or she doesn’t have the opportunity to consult with post
officers about a decision
• With consultation—when he or she can meet with post officers about the issue
11. Effective Teaching
Effective teaching is a process to increase the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the group and its
participants. The focus is on learning, not teaching. For teaching to be effective, learning must take
place. The steps of effective teaching include;
• Choosing the learning objectives
• Providing a discovery experience that helps the learner understand the need for the skill
• Demonstrating or explaining the skill
• Allowing the learner to practice the skill
• Evaluating the process

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