❖ Introduction:

The internship on Wetlands Ecosystem and Diversity is a comprehensive program designedto

provide hands-on experience and in-depth knowledge about the complex relationships within
wetland ecosystems. Wetlands, which include mangroves, marshes, swamps, and ponds, are
vital ecosystems that support a wide range of plant and animal species, and provide
numerous ecological services.

➢ Objective:

The objective of this internship is to gain a deeper understanding of the importance ofwetland
ecosystems, their biodiversity, and the impact of human activities on these sensitive
environments. Through this internship, we aim to develop skills in field observation, data
collection, and analysis, as well as gain practical experience in conservation and
management strategies for wetland ecosystems.

➢ Why we do internship:

We undertake this internship to:

• Gain practical experience in the field of wetland ecology and conservation

• Develop skills in data collection, analysis, and interpretation

• Understand the importance of wetland ecosystems and their role in supporting

biodiversity

• Learn about the impact of human activities on wetland ecosystems and the need for
sustainable management practices

• Develop teamwork and communication skills through collaboration with peers and
mentors
 ➢ Benefits of the internship:

• Hands-on experience in fieldwork and data collection

• Opportunity to work with experienced professionals in the field of wetland ecology and
conservation

• Development of skills in data analysis, interpretation, and reporting

• Enhanced knowledge of wetland ecosystems and their importance

• Contribution to the conservation and management of wetland ecosystems

• Networking opportunities with peers and professionals in the field

• Enhanced career prospects in the field of environmental science, ecology, and

conservation.
 Lesson plan:-

Day -1:- 16.05.2024( 11:30 – 3:00)

Topic :- Quadrate analysis ( b y SGH)

• Principle, procedure & methods of quadrate analysis

• species richness index, important value index
• Example all of these
Topic:- Ecosystem (by SH)
• Ecosystem, type of ecosystem ,wetland ecosystem
• Birds in the wetland and examples

Day :-2 :- 17.05.2024(11:30 – 3:00)

Topic :- probability (by WA)
• Theory of probability
• Example & sums of probability

Topic :- Central tendency (by SB)

• Theory, rules & examples of central tendency
• Mean, type of mean, medium tendency
• Characteristics of tendency
• Formula & examples
• Arithmetic mean
• Arithmetic mean for grouped data
• Formula & examples for arithmetic mean
 Day:-3:- 18.05.2024( 11:30- 3:00)
Topic:- 9:30-10:30 bird watching

▪ Co2 estimation by SG mam

• Co2 estimation of college pond water
• Theory, procedure
• Data collection & calculation

Day :- 4:- 20.05.2024( 11:30- 3:00)

Topic :- Bird watching from 9:30 to 10:30
• Population ecology by OD mam
• What is population
• Demography
• Population size & density
• Measuring population density
• Population distribution
• Mark recapture method & it's formula
• Ǫuadrate method using a hypothetical community & its observation with
example.

Day :- 5:-21.05.2024( 11:300 – 3:00)

Topic :- Salinity & alkalinity (by OD mam)

• Salinity theory, procedure, data collection & calculation of college pond water
• Alkalinity theory,procedure,data collection & calculation of college pond water.

Topic :- Ph measurement ( By SG)

• Determination of Ph of college pond water

• Definition
• Definition of Ph meter & procedure
• Ph buffer solution preparation
• Observation & data collection
• Protocols
• Advantage
• Disadvantages
• Precautions
 Day :- 6:-22.05.2024( 11:30 – 3:00)
Topic :- Bird & insect watching

• Study of planktons in aquatic ecosystem

• Phytoplankton’s & its examples
• Zooplankton & its examples
• Systematic position of zooplankton's according to & Rupert & Barnes 1994

Topic :- O2 estimation by ( AB sir & OD mam)

• Water collection from college pond

• Principle, procedure
• Data collection
• Calculation

Day :- 7:- 24.05.2024(11:30-3:00)

Topic :- T test (SH sir)

• Independent T test
• Paired T test
• Characteristics features of independent T test
• Formula & calculations

Day :-8:- 25.05.2024( 11:30 – 3:00)

Topic :- representation of data(WA mam)

• Line graph
• Bar diagram
• Pie chart
• Tally
• Arithmetic mean
• Graphical representation of data
Topic :- mode(SB)

• Formula & examples

• Definition
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
• Shanon index
• Simpson index

Day :-9:- 26.05.2024( 11:30 – 3:00)

Topic :- Chemical properties estimation of parnasree lake
water
• Salinity
• CO2 estimation
• O2 estimation
• Alkalinity determination of water
• Observation & data collection
• Calculation
• PH determination
• PH calculation of lake water

Day :- 10 :- 20.06.2024( 11:30 – 3:00)

Topic:- quadrate sampling in college premises ( ecosystem 1)

• Ǫuadrate making
• Pitfall making
• Species collection
• Observation
• Data collection
• Calculation based on collected data

Day:- 11:- 21.06.2024( 6:30- 11:30)

Topic:- community analysis of rabindra sarobar lake ( ecosystem
2)

• Avian behaviour study

• Ethological attributes
• Prominent behavioural forms
• Specific behaviour manifestation
• Data about observed specimens

Day:-12:- 22.06.2024( 11:30 – 3:00)

Topic:- Quadrate sampling ( ecosystem 2)
Location:- Parnasree lake

• Ǫuadrate making

• Pitfall making

• Species collection

• Observation

• Data collection

• Calculation based on collected data

❖ Day:- 13:- 24.06.2024( 6:30 – 11:30)

❖ Topic:- community analysis & species collection from
rabindra sarobar lake(ecosystem 3)
• Avian behaviour study

• Ethological attributes

• Prominent behavioural forms

• Specific behaviour manifestation

• Data about observed specimens

❖ Day:- 14:-25.06.2024 ( 11:30 – 3:00)

❖ Topic:- Biochemical parameters of water

• Water Sample collection from parnasree lake

• O2 estimation
• CO2 estimation
• Salinity determination
• Alkalinity determination
• pH determination
• Observation
• Data collection
• Calculation based of collected data

Day:- 15:- 26.06.2024 ( 11:30 – 3:00)

Topic:- Biochemical parameters of water
 • Water Sample collection from rabindra sarobar lake
• 02 estimation

• CO2 estimation

• Salinity determination
• Alkalinity determination
• pH determination
• Observation
• Data collection
• Calculation based of collected data

Day:- 16:- 27.06.2024( 11:30 – 3:00)

Topic:- Biochemical parameters analysis

• Water Sample collection from College pond

• 02 estimation
• CO2 estimation
• Salinity determination
• Alkalinity determination
• pH determination
• Observation
• Data collection
• Calculation based of collected data
 ❖ Study area :-

Behala Parnasree Lake :-

Parnasree Lake, also known as Parnasree Lake or Parnasree Jheel, is a prominentlandmark in

Behala, Kolkata. Here are some key details about the lake:

1. **Location**:-It is situated in the Parnasree area of Behala, which is a residential

neighborhood in the southwestern part of Kolkata.

2. **Features**:-The lake is known for its picturesque surroundings with lush greenery
and walking paths, making it a popular spot for local residents to relax and enjoy
nature.

3. **Recreational Activities**:-Visitors often come here for leisure activities such as

walking, jogging, picnicking, and boating (if available).

4. **Accessibility**:-The lake is easily accessible by road from various parts of Kolkata,and

it’s a favored destination for families and nature enthusiasts seeking a peaceful retreat
within the city.

5. **Local Appeal**:- It serves as a gathering place for the community, especially

during weekends and holidays, when people Rabindra Sarovar to unwind and spend
quality time outdoors.

If you plan to visit Behala Parnasree Lake, consider checking local updates or reviews for
current amenities and activities available.
Rabindra Sarovar Lake :-

Rabindra Sarovar, also known as Rabindra Sarobar, is a man-made lake located in South
Kolkata, India. Here are some details about it:

1. **Location:** It is situated in the southern part of Kolkata, near the locality of

Southern Avenue and the Tollygunge area.

2. **Size and Area:** The lake covers an area of about 73 acres.

3. **History:** It was originally named Dhakuria Lake and was later renamed after the
famous Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. The lake was developed in the early 1920s.

4. **Features:** Rabindra Sarovar is a popular recreational spot for locals and visitors
alike. It has a jogging track around its periphery and is surrounded by lush greenery,
making it a serene place for relaxation.

5. **Ecology:** The lake supports a variety of bird species, especially during migratory
seasons, making it a favored spot for birdwatchers.

6. **Activities:** Visitors often come here for morning walks, jogging, picnics, and
boating (pedal boats are available for hire).

7. **Accessibility:** It is easily accessible by road and is a well-known landmark in

South Kolkata.
Rabindra Sarovar holds cultural significance and is a peaceful retreat within the bustlingcity
of Kolkata.
Biodiversity

“Biodiversity” (often misspelled as “biodivarsity”) refers to the variety of life forms on Earth,
including different species, ecosystems, and genetic diversity within species. It
encompasses the richness and variability of living organisms at all levels of organization,
from genes to ecosystems. Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecosystem stability,
resilience, and the provision of ecosystem services that support human well-being. It’s a
fundamental aspect of our natural world that we strive to understand, conserve, and sustain
for future generations.

Biodiversity is made up of many ecosystems. Ecosystem A system that environment andthere

organisms form through their interaction.

(Abiotic community+biotic community )

(Interaction between multiples species of biotic community)

(interaction between different individual of same species) Ecosystem

are three types-

• Terrestrial ecosystem
• Aquatic ecosystem
• Watland ecosystem

Wetland ecosystem

Aap waitland ecosystem is an area of length that is covered by the water or saturated with water the
water of whateland can come from nearby river or Lake sea water can also createwetland specially in
quiz tell areas that experience strong tides. The water of wetland is oftained ground water shipping
up from an Aqua aquatic or spring wetlands are the bast example of transational zone.

The saturation of wetland soil determine the that's surrounds it. Plants that live in wetland are unique
adopted to their watery soil

And wetland plants are called hydrophyta there are three major kinds of wetland they are
swamp,marsh,bugs

1. Aswamp is a wetland permanently saturated with water and dominated by this thereare two
main type of swamps fresh water swamps and saltwater swamp.
2. The wetland that forms are flat grassy fringemouth all in bays marsh can be
classified as fresh water Marsh and saltwater Marsh.
 3. A big is a wetland of soft spongy ground consisting mainly of partially decayedplants
called peat

• Birds in the wetland

Huge numbers of birds paint all are part of their life cycle in the wetlands with provided habitat
and food sources for them to survive the examples of wetlandassociated water birds of West
Bengal are as follows-
1. White breasted Kingfisher
2. Small blue Kingfisher
3. Lesser -pied Kingfisher
4. Stock-billed Kingfisher
5. Indian pond Heron
6. Grey Heron
7. Little cormorant
8. Great cormorant
9. Little egret
10. Cattle egret
11. Large egret
12. Asian open bill stork

• Parnasree lake bird watching

Species Scientific Description No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. of No. Of
Name individual individual individual individual individual individual individual individual
( Day 1) (Day 2) (Day3) (Day 4) (Day 5) (Day 6) ( Day 7) (Day 8)
Sparrow Passeridae They are a 2 5 4 2 4 3 5 2
plain buffy
brown
overall with
dingy grey
brown under
parts, their
backs are
striped with
black &
brown.
Dove Columbidae Small head, 3 3 4 2 3 2 3 4
short beaks,&
stubby lakes
body, grey in
colour.
Crow Corvus Corax Black 7 6 4 6 5 4 5 7
coloured
,large bodied
bird with
shiny black
feathers &
sharp beak.
Kingfisher Alcedo atthis A large head 6 4 5 3 4 3 4 5
& a compact
body with
shiny blue
feathers &
thin orange
,fins can be
seen on the
abdomen.
Indian Halliaeerus Brown(pale 2 1 0 2 3 0 3 1
spotted eagle paligecus brown)colour
with black
feathers &
strong &
sharp nail &
sharp
reptorial
beak.
Shalik Common Dark brown 6 8 6 5 4 6 4 7
myna body black
head yellow
skin behind
the eye,
yellow bill,
tail with
white tips.
Little Microcarbo Black 4 3 5 0 4 4 5 3
cormorant nigercaridae feather,
flattish head
& a bill that
is sharpy
hooked at the
tip, black
body with
white spots.
Wood pecker Melanerpes Black body 1 0 2 2 0 0 4 3
superciliaris with white
spots &
yellow shades
along with
red feathers
on the head.
Parrot Psittaciformes Green in 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
colour with
red beak.
Red watted Cuculus Black head 8 7 6 4 5 6 5 7
lapwing micropterus with white
long spot, red
bill, blakish
red skin
behind the
eye.
Gracupica Gracupica Black with 6 5 4 4 5 6 3 4
Contra contra white
abdomen &
shiny orange
beak.
Indian Cuculus Black & grey 4 3 3 4 4 5 2 4
cuckoo micrpterus colour with
red eye,
Rock pegion Columba livia It is a pump 4 3 3 3 4 0 4 3
bird with a
rounded tail
pointed
wings .
Bulbul Bulbulus idis Rounded 4 5 4 5 3 4 2 2
wings & long
tail, small
relatively
delicate legs,
& feet are
 small
,cylinder bill,
brown bird,
red tail
opposite side.
Cattle Egret Pyconotus White 4 3 2 4 3 1 5 2
barbats feather,dark
leg,orange
bill present.

❖ Bird watching:-
❖ Location :- Behala college:-

Species Scientific name Description No. Of No. Of [Link] No. Of No. Of No .of No. Of No . of
individual individual individual individual individual individual individual individual
(Day 1) (Day 2) (Day3) (Day 4) (Day 5) (Day 6) (Day 7) (Day 8)
Crow Corvus Slender 1 2 2 3 3 4 2 4
splendens blackish,
medium
bodied long
bill bird.
Bulbul Bulbulus idis Short 3 3 4 2 2 4 5 3
rounded
wings , long
tail, blackish
bodied bird.
Dove Columbidae Small 4 4 3 2 1 1 2 0
headed,
pointed bill,
long wings &
tail feather.
Sparrow Passeer Dark brown 2 5 3 4 3 3 2 0
domesticus with black
bib, grey
chest, white
chicks
Wood Picus linnacus Black & white 1 3 2 4 3 2 0 1
pecker with patches
of red &
yellow.
kingfisher Alcedinidae Blue 6 4 3 0 2 0 0 1
upperparts,
orange
underparts,
with long bill.
Shalik Aeridoptheras A chunky bin 3 2 2 4 0 2 3 4
tristis sized black
 bird with
greyish or
sometimes
brown
coloured
feathers.
Little Pholacrocar Large black 2 1 0 0 2 4 1 3
cormorant acidae waterbird, all
black duck
like bird with
a distinctive
fattish head
& a bill that
is sharply
hooked at the
tip
Pigeon Columba livia Plump bird 5 3 2 2 3 2 4 1
with small
head & a
straight thin
bill.
Eagle Aquilla Mostly brown 3 3 3 0 4 0 4 4
chrysaetas with a
distinctive
snowy white
head, neck,
tail.
Indian Aquilla Brown with 4 1 4 4 2 1 3 2
spotted chrysaetas distinctively
eagle snowy white
neck,tail,head
Chameleon Chamelleanidae Colourfull 0 1 3 3 3 3 2 1
lizards
known for
their ability
to change
their colour.
Cuckoo Cuculus Medium sized 2 2 2 1 2 4 5 3
canorus birds that
range in size
from the little
bronze
cuckoo.
Squirrel Scuiridae Small rodents 1 3 1 4 2 2 2 2
with slender
bodies,bushy
tails & large
eyes.
Cormorant Phalocrocar Large black 2 2 2 2 2 6 1 0
 acidae waterbird.
Dove Columbidae A bird that 3 4 5 0 0 2 5 1
looks like
pigeon but is
smaller &
lighter in
colour
Myna Aeridoptheras Medium sized 4 2 1 3 1 0 2 0
tristis passerines
with strong
feet.

❖ Insect diversity study:-

❖ Location:- Behala College:-

Species Scientific Description No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of
name individual individual individual individual individual individual individual individual
(Day 1) (Day2) (Day 3) (Day 4) Day 5) (Day 6) (Day 7) (Day 8)

Monarch Pirius rapae Two pairs 2 1 5 4 4 3 2 2

butterfly of brilliant
orange red
wings,
featuring
black veins
& white
spots.
White winged Pirius Six jointed 4 2 6 4 5 5 3 2
butterfly canidae legs a pair of
antenna .
Honeybee Apis indica Oval 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 0
shaped
creatures
with
golden-
yellow
colours &
brown
bands.
Housefly Musca A dull gray 5 4 4 6 2 3 0 6
domestica fly,¼ inch
long with
four dark
stripes on
the middle
section of
its body.
Moth Lepidoptera Bronze 4 2 2 2 1 4 1 5
brown with
Ladybug Coccinellidae Possess two 2 4 1 1 3 5 4 4
pairs of
brilliant
orange red
wings,
featuring
 black veins
& white
spotsalong
the edges.
Jewel bugs Chrysocoris 3 6 0 2 4 4 6 1
stollie

❖ Insect diversity study:-

❖ Location:- Rabindra sarobar:-

Species Scientific name Description No. Of No. Of [Link] No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of No. Of
individual individual individual individual individual individual individual individual
(Day 1) (Day 2) (Day 3) (Day 4) (Day 5) (Ay 6) (Day 7) (Day 8)
Lady bug Coccimellidae Possess two 3 1 1 2 4 0 5 1
pairs of
brilliant
orange red
wings,
featuring black
veins & white
spotsalong the
edges.
Housefly Musca A dull gray 2 3 0 4 3 2 4 1
domestica fly,¼ inch long
with four dark
stripes on the
middle section
of its body.
Honeybee Apis indica Oval shaped 5 4 0 0 7 2 0 3
creatures with
golden-yellow
colours &
brown bands.
Green jewel Chrysocorus Small to 5 2 6 1 6 2 5 6
bug stolli medium sized
oval shaped
bugs with a
body length
averaging at 5
to 20 mm.
Milipede Diplopoda Cylindrical or 3 0 5 2 6 3 4 5
sligthly
flattened
invertebrates.
Small red Eisenia fetida Red in colour, 4 4 4 0 0 4 2 0
worm usually 2 to ⅔
inches long &
are most often
found coiled up
in tissue
capsules in
fish's body
 cavity.
Chameleon Chamaeleanidae Body is 3 3 3 0 2 2 1 0
laterally
compressed,the
tail is
sometimes
curled, and the
bulged eyes
move
independently
of one another.
Squirrel Scuiridar Small rodents 2 1 2 5 3 1 6 7
with slender
body ,bushy
tail and large
eyes, fur is
short, soft
silky,& ranges
in thickness.
Grasshopper Caelifera Medium to 1 2 5 2 2 0 3 1
large sized
insects,
chewing
mouthparts,
two pairs of
wings,long
hind legs for
jumping.
Dragonfly Anisoptera Long bodies 2 3 7 3 0 6 2 2
with 2 narrow
pair of
intricately
veined
membranous
wings that,
while generally
transparent,
may have
coloured
markings.
Brown moth Epiphyasp Antenna are 4 4 6 4 1 4 4 3
feathery
thread like and
they generally
have plump
furry bodies.
Monarch Danaus Two pairs of 5 6 2 1 4 3 6 4
butterfly plexippus brilliant
orange red
wings,
featuring black
veins & white
spots.
 ❖ Ǫuadrate Analysis :-

• Principle :- A community is a natural assemblage of species population constitutesthe

individuals of a Species. The quadrate sample area of varying size marked off in the
planned community for the purpose of detailed Study .They maybe square, rectangular
or circular and is a tool to record the abundance or the density of a particular
species in a study area . Generally , a number of
quadrates are studied to acquire reasonably faithful data to realize different
analytical and synthetic character of one community. The variation in the species
population can be studied by means of certain ecological parameters such as species
diversity , species abundance, species frequency, relative density, relativeabundance,
and relative dominance .

• Procedure :- The present Study is based on diversity of species in the college

premises.10 quadrates of size are taken for sampling and individuals of each species in
each of the
quadrate are counted . The data obtained are recorded in the Tables I,II,III respectively. The
different ecological parameters are then measured by applying the following methods –

i.) Density = Total no . of individuals of each species /Total no. of quadrate studiedii.)
Abundance = Total no. of individuals of the species/Total no. of quadrates in
which the species occur
iii.) Frequency = (Total no. of quadrates in which species occur / Total no. of
quadrates studied) × 100
iv.) Relative density = (Total no. of individuals of a species /Total no. of individuals ofall
species) ×100
v.) Relative frequency = (Frequency of the species / Sum of frequency of all the
species) ×100
vi.) Relative abundance = (Abundance of species / Sum of abundance value of allthe
species) ×100
vii.) Relative dominance = (Biomass of the species/ Sum of biomass of all the
species ) × 100
 Table—1
:-

Species Ǫuadrate Ǫuadrate Ǫuadrate Ǫuadrate Ǫuadrate Total no. Of Total no .

Name 1 2 3 4 5 individual of
in each individual
species in each
quadrate
Small Ant 75 95 1 6 13 190 5

Big Black 0 22 25 17 79 143 4

Ant

Milipede 0 22 6 2 12 42 4

Lady Bug 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

Mosquito 0 9 0 24 17 50 3

Small Red 0 35 0 4 35 70 3
Ant

Honeybee 3 1 0 0 0 4 2

Housefly 6 0 0 14 5 25 3

Spider 1 0 0 1 8 10 3

Wasp 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

Worms 5 0 27 1 12 45 4

Dragonfly 6 0 0 0 0 6 1

Small Red 320 0 0 0 0 320 1

worm
 Table – 2 :-

Species present Total no. of Density Abundance Frequency

individual
spresent
Small Ant 190 190/5 190/5 5/5 × 100
=38 =38 =100
Big black 143 143/5 143/4 4/5 × 100
ant =28.6 =35.75 =80
Centipede 42 42/5 42/4 4/5 × 100
=8.4 =10.5 =80
Lady bug 1 1/5 1/1 1/5 × 100
=0.2 =1 =20
Mosquito 50 50/5 50/3 3/5 × 100
=10 =16.67 = 60
Small Red 70 70/5 70/3 3/5 × 100
ant =14 =23.34 = 60
Honeybee 4 4/5 4/2 2/5 × 100
=0.8 =2 = 40
Housefly 25 25/5 25/3 3/5 × 100
=5 =8.34 =60
Spider 10 10/5 10/3 3/5 × 100
=2 =3.34 =60
Wasp 1 1/5 1/1 1/5 × 100
=0.2 =1 =20
Worms 45 45/5 45/4 4/5 × 100
=9 =11.25 =80
Dragonfly 6 6/5 6/1 1/5 × 100
=1.2 =6 =20
Small Red 320 320/5 320/1 1/5 × 100
worm =64 =320 =20
 ➢ Table :- 3:-

Species Relative density Relative abundancy Relative

present frequency
1 190/100= 20.94 38/477.19×100=7.96 100/740×100=
13.51
2 143/907×100=15.76 35.75/477.19×100=7.49 100/740×100=
13.51
3 42/907×100= 4.63 10.5/477.19×100= 2.20 100/740×100=
13.51
4 1/907×100=0.11 1/477.19×100=0.20 20/740×100=
2.70
5 50/907×100=5.51 16.67/477.19×100=3.49 60/740×100=
8.10
6 70/907×100=7.71 23.34/477.19×100=4.89 40/740×100=
5.40
7 4/907×100=0.44 2/477.19×100=0.41 60/740×100=
8.10
8 25/907×100=2.75 8.34/477.19×100=1.74 60/740×100=
8.10
9 10/907×100=1.10 3.34/477.19×100=0.69 20/740×100=
2.70
10 1/907×100=0.11 1/477.19×100=0.20 80/740×100=
10.81
11 45/907×100=4.96 11.25/477.19×100=2.35 20/740×100=
2.70
12 6/907×100=0.66 6/477.19×100=1.25 20/740×100=
2.70
13 320/907×100=35.28 320/477.19×100=67.05 20/740×100=
2.70

Shannon Index (H) = - ∑pilnpi

Simpson Index (D) = 1/∑pi2

The Shannon index is an information statistic index, which means it assumes all Speciesare
represented in a sample and that they are randomly sampled. Can you point

Out any problems in these assumptions?

In the Shannon index, p is the proportion (n/N) of individuals of one particular Species

found (n) divided by the total number of individuals found (N), ln is the naturalLog, Σ is the

sum of the calculations, and s is the number of species.

The Simpson index is a dominance index because it gives more weight to Common or
dominant species. In this case, a few rare species with only a few

Representatives will not affect the diversity. Can you point out any problems in these

Assumptions?

In the Simpson index, p is the proportion (n/N) of individuals of one particular

Species found (n) divided by the total number of individuals found(N),∑ is still the sum ofthe
calculation, and s is number of species.

From the data we can calculate

Shanon index (Index (H) = -( -

1.7708)

= 1.7708

Simpson Index(D) = 1/0.203208

= 4.921
П. Pitfall Analysis

Pitfall trapping is a sampling technique that is widely used to examine species occurrence
during surveys. It is used to measure spatial distribution patterns of invertebrates as well as
small vertebrates, compare the relative abundance in different micro-habitats and study
seasonal occurrence of the animals.

What is a pitfall method?

A pitfall trap is a trapping pit for small animals such as insects, amphibians and [Link] is
a form of passive collection as opposed to active collection where the collector catches each
animal by hand. Pitfall traps are inexpensive, setting them requires little effort, many species
can be trapped and large catches often result. It is mainly of two types:Dry pitfall trap Wet
pitfall trap

Methodology:

In our study we have used Wet pitfall trapping method. A hole in the ground is made into which
a paper glass is placed so that the mouth of the glass is in level with the soil surface.A pitfall
trap containing a detergent solution is designed to trap and kill animals. The animals are
later preserved in 3% formalin. Wet pitfall traps cannot be used for vertebratesas it is best
suited for invertebrates.

Observations:

Insects and spiders collected during the excursion by Pitfall Trapping Method

Place: college pond

Date: 20/6/2024 24/6/2024

Time: 11:30pm -3:30 pm (two day)

SI Class Odrder Family Name of No of

spices indivisual
Collected
1 Insect Trombidiformes Tetrahychinadae Bryobia 1
praetiosa
2 Insect Hymenoptera Formicidae Wasmania 1
auropunctata
3 Insect Hymenoptera Formicidae Lasiusniger 1
4 Insect Diptera Sciaridae Sciaridae sp 1
5 Insect Hymenoptera Miridae Labops 1
hesperius
6 Arthopoda Spirostreptidae Spirostreptidae Sechelleptus 1
 Determination Of Alkalinity:-

▪ Determination of Alkalinity of Water Sample:-

Alkalinity is a measure of an aggregate property of water and can be interpreted in terms of specific
substances only when the chemical composition of the sample is known. The measured value may vary
significantly with the end-point pH used. Because the alkalinity of many surface waters is primarily a functionof
carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxide content, it is taken as an indication of the concentration of these
constituents. The measured values also may include contributions from borates, phosphates, silicates, orother
bases if these are present.

❖ Definition:-

The acid-neutralizing capacity of water is known as its Alkalinity. It is the sum of all the
titratable bases. +2[CO] + [OH] – [H+] Alkalinity (mol / L) can be expressed as follows =
[HCO3] + 2

★Principle:-

Alkalinity in water is due to the presence of hydroxide (OH), carbonate ( C O 3 ^ 2- ) and

bicarbonate ( HC O 3 ^ - ) ions. The various alkalinities are estimated by titrating the water
sample against a standard acid using phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators
successively.

Hydroxide ions is completely neutralized to water using phenolphthalein indicator (single

step neutralization).

OH^ - +H^ + H_{2}*O

Carbonate ions is neutralized to bicarbonate ions using phenolphthalein indicator in the
first step. In the second step, these bicarbonate ions are completely neutralized to water and
carbon dioxide using methyl orange indicator (double step neutralization).

CO 3 ^ 2^ - / H^ + HC O 3 ^ -

HCO3 + H → H2O + CO2

Bicarbonate ions may be completely neutralized to water and carbon dioxide using methyl
orange indicator (single step neutralization). HCO3 + H → H2O + CO₂

❖ Apparatus required

1. Burette 50 ml

2. Pipette 1 ml.

3. Comical flask 250 ml.

4. Glazed tile

❖ Reagents required:-

1) 0.02 N Standard Sulphuric acid (H_{2}*S*O_{4}) Dilute 2.8 mL of concentrated H_{2}*S*O_{4}

to 1 litre by adding distilled water to form approximately 0.1N Sulphuric acid
(H_{2}*S*O_{4}) . Standardize this against 0.1N sodium carbonate. After standardization,dilute
appropriate volume of this stock solution (0.1N) to 1 litre adding distilled water to prepare
0.02N H_{2}*S*O_{4}

2) 1N Sodium carbonate solution: Weigh 13.25 gms anhydrous sodium carbonate

(N*a_{2}*C*O_{3}) Dissolve it by adding distilled water and make up the volume to 250 mLin a
volumetric flask.

3) 0.02N Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Dissolve 0.08 gm of sodium hydroxide in 100 mL of

distilled water taken in a volumetric flask.

4) Phenolphthalein indicator: Dissolve 0.5 gm phenolphthalein in 50 mL of 95% [Link]

it add 50 mL of distilled water. Add one drop of 0.02N NaOH (sodium hydroxide) till a light
pink colour Appears.

5) Methyl orange indicator: Take 50 mL of distilled water, add to it 0.1 gm of methyl orange,
dissolve and dilute it to 200 mL with distilled water.

83%

❖ Procedure:-

1. Take 50 mL of water sample in a 250 mL conical flask.

2. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.

3. The colour of the solution becomes pink.

4. Titrate this solution against 0.02 N H₂SO₄ taken in a burette till the colour of the solution
disappears.

5. It indicates that all the carbonates have been converted into bio-carbonates.

6. Note the titrated value of the phenolphthalein end point [P].

7. Add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator to the same solution and continue the titration
until the sharp colour change from yellow to rose red takes place.

8. Note the total titre value from the beginning of the experiment as methyl orange end
point [M].

Observation table for college pond water:-

In this titration, when phenolphthalein is used as indicator the colour changes from light
pink to colourless and when methyl orange is used as indicator the colour changes from
yellow to rose red colour.

Observati Burette Burette Burette Burett Volume of Mean

on no. reading for reading for reading for e titrant(H2S volum
phenolphthal phenolphthal methyl readi o4) e of
ein ein orange ng for titrati
alkalinity(Initi alkalinity(Fin alkalinity(Ini meth on
al) al) tial) yl (H2So
orang 4)
e(
Final)
1. 0 0 0 4.5 4.5
 2. 0 0 4.5 9.5 5 4.3
3. 0 0 9.5 13.7 4.2

Calculation: -
Phenolpthalein alkalinity (PA) = A×Normality of titrant ×1000×50/ Ml of sample (mg/l)[

where ‘A' is ml of H2SO4 for phenolpthalein only=0]

Total alkalinity (TA)(as CaCO3) = B × Normality of titrant ×1000×50/ 50 ml of sample (mg/l)

Total alkalinity = 430

[ where ‘B’ I ml of H2SO4 for methyl orange]

Phenolpthalein alkalinity as per 1 ( volume at standard and used to first end point (ml)

Normality of Aad-10 volume of sample water(ml)

▪ Methyl orange total alkalinity as per/1 (total volume at standard acid used (ml)
▪ (Normality of acid 10) volume of sample water(ml)

❖ Observation table for parnasree lake water:-

Observation Initial burette Final burette Initial burette Final burette Volume Mean
no. reading for reading for reading for reading for of volume
phenolpthalein phenolpthalein methylnorange methylorange H2SO4 of tirant
1 0 0 0 4.4 4.4
2 4.4 4.4 4.4 9.0 4.6 4.566
3 9.0 9.0 9.0 13.7 4.7

❖ Calculation: -

Total alkalinity = B× Normality of H2SO4×1000×50/(Volume of Sample)

 B= Volume of H2SO4 used for both phenolpthalein & methyl orange

= 4.566 ml

TA (Total alkalinity) = (4.566×1000×50)/100

= 456.6 mg/l

Observation for rabindra sarobar lake water:-

No. Of Initialreading Final reading Initial Final Volume of Mean

observation for for rrading reading titrant(H2SO4) volume
phenolpthalein phenolpthalein for for of titant
methyl methyl
orange orange
1 0 0 0.2 3.6 3.6
2 3.6 3.8 3.8 7. 3.9 3.768
3 7.5 7.8 7.8 11.3 3.8

Calculation: -
Phenolpthalein alkalinity = A×Normality of H2SO4×1000×50/(ml of sample)
A= Volume of H2SO4 used for phenolpthalein only

= (0.2+ 0.2+ 0.3)/3

= 0.233 ml

PA = 0.233× 0.2×1000×50/(50)

= 2330/100

= 23.3 mg/l

Precautions:-

Methyl orange usually is unsuitable for the determination of low alkalinities. The first
perceptible colour change with methyl orange occurs at a pH of 4.6. An individual with
imperfect colour perception cannot properly identify the faint orange colour characteristic of
methyl orange at a pH of 4.6. Often the sample is over-titrated to a deeper orange or faintpink,
representing a pH as low as 4.2. Methyl orange under the most favourable circumstances is
justified only for solutions of alkalinity in excess at 150 ppm. A mixed
indicator prepared from bromocresol green and methyl red is suitable for the high pH end
points, while methyl orange can be used for those below 4.0.

The mixed indicator yields the following colour responses:

Utility of alkalinity:-

1. Alkalinity is significant in many uses and treatments of natural waters and waste waters.
. Alkalinity is significant in determining 2 the suitability of water for irrigation.

4. Alkalinity measurements are used in the interpretation and control of water and waste
water treatment processes.
5. Raw domestic waste water has an alkalinity less than, or only slightly greater than, thatof
the water supply.
 ❖ Estimation of salinity of water:-
❖ Argentometric Titration method:-

It is a method of convenience that performs chloride estimation. It assumes that the

percentage composition of chloride in water is constant in relation to all other dissolved
minerals present.

➢ Principle:-

Silver nitrate reacts with chloride ion to form a white precipitate of AgCl. After the
precipitation of all the chloride ions, excess silver ions (Ag+) react with chromate to form
silver chromate, which is brick. red in colour and indicates the end of reaction.

Ag+ Cl → AgCl

2 Ag (excess) + CrO2 → Ag2CrO4↓

▪ Materials required:-

1. 100 mL measuring cylinder

2. 100 mL conical flask

3. 10 mL pipette

4. 50 mL burette

5. Burette stand
 ➢ Procedure:-

a. Fill the burette with 0.014 N AgNO3, solution.

b. Take 10 ml of water sample in a conical flask and add a few drops of 5%

potassium chromate solution.

c. Titrate the water samples against AgNO3 solution.

d. The end point is indicated by appearance of brick red colour.

e. Obtain three readings and record your observations.

observation table for College pond water:-

Observation Burette Burette Volume of Mean

no. reading reading titrant(AgNO3)(ml) volume of
initial(ml) final(ml) AgNO3(ml)
1. 0 3.2 3.2
2. 3.2 6.3 3.1 3.13
3. 6.3 9.4 3.1

Calculation:-
Chlorosity of water = volume of AgNO3 consined×Normality of AgNO3÷volume of sample

Chlorinity of water = chlorosity of water/Density of water

Salinity of water = 0.03+(1.805×chlorinity of water)

= 0.037 parts per thousand

[1.805= other impurities]

 [0.03= other ions]

Observation table for parnasree lake water:-

Observation Burette Burette Volume of Mean volume

no. reading reading titrant(AgNO3)(ml) of AgNO3(ml)
initial(ml) final(ml)
1. 0 1.2 1.2
2. 1.2 2.1 0.9 1.034
3. 2.1 3.1 1.0

Calculation:-

Chlorosity = volume of AgNO3 used× normality of AgNO3÷ volume of sample

=(1.304×0.02)÷10

=0.00206

Chlorinity = chlorosity of water = 0.00206÷1= 0.00206 Density of water

Salinity = 0.03+(1.805×chlorinity)

= 0.03+(1.805×0.0026)

= 0.03+0.00373

= 0.03373

Observation table for rabindra sarobar lake water:-

 Observation Burette Burette Volume of Mean volume
no. reading reading titrant(AgNO3)(ml) of AgNO3(ml)
initial(ml) final(ml)
1. 0 1.2 0.5
2. 1.2 1.8 0.6 0.6
3. 1.8 2.4 0.6

Calculation:-

Chlorosity of water = 0.6×0.014÷(10)

=0.00084
Chlorinity of water = 0.00084÷1
=0.00084
Salinity of water = 0.03+(1.805×0.00084)
= 0.0315 ppm

➢ Advantages:-

◆ Method of convenience.

➢ Disadvantages: -

◆ Indirect method and not very accurate.

• Significance and application: -

• The ionic composition of water affects the distribution of animals and plants in water. And
depending on whether organisms can tolerate wide fluctuations in salinity or not, they have
been Classified as euryhaline and stenohaline animals respectively.
 • Generally sea water has a salinity of 30-38 ppt. Many marine organisms are intolerant to
dilution of sea water which happens due to the flow of rivers into them causing estuarine
condition. These organisms fail to survive in estuaries. However, there are also certain marine
organisms which can Tolerate the diluting effect.

• Another role played by saline water in an estuary involves flocculation of particles.

Flocculation is the process of particles aggregating into larger clumps. The particles that enter
an estuary dissolved In the fresh water of rivers collide with the salt water, and may flocculate
or clump together and Increase turbidity.

• Salinity estimation is an important parameter in shrimp culture (generally 10-25 ppt).

◆ It is also important in monitoring water pollution and waste water treatment.

◆ Most dissolved oxygen meters require knowledge of the salinity content in order to calibrate
the Meter properly.

◆ If you are interested in converting the dissolved oxygen concentration (usually expressed as
mg/l or parts per million) to percent saturation (amount of oxygen in the water compared to
the maximum it could hold at that temperature), you must take salinity into account. As
salinity increases, the amount of oxygen that water can hold decreases.

◆ Environmental conditions vary with the seasons, and salinity levels can reflect those
variations. During wet weather periods and during the spring thaw in colder regions, more
fresh water enters the estuary, so salinity is lower at these times. On the other hand, dry
weather periods mean less Fresh water entering the estuary, so higher salinity levels may be
found.

◆ Another way the seasons influence an estuary’s salinity involves the mixing of fresh water
and salt water. Seasonal storms help mix estuarine waters and serve to decrease the vertical
salinity and temperature gradients in the estuary.
 STUDY OF AN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:

Determination of Dissolved Oxygen Content

PRINCIPLE:

Wrinkler's method for determination of dissolved oxygen. content in water is based on

oxidation reduction. reaction. MnSO4 reacts with alkali to form white precipitation of
Mn(OH)2 which in the presence of O2 gets oxidised to a brown precipitate. In the form a"Mn++
is reduced by iodides Strong acid medium ions which get converted to iodine,
equivalent to the original concentration of Oz in the sample. The iodine, thus formed, canbe
titrated against standard thiosulphate solution by using starch as an indicator.

REACTIONS:

2 KOH + MnSO4 K₂SO₄ + Mn(OH)2 (white precipitation)! 2 Mn(OH)2 + (2) +H₂O 2Mn(OH)3(brown
precipitation)↓

2 Mn(OH)3+3H2SO4 M12 (504)3 + 6H20

Mn2 (504)3 + 3KI MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 12

2 Na2S2O3 +12 Na₂S4O6 + 2 NaI

❖ REAGENTS:

(1) Alkaline potassium iodide (KI)

(2) Manganous sulphate (MnSO4)

(3) 0.025 N Sodium thiosulphate (Na, S203)

(4) Concentrated H2504

(5) Starch Solution (1%)

❖ PROCEDURE:

A. Ǫualitative Estimation

(1) water sample is to be collected in a narrow mouthed 100ml BOD bottle, preferable in
early morning

(2) Sample bottle should be closed by a stopper and brought to the laboratory immediatelyfor
analysis

(3) Remove the stopper carefully and add 1ml of manganous sulphate and some of alkaline
potassium iodide reagents by pipette (If the sample volume is more than 250 ml, add 2ml of
each reagents) (4) Allow one minute time for precipitation.

(5) Place the stopper in the mouth of sampling bottle and invert the bottle for 2 to 3 timesfor
a thorough mixing of reagents.

(6) A precipitate will form which settle at the bottom of the bottle
(7) A whitish precipitation indicates a little amount of 02 a light brown precipitation
indicates a lower amount of dissolved on while a deeper reddish brown. precipitation meana
moderate to high Of content

B. Ǫuantitative Estimation

(1) 1 me of concentrated H₂SO4 is added (2ml for a sample volume over 250ml)

(2) The sample bottle is shaken well to dissolved the precipitation

(3) Transfer 50ml of the sample to a conical flask and place it against a white
background (eg. A filter paper)

(1) Add 2 to 3 drops of 17. Starch solution, a blue colour appear

(4) Titrate the solution with 0.025 N. sodium thiosulphate solution, drop by drop till the
blue colour disappears

(5) Repeat the process three times and note the reading in the table.

PRECAUTIONS:

(2) Care should be taken to avoid exposure of sample to air while collecting the sample

(3) The sample should not be agitated before fixation

(4) The surface of the sample exposed to air during titration should be kept as small as
possible.

(5) The sample should not be agitated during titrated

(6) Starch solution (indicator) and N/44 Na2 S₂O₃ should be freshly prepared.

SIGNIFICANCE OF DISSOLVED O₂ CONCENTRATION

(1) Dissolved Of concentration is one of the most important parameters of water quality
assessment. It reflects the physical and biological processes occurring in water.

(2) It is the measure of the environmental factors affecting aquatic life, and of the
capacity of water to receive the organic matter without causing any hazard.

(3) Little dissolved O2 value indicates very high organic pollution of water sample.

(4) Almost all plants and animals use of for respiration So dissolved O₂ value gives an
idea of total plants present in water, and allow help in evaluation of groes
production of water body

(5) Dissolved of content also helps to find out the BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand)
value indicating the pollution status
 (6) The concentration of O2 will also reflect the process that is occurring whether
aerobic or anaerobic How As concentration are usually associated with a heavy
concentration of organic matter.

(7) Level of O2 concentration is a of aquatic organisms a limiting factor in distribution

(8) Usually dissolved O, concentration in tropical fresh water condition is 5-7 mgs/lit

Sample:-1 ( college pond water)

Collection site:- Behala college
Observation table:-

Observation Initial Final Difference Mean

no. burette burette value
reading reading
1. 5.7 8.4 1.1
2. 8.4 9.5 1.1 1.1
3. 9.5 10.6 1.1

Calculation: -

Dissolved O2 = V¹×N×1000×8/(V²x(V³-V²)/V²)

V¹=volume of Na2SO3 required

V²=volume of total sample solution

V³=volume of alkaline iodide MnSO4

V²=volume of sample water used for titration

 N= Normality of Na2SO3 8=

equivalent weight of O2

Dissolved O2= 1.1×0.025×1000×8/(50×(500-4)/300

= 4.45 mg/l

Sample:-2 ( parnasree lake water)

Collection site:- parnasree lake, Behala
Observation table:-

Observation Initial Final Difference Mean

no. burette burette value
reading reading
1. 0.1 2.5 2.5
2. 2.5 4.8 2.3 1.36
3. 4.8 7.1 2.3

Calculation: -

Dissolved O2 = V¹ ×N×1000×8/(V⁴×(V³-V²)/V²)

V¹=volume of Na2SO3 required

V²=volume of total sample solution V³=volume

of alkaline iodide MnSO4 V⁴=volume of sample

water used for titrationN= Normality of Na2SO3

Dissolved O2 = 2.366×0.025×1000×8/(100×(300-4)/300)

=2.366×0.025×1000×8/(98.667)
 =473.2/98.667

=4.796 mg/l

Sample:-3 ( Rabindra sarobar lake)

Collection site:- Rabindra sarobar
Observation table: -

Observation Initial Final Difference Mean

no. burette burette value
reading reading
1. 4.2 7.6 3.4
2. 7.6 11.4 3.8 3.35
3. 11.4 14.7 3.3

Calculation: -

Dissolved O2 = V¹×N×1000×8/(V⁴×(V²-V³)/V²

V¹=volume of Na2SO3 required

V²=volume of total sample solution

V³=volume of alkaline iodide MnSO4

V²=volume of sample water used for titration8 =

equivalent weight of O2

N= Normality of Na2SO3

Dissolved O2= 3.35×0.025×1000×8/(100×(300-4)/100

= 6.790 mg/l
 STUDY OF AN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:

Determination of free Co2:-

PRINCIPLE:

Free Co₂ can be determined by titrating the sample using alkali (preferably strong) at pH [Link]
this pH level, all free cos is converted into bicarbonates.

In the following way: 2NaOH + CO2 = Na2CO3 + H2O

Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 = 2NaHCO3

Phenolpthalein is used as the indicator that gives a faint pink colour. Amount of alkali
required to produce the pink colour indicates the amount of free Co₂ present in the sample.

REAGENTS REQUIRED:

(1) N/44 NaOH solution

(2) Phenolphthalein indicator

PROCEDURE:

(1) The water sample is to be collected in a narrow mouthed bottle with a minimum
exposure to air.
 (2) Precaution, should be taken so that the sample is not agitated; bubbling or shouldbe
avoided. Mixing With other gases should be avoided.

(3) 50ml of water sample is taken in and a few drops of, in a conical flask
phenolphthalein is added.

(4) The conical flask is placed against a white background (eg under a filter paper)

(5) If the colour turns pink, Co2 is absent

(6) If the sample remains colourless, it is titrated against N/44 NaOH solution; at the
terminal point, a faint pink colour will appear, the reading is noted.

(7) Repeat the process three times

Precautions:-
Since the atmospheric Co2 is readily soluble in water, the following precautions should be
taken.

1) Exposure to the air is avoided while collecting the sample.

2) Sample should be analysed immediately after collection because Co2 escape
easily from water sample.
3) The water should not be agitated before or during titration.
4) The surface of water sample should be kept as small as possible during titration in
order to avoid exposure to the air.

Significance:-

1) Dissolved Co2 is a measure of one of the important environment factors affecting

aquatic life high concentration of Co2 have an inhibitory effect on plants & animals
2) Co2 concentration signifies the rate of decomposition of organic matter, & the
respiratory activity of plants & animals.
3) Dissolved Co2 is inversely related to the pH value of water ; this value is lowered bythe
carbonic acid which is formed by Co2 dissolved in water
4) Co2 is essential for photosynthetic activity & thus directly related to the primary &
secondary productivity of the water body
5) The pH value of blood and the O2 carriage by haemoglobin of vertebrates are
affected by an increase in Co2 concentrated.
 6) A Co2 concentration of 30 mg/lt would turn the pH value of water sample to 4.8
while free Co2 is not present at all above the value of 8.3. At this pH level only
carbonates will occur
7) Surface water normally contains less than 10mg free Co2 per litre, while the sample
taken from the deeper region may exceed value.
8) The lethal effects of Co2 is correlated to the O2 concentration of water.

Sample :-1 (college pond water)

Collection site:- Behala College
Observation table:-

No. of Initial Final Difference(in Mean(in

observation burette burette ml) ml)
reading( reading
in ml) (in ml)
1. 33.4 33.6 0.2
2. 33.6 33.8 0.2 0.2
3. 33.8 33.9 0.1

Calculation: -

Total free Co2(mg/lit) = ml of NaOH×Normality of NaOH×1000×44÷( ml of sample takenfor

titration)

=0.2×1/44×1000×44÷(50)

=4 mg/lit

Sample:-2 (pond water)

Collection site:- parnasree lake
Observation table:-

Observation Burette Burette Difference Mean value

no. reading initial reading final
1. 32.8 33 0.2
 2. 33 33.3 0.3 0.3
3. 33.3 33.6 0.3

Calculation: -

Total free Co2= ml of NaOH × Normality of NaOH×1000×44÷( ml of sample taken for

titration)

= 0.3×1/44×1000×44÷(50)

=6 mg/l

Sample:-3
Collection site:- Rabindra sarobar lake
Observation table:-

Observation Burette Burette Difference Mean value

no. reading reading final
initial
1. 9 9.1 0.1
2. 9.1 9.2 0.1 0.1
3. 9.2 9.3 0.1

Calculation: -
Total free Co2= ml of NaOH×Normality of NaOH ×1000×44/( ml of sample water taken for
titration)

= 0.1×1/44×1000×44÷(50)

=2 mg/lit
Determination of PH of water:-

Definition:-
A mathematical notation defined as the negative base 10 logarithm of
thehydrogen ion measured in mole/l of solution.
PH= -log10[H+]

Electrometric pH meter:-
Water sample

Equipments required:-

pH meter:- A ph meter is a high independence volt

meter that measures the very small, direct current
potential in minivolt(mlt). Generated between a glass
pH electron. The potentiometric measurement is
displayed as pH value. It consists of the following parts
Ph electrodes
Glass membrane
Reference and measurement electrodes
Ionic ( filling solutions)
Reference junction

PH buffer solution:- Buffer are ionic solution that are

used tocalibrate the ph instrument system. Buffer
maintain constantpH value because of their ability to
resist changes to the specific pH value for which they are
produced. Measurementof pH are only as accurate as the
buffer used to calibrate theelectrode. Before use the PH
meter should be standardized
 with a pH 7 buffer solution and the scope of electron
response should be adjusted, typically with a pH 4
buffer. The electrode should be rinsed well before being
inserted inthe sample. The meter should be stabilized
on the sample pH quickly before the exchange of Co2
with the atmospherealters the pH.

Wash bottle with distilled water

Tissue paper

Laboratory glass wire including volumetric flask, beaker etc.

A thermometer capable of reading 77± to 18F to the nearest

0.1 centigrade.

Provided sample water.

❖ Procedure:-

i. Standardize the pH meter by the means of the

standard solution provided, the temperature
adjustment should alsobe performed.
ii. Mix the aliquots of the sample.
iii. Put the sencors to sit in each sample for 1 min or until
thepH value sterilizes within the established criteria.
iv. Record the pH value.
v. Repeat the above mentioned process and two
additionalaliquots
vi. Recording the pH measurement for each aliquot.
vii. Calculate the final sample pH as the average of the
valuemeasured for the sample
viii. Record the final pH value of the sample to the nearest
0.1unit.
ix. Comment on the value of the sample

❖ Precaution:-

i. The glass membrane of the electrode should not be

contactwith the sides or the bottom of the beaker or
other measurement vessel.
ii. Fill the measurement vessel with sufficient sample to
ensure that the electron reference junction is fully
stabilized, taking care not to acetate the sample.
iii. After Calibration rinse the electrode and thermistor 3
timeswith distilled water. This crucial step must
always be completed wide changing between solution.
iv. The Ph of buffer sample measured by the method
varieswith temperature and pressure .Thus
measurement may differ the laboratory must be
corrected for temperature&pressure.

Advantage:-
Results are more specific and can be obtained upto 2 nd
place after decimal.

Disadvantage:-
 Difficult to operate in a field condition and
subjectedfluctuation & voltage.

PH observation table:-
Collection site:- College, Parnasree lake, Rabindra sarobar lake

Observation PH value Ph value of Ph value of Average Average Average

no. of college parnasree Rabindra ph value of ph value of ph value
pond lake water sarobar college parnasree for
water lake water pond lake water rabindra
water sarobar
lake water
1. 7.12 7.81 7.59

2. 7.73 7.80 7.54 7.43 7.85 7.54

3. 7.45 7.94 7.51

 BIOSTATISTICS
Introduction

Definition of statistics
■ Statistics is the study of methods and procedure for collection, classification, analysis,and
interpretation of data

■ The term has been derived from the Latin word “Status” the Italian word “Statistica” andthe
German word “statistic” these words mean political state or a Govt

❖ Characteristics of statistics
Statistics is the aggregate of fact

• Statistics are always expressed numerically

Statistics is influenced by causes

• Statistics data need to be collected in a systematic manner

• Statistic data is collected for predetermined purposes

CENTRAL TENDENCY:-
Measures of central tendency

Central tendency:-
Central tendency of a data is defined as the tendency of a data to concentrate around some
central value. This central value is also called average and using this average we can easily
compare different sets of data. Need of central tendency. We know that one of the important
function of statistics is to compare different sets of data. For the comparison we
want to represent the whole data set in single value, therefore we study various
characteristics of the data like central tendency, measures of dispersions etc.

Different Measures Of Central Tendency:-

There are different formulas for finding the central values, which are as follow:[Link]

a) Arithmetic mean or Average a

b) Geometric mean

c) Harmonic mean

[Link]

3. Mode

❖ Mean:-
a) Arithmetic mean or average:-
It is popularly known as average.

It is the sum of the observed values of set divided by the number of observations inthe
set is called as mean or an average.

For ungrouped data

If X_{1} X_{2} X_{3} X_{4} given as, X_{N} are N observed values, the mean or averageis ̄x =
X_{1} + X_{2} +X 3 .................................. X_{N} N = (ΣX)/N

For example: In class 10 students, they scored following marks in Mathematics out of 50.

̄ =
X: 40,50,49,30,30,25,20,40,45,49 X
(ΣX)/N
̄ = 40+50+49+30+30+25+20+40+45+49 X
X ̄ =

379/10
̄X = 37.9

So average marks of the class are 37.9

 ❖ Merits:

[Link] to Understand and Easy to Calculate

[Link]

3. Based on all Items

4. Least affected by Fluctuations in Sample

[Link] Method of Comparison

6. Algebraic Treatment

7. No Arrangement Required

❖ Demerits:
1. Affected by Extreme Value

2. Assumption in the case of Open-end Classes

3. Absurd Results

4. Not Possible in the case of Ǫualitative Characteristics

5. More Stress on items of Higher Value

6. Complete Data Required

7. Calculation by Observation is not Possible

8. No Graph Use

9. Non-existent Value as Mean

❖ Median

It has been pointed out that mean can not be calculated whenever there is frequency
distribution with open end intervals. Also the mean is to a great extent affected by the
extreme values of the set of observations. If eight people are getting salaries as Rs.
150,225,240,260,275,290,300 and 1500. The mean salary of these eight people is 405. This
value is not a good measure of central tendency because out of 8 people, 7 gets Rs. 300 or
less. Hence median is preferable. If the observations are arranged in increasing or
decreasing order the. Value of middle term is known as median. If there are two middleterms,
then median is the average of the two central values.

For ungrouped data:

Marks: 10, 20,30,40,50,60 Median = 30

If marks: 10,20,30,40,50,60,70 Median = 30+40 2 35

For frequency distribution of ungrouped data:-

Suppose In case X1, X2, X3, X4…..XN have corresponding f the median for it can be workedout as
following. Frequencies f1, f2, f3,f4……fN the median for it can be worked out as following.

Step 1: find the cumulative frequencies. {refer to the presentation #2 graphicalrepresentation

and tabulation)

Step 2: find N/2.

Step 3: search for the smallest cumulative frequency which contains this value N/2. Thevariate
value corresponding to this cumulative frequency is the median.

For grouped data:-

Ma =L+[(N/2)-C] f ×h

Where L= lower limit of the median class

N= Sum of frequencies

F= Total frequency

C = cumulative frequency previous to the media class.

Merits of Median:
1. Simple measure of central tendency.

2. It is not affected by extreme observations.

[Link] even when data is incomplete.

[Link] can be determined by graphic presentation of [Link]

has a definite value.

6. Simple to calculate and understand

7. It is a positional value not a calculated value.

➢ Demerits of median:
[Link] based on all the items in the series, as it indicates the value of middle [Link]

suitable for algebraic treatment.

[Link] the data in ascending order takes much time.

[Link] by fluctuations of items.

5. It cannot be computed exactly where the number of items in a series is even.

Mode:-
Mode is defined as the score with the highest frequency. The most frequent score. It is called
a nominal statistics. In a grouped data it is the mid point of the class interval with thehighest
frequency.

With categorical, ordinal, and discrete data. In fact, the mode is the only measure of central
tendency that you can use with categorical data-such as the most preferred flavor of ice cream.
However, with categorical data, there isn’t a central value because you can’torder the groups.

Formula for grouped data

Mode = L+{( f-f₁) /(2f-f1-f2)}×i

Where,

L= lower limit of modal class

f=frequency of modal class

f1=frequency of just previous to modal class

f2= frequency of just after the modal class

Modal class for which the frequency is maximum

MERITS:-
1. It is comparatively easy to understand. It can be found graphically.
2. It is easy to locate in some cases by inspection.

[Link] is not affected by extreme values.

4. It is the simplest descriptive measure of average

❖ DEMERITS:-
1. It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment.

2. It is an unstable measure as it is affected more by sampling Fluctuations.

[Link] for the series with unequal class intervals cannot be Calculated.

4. In a bimodal distribution, there are two modal classes and it is difficult to determine the
values of the mode.

Data from quadrate analysis :-

ΣΝ=918

ΣΡi2= 0.000414

ΣΡilnpi= -1.8986
Graphical Representation of Data Meaning,
Principles and Methods

Meaning of Graphic Representation of Data:

Graphic representation is another way of analysing numerical data. A graph is a sort of Graph
through which statistical data are represented in the form of lines or curves drawn across the
coordinated points plotted on its surface.

Graphs enable us in studying the cause and effect relationship between two variables. Graphs help
to measure the extent of change in one variable when another variable changes by a certain
amount.

Graphs also enable us in studying both time series and frequency distribution as they give clear
account and precise picture of problem. Graphs are also easy to understand and eye catching.

General Principles of Graphic Representation:

There are some algebraic principles which apply to all types of graphic representation of data. In a
graph there are two lines called coordinate axes. One is vertical known as Y axis and the other is
horizontal called X axis. These two lines are perpendicular to each other. Where these two lines
intersect each other is called ‘0’ or the Origin. On the X axis the distances right to the origin have
positive value (see fig. 7.1) and distances left to the origin have negative value. On the Y axis
distances above the origin have a positive value and below the origin have a negative value.

Methods to Represent a Frequency Distribution:

Generally four methods are used to represent a frequency distribution graphically. These are
Histogram, Smoothed frequency graph and Ogive or Cumulative frequency graph and pie diagram.

Kinds Graphical Representation:-

1. Pie Graph
2. Bar graph
3. Histogram
4. Frequency Polygon
5. Cumulative Frequency Curve
6. Cumulative Percentage Curve

1. Pie Graph
A pie Graph is a type of graph that represents the data in the circular graph. A pie Graph requires a
list of categorical variables and the numerical variables. Here, the term “pie” represents the whole
and the “slices” represents the parts of the whole. In this article, we will discuss the definition of a
pie Graph, its formula, an example to create a pie Graph, uses, advantages and disadvantages in
detail.

What is Pie Graph?

The “pie Graph” also is known as “circle Graph” divides the circular statistical graphic into sectors
or slices in order to illustrate the numerical problems. Each sector denotes a proportionate part of
the whole. To find out the composition of something, Pie-Graph works the best at that time. In most
of the cases, pie Graphs replace some other graphs like the bar graph,line plots, histograms etc.

Pie Graph Formula

The pie Graph is an important type of data representation. It contains different segments and
sectors in which each segment and sectors of a pie Graph forms a certain portion of the
total(percentage). The total of all the data is equal to 360°.
The total value of the pie is always 100%.
To work out with the percentage for a pie Graph, follow the steps given below:

• Categorize the data

• Calculate the total
• Divide the categories
• Convert into percentages
• Finally, calculate the degrees
Therefore, the pie Graph formula is given as
(Given Data/Total value of Data) × 360°

Example :-
Imagine a teacher surveys her class on the basis of their favourite Sports:

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

10 5 5 10 10
The data above can be represented by a pie-Graph as following and by using the circle graph
formula i.e. the pie Graph formula given below. It makes the size of portion easy to understand.
Step 1: First, Enter the data into the table.

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

10 5 5 10 10
Step 2: Add all the values in the table to get the [Link]
students are 40 in this case.
Step 3: Next, divide each value by the total and multiply by 100 to get a per cent:

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

(10/40) × 100 (5/ 40) × 100 (5/40) ×100 (10/ 40) ×100 (10/40)× 100
=25% =12.5% =12.5% =25% =25%
Step 4: Next to know how many degrees for each “pie sector” we need, we will take a full circleof
360° and follow the calculations below:
The central angle of each component = (Value of each component/sum of values of all the
components) ✕360°

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

(10/ 40)× 360° (5 / 40) × 360° (5/40) × 360° (10/ 40)× 360° (10/ 40) × 360°
=90° =45° =45° =90° =90°
Now you can draw a pie Graph.
Step 5: Draw a circle and use the protractor to measure the degree of each sector.

Uses of Pie Graph

1. Pie diagram is useful when one wants to picture proportions of the total in a striking way.
2. When a population is stratified and each strata is to be presented as a percentage at thattime
pie diagram is used.

Advantages of a Pie Graph

• The picture is simple and easy-to-understand

• Data can be represented visually as a fractional part of a whole
• It helps in providing an effective communication tool for the even uninformed audience
 • Provides a data comparison for the audience at a glance to give an immediate analysis orto
quickly understand information
• No need for readers to examine or measure underlying numbers themselves which canbe
removed by using this Graph
• To emphasize a few points you want to make, you can manipulate pieces of data in thepie
Graph

Disadvantages of a Pie Graph

• It becomes less effective, If there are too many pieces of data to use
• If there are too many pieces of data, and even if you add data labels and numbers maynot
help here, they themselves may become crowded and hard to read
• As this Graph only represents one data set, You need a series to compare multiple sets
• This may make it more difficult for readers when it comes to analyze and assimilate
2. Bar Diagram

• Also known as a column graph, a bar graph or a bar diagram is a pictorial representationof
data. It is shown in the form of rectangles spaced out with equal spaces between them and
having equal width. The equal width and equal space criteria are important characteristics
of a bar graph.

• Note that the height (or length) of each bar corresponds to the frequency of a particular
observation. You can draw bar graphs both, vertically or horizontally depending on whether
you take the frequency along the vertical or horizontal axes respectively. Let us take an
example to understand how a bar graph is drawn.

Example:-Construct a Bar Graph from following data.

Students No. of Students

Basketball 15

Volleyball 25

Football 10

Total = 50

Toabove table depicts the number of students of a class engaged in any one of the three sports
[Link] that the number of students is actually the frequency. So, if we take frequency to be
represented on the y-axis and the sports on the x-axis, taking each unit on the y-axis to be equal to5
students, we would get a graph that resembles the one below.

The blue rectangles here are called bars. Note that the bars have equal width and are equallyspaced,
as mentioned above. This is a simple bar diagram.
3. Histogram:
Histogram is a non-cumulative frequency graph, it is drawn on a natural scale in which the
representative frequencies of the different class of values are represented through verticalrectangles
drawn closed to each other. Measure of central tendency, mode can be easilydetermined with the
help of this graph.
How to draw a Histogram:
1. Represent the class intervals of the variables along the X axis and their frequencies along the Y-axis
on natural scale.
2. Start X axis with the lower limit of the lowest class interval. When the lower limit happens to be a
distant score from the origin give a break in the X-axis n to indicate that the vertical axis has been
moved in for convenience.
3. Now draw rectangular bars in parallel to Y axis above each of the class intervals with class unitsas
base: The areas of rectangles must be proportional to the frequencies of the cor¬responding classes.
Example :- Construct a Histogram Graph from following data.

C.I f
20-24 2
25-29 2
30-34 5
35-39 10
40-44 6
45-49 2
50-54 3
Solution:
In this graph we shall take class intervals in the X axis and frequencies in the Y axis.
Before plotting the graph we have to convert the class into their exact limits.

Advantages of histogram:
1. It is easy to draw and simple to understand.
2. It helps us to understand the distribution easily and quickly.
3. It is more precise than the polygene.
Limitations of histogram:
1. It is not possible to plot more than one distribution on same axes as histogram.
2. Comparison of more than one frequency distribution on the same axes is not
possible.
3. It is not possible to make it smooth.
Uses of histogram:
1. Represents the data in graphic form.
2. Provides the knowledge of how the scores in the group are distributed. Whether
the scores are piled up at the lower or higher end of the distribution or are evenly and
regularly distributed throughout the scale.
3. Frequency Polygon. The frequency polygon is a frequency graph which is drawnby
joining the coordinating points of the mid-values of the class intervals and their
corresponding frequencies.

4. Frequency Polygon
1. Draw a horizontal line at the bottom of graph paper named ‘X’ axis. Mark off the exact
limits of the class intervals along this axis. It is better to start with c.i. of lowest value.
When the lowest score in the distribution is a large number we cannot show it
graphically if we start with the origin. Therefore put a break in the X axis () to indicate
that the vertical axis has been moved in for convenience. Two additional points may be
added to the two extreme ends.

2. Draw a vertical line through the extreme end of the horizontal axis known as OY
axis. Along this line mark off the units to represent the frequencies of the class
intervals. The scale should be chosen in such a way that it will make the largest
frequency (height) of the polygon approximately 75 percent of the width of the figure.

3. Plot the points at a height proportional to the frequencies directly above the point
on the horizontal axis representing the mid-point of each class interval.

4. After plotting all the points on the graph join these points by a series of short
straight lines to form the frequency polygon. In order to complete the figure two
additional intervals at the high end and low end of the distribution should be
included. The frequency of these two intervals will be zero.

Draw a frequency polygon from the following data:

Solution:
In this graph we shall take the class intervals (marks in mathematics) in X axis, and frequencies
(Number of students) in the Y axis. Before plotting the graph we have to convert the c.i. into their
exact limits and extend one c.i. in each end with a frequency of O.

Class intervals with exact limits:

Advantages of frequency polygon:

1. It is easy to draw and simple to understand.
2. It is possible to plot two distributions at a time on same axes.
3. Comparison of two distributions can be made through frequency polygon.
4. It is possible to make it smooth.
Limitations of frequency polygon:
1. It is less precise.
2. It is not accurate in terms of area the frequency upon each interval.
Uses of frequency polygon:
1. When two or more distributions are to be compared the frequency polygon is used.
2. It represents the data in graphic form.
3. It provides knowledge of how the scores in one or more group are distributed. Whether the
scores are piled up at the lower or higher end of the distribution or are evenly and regularly
distributed throughout the scale.
[Link] Frequency Curve

Meaning:-This is a diagram that displays cumulative frequency.

Solution:
To plot this graph first we have to convert, the class intervals into their exact limits. Then wehave
to calculate the cumulative frequencies of the distribution.

Now we have to plot the cumulative frequencies in respect to their corresponding class-intervals.
Ogive plotted from the data given above:

Uses:
1. Ogive is useful to determine the number of students below and above a particular score.
2. When the median as a measure of central tendency is wanted.
3. When the quartiles, deciles and percentiles are wanted.
4. By plotting the scores of two groups on a same scale we can compare both the groups.

[Link] percentage Curve

Cumulative percentage is another way of expressing frequency distribution. It calculates the

percentage of the cumulative frequency within each interval, much as relative frequency
distribution calculates the percentage of frequency.

The main advantage of cumulative percentage over cumulative frequency as a measure of

frequency distribution is that it provides an easier way to compare different sets of data.

Cumulative frequency and cumulative percentage graphs are exactly the same, with the exception of
the vertical axis scale. In fact, it is possible to have the two vertical axes, (one forcumulative
frequency and another for cumulative percentage), on the same graph.

Cumulative percentage is calculated by dividing the cumulative frequency by the total number of observations
(n), then multiplying it by 100 (the last value will always be equal to 100%). Thus,

cumulative percentage = (cumulative frequency ÷ n) x 100Example

1 – Calculating cumulative percentage

Example:-
For 25 days, the snow depth at Whistler Mountain, B.C. was measured (to the nearestcentimeter)
and recorded as follows:

242, 228, 217, 209, 253, 239, 266, 242, 251, 240, 223, 219, 246, 260, 258, 225, 234, 230, 249,
245, 254, 243, 235, 231, 257.
Answers:
1. The snow depth measurements range from 209 cm to 266 cm. In order to produce the
table, the data are best grouped in class intervals of 10 cm each.
In the Snow depth column, each 10-cm class interval from 200 cm to 270 cm is listed. The
Frequency column records the number of observations that fall within a particular interval.
This column represents the observations in the Tally column, only in numericalform.
Each of the numbers in the Endpoint column is the highest number in each class [Link]
the interval of 200 cm to 210 cm, the endpoint would be 210.
The Cumulative frequency column lists the total of each frequency added to its
predecessor, as seen in the exercises in the previous section.

The Cumulative percentage column divides the cumulative frequency by the total number of
observations (in this case, 25). The result is then multiplied by 100. This calculation gives the
cumulative percentage for each interval.
Snow depth (x) Frequency Endpoint Cumulative Cumulative percentage
(f) frequency
200 0 0 ÷ 25 x 100 = 0
200 to 210 1 210 1 1 ÷ 25 x 100 = 4
210 to 220 2 220 3 3 ÷ 25 x 100 = 12
220 to 230 3 230 6 6 ÷ 25 x 100 = 24
230 to 240 5 240 11 11 ÷ 25 x 100 = 44
240 to 250 7 250 18 18 ÷ 25 x 100 = 72
250 to 260 5 260 23 23 ÷ 25 x 100 = 92
260 to 270 2 270 25 25 ÷ 25 x 100 = 100

2. Apart from the extra axis representing the cumulative percentage, the graph should look
exactly the same as that drawn in Example 2 of the section on Cumulative frequency. The
Cumulative percentage axis is divided into five intervals of 20, while the Cumulative
frequency axis is divided into five intervals of 5. The Snow depth axis is divided by the
endpoints of each 10-cm class interval.

Using each endpoint to plot the graph, you will discover that both the cumulative frequency
and the cumulative percentage land in the same spot. For example, using the endpoint of
260, plot your point on the 23rd day (cumulative frequency). This point happens to be in the
same place where the cumulative percentage (92%) will be plotted. You have to be very
careful when you are building a graph with two y-axes. For example,if you have 47
observations, you might be tempted to use intervals of 5 and end your y- axis at the
cumulative frequency of 50. However, when you draw your y-axis for the cumulative
percentage, you must put the 100% interval at the same level as the 47 mark on the other y-
axis—not at the 50 mark. For this example, a cumulative frequency of
47 represents 100% of your data. If you put the 100% at the top of the scale where the 50
interval is marked, your line for the cumulative frequency will not match the line for the
cumulative percentage.

The plotted points join to form an ogive, which often looks similar to a stretched S. Ogivesare
used to determine the number, or percentage, of observations that lie above or below a
specified value. For example, according to the table and the graph, 92% of the time the snow
depth recorded in the 25-day period was below the 260 cm mark.
The following information can be gained from either the graph or table:
• during the 25-day period, 24% of the time the recorded snow depth was less than
230 cm
• on 7 of the 25 days, snow depth was at least 250 cm
 PROBABILITY
Probably is an adverb that indicates a high degree of likelihood or probability. It is used to express thatsomething is
likely to happen or be true, but not certain.

Example sentences:

I will probably attend the party tonight. (It is likely that I will attend, but not certain). She is probably going tolove
the gift. (It is likely that she will love the gift, but not certain). It will probably rain tomorrow. (It is likely torain, but
not certain)

Probably is often used to:

1. Express uncertainty or doubt

2. Show a degree of confidence or likelihood
3. Hedge a bet or prediction
4. Soften a statement or prediction

Synonyms for probably include:

1. Likely
2. Possibly
3. Maybe
4. Chances are
5. Odds are

Note that probably is different from definitely, which indicates complete certainty.

EXAMPLE :

When we roll a fair die then the sample space isS =

{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} .

The probability the die lands with k up is 1 to 6 , (k = 1, 2, · · · , 6).

When we roll it 1200 times we expect a 5 up about 200 times. The probability the die lands with an evennumber up
is

1/6+1/6+1/6 = ½

EXAMPLE :

When we flip a coin then sample space is S = { H , T } ,WhereH

denotes that the coin lands ”Heads up” and

T denotes that the coin lands ”Tails up”. For a ”fair coin ” we expect H and T to have the same ”chance ” ofOccurring,

i.e., if we flip the coin many times then about 50 % of the Outcomes will be H.

We say that the probability of H to occur is 0.5 (or 50 %) . The probability of T to occur is then also 0.5.

EXAMPLE :
When we toss a coin 3 times and record the results in the sequence. That they occur, then the sample space is

S = { HHH , HHT , HTH , HTT , THH , THT , TTH , TTT } . Elements of S are ”vectors ”, ”sequences ”, or ”ordered outcomes ”.
We may expect each of the 8 outcomes to be equally likely. Thus the probability of the sequenceHTT is 1/8

The probability of a sequence to contain precisely two Heads is1/8+1/8+1/8=3/8

Merit of Probability:

1. _Ǫuantifies Uncertainty_: Probability provides a numerical measure of uncertainty, allowing us to analyze and
manage risks.

2. _Predictive Power_: Probability helps predict future events and outcomes, enabling informed decision-
making.

3. _Logical Consistency_: Probability follows logical rules and axioms, ensuring consistent and reliable
calculations.

4. _Applicability_: Probability is applied in various fields, including statistics, engineering, finance, insurance, and
medicine.

5. _Flexibility_: Probability can model a wide range of events and scenarios, from simple to complex.

Demerits of Probability:

1. _Subjective Interpretation_: Probability can be interpreted subjectively, leading to different conclusions

from the same data.

2. _Limited Precision_: Probability calculations are only as precise as the data and assumptions used.

3. _Model Risk_: Probability models can be oversimplified or inaccurate, leading to incorrect predictions.

4. _Misinterpretation_: Probability results can be misinterpreted or misunderstood, leading to incorrect

decisions.

5. _Overreliance_: Overreliance on probability can lead to neglect of other important factors in decision-
making.

6. _Computational Complexity_: Complex probability calculations can be computationally challenging.

7. _Sensitivity to Assumptions_: Probability calculations are sensitive to assumptions made, which may not
always be accurate.

By understanding both the merits and demerits of probability, we can use probability theory effectively andavoid
potential pitfalls in our analysis and decision-making processes.
-:Biotic Community of Water Study:-

The biotic community of water, also known as aquatic biota, refers to the living organisms that
inhabit aquatic ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands, and oceans. These
communities include :-

1. Phytoplankton (algae, cyanobacteria)

2. Zooplankton (small crustaceans, rotifers, protozoa)

3. Benthos (bottom-dwelling organisms like mussels, snails, crayfish)

4. Fish (various species)

5. Other aquatic animals (amphibians, reptiles, birds)

6. Aquatic plants (macrophytes, seaweeds)

7. Microorganisms (bacteria, archaea, fungi)

Studying the biotic community of water involves understanding :-

1. Species interactions (predation, competition, symbiosis)

2. Food webs and nutrient cycling

3. Habitat preferences and distribution

4. Population dynamics and ecology

5. Impact of environmental factors (temperature, pH, pollution)

6. Human influences (conservation, management, climate change)

Understanding the biotic community of water is crucial for maintaining healthy aquatic
ecosystems and managing water resources effectively.

Phytoplankton :- Euglena , Diatoms etc.

Zooplanktons :- Cyclops Cypris , Daphnia sp. etc.

Systemic position of Zooplanktons according to Rupert and Barnes 1994 :-

1.)Daphnia sp. :-Daphnia Sp. Is a genus of small, planktonic crustaceans commonly referred
to as water fleas . The species Daphnia magna is a typical example of this genusand is often used
as an experimental organism in research fields like ecotoxicology, population genetics, and
phenotypic plasticity . Key features of Daphnia magna include .

Systemic position:-

Phylum :-Arthopoda

Sub-phylum :- Crustacea

Class :- Branchiopoda

Sub-class :- Diplostarca

Genus :- Daphnia

Identifying features :-

i.)Antennae are biramous.

ii.) Rostrum is pointing downwards.

iii.) Body ends in a unjoined caudal [Link].) Eyes

are sessile.

2.)Moina sp. :- Moina sp. Is the species of a small freshwater crustacean that belongs to the family
Moinidae . The crustaceans are commonly known as water fleas and are used asa food source in
aquaculture for young fish due to their small size and high nutritional content . The species is easy
to culture and can be produced in large quantities, making them a cost-effective alternative to other
live feeds like brine shrimp or daphnia.

Systemic position:- Phylum

:-Arthopoda

Sub-phylum :- Crustacea

Class :- Branchiopoda

Sub-class :-Diplostarca

Genus :- Moina
Identifying features :-

i.)Body is oval in shape

ii.)Antennae are branched. iii.)Rostrum is

horizontal in position. iv.)Body ends in a

pair of caudal style.

3.)Cypris sp. :- Cypris sp. Is a genus of small freshwater crustaceans, commonly known as
ostracods or seed shrimp. They belong to the family Cyprididae and are characterized by
their small size, typically around 1-5 mm in length, and their distinctive hinged shell that
resembles a seed. Cypris sp. Are an important food source for many aquatic animals,
including fish, and are often used as a food source in aquaculture. They are also used as
bioindicators to monitor water quality and are an important component of freshwater
ecosystems.

Systemic position:- Phylum

:- Arthopoda

Sub-phylum :- Crustacea

Class :- Ostracoda

Sub-class :- Podocopa

Genus :- Cypris

Identifying features :-

i.) Body is covered by carapace.

ii.) Head bears 4 pairs of appendages.
iii.) Presence of 3 pairs of thorasic appendages.

4.)Cyclops sp. :- Cyclops sp. Is a genus of freshwater copepods, a group of tiny crustaceans
commonly known as water fleas . The Cyclops genus includes over 400 species and is often
found in stagnant or slow-moving bodies of water with abundant plantlife . They are an
important food source for many animals and are also used as
bioindicators of water quality .
 Systemic position :-

Phylum :- Arthopoda

Sub-phylum:- Crustacea

Class :- Copepoda

Genus :- Cyclops

Identifying features :-

i.) Body is club shaped.

ii.) Abdomen bears a pair of caudal [Link].)
Presence of a median eye.
iv.) Mature females carry 2 ovisacs on the lateral sides of the abdomen.
 ❖ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to our Principal, Dr. Sharmila Mitra, for providing
me with the opportunity to complete my internship. Her vision and leadershiphave created a
conducive learning environment, and I am grateful for her support.

I would also like to thank the Head of the Department, Dr. Waliza Ansar, for her guidanceand
mentorship throughout my internship.

I am deeply grateful to the teaching staff, including Dr. Abhishek Bose, Dr. Sucharita Gain, Sri
Surajit Halder, Smt. Sonali Ghatak, Smt. Saheli Bhattacharya, and Smt. Olivia Das, for their
expertise, advice, and encouragement. Their contributions have been invaluable to mygrowth.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to the non-teaching staff, including the laboratory
technicians, library staff, and office staff, for their support and assistance throughout my
internship.

I would like to thank my classmates, who have been my companions throughout this
journey, for their collaboration, support, and friendship. Specifically, I would like to thank[list
your classmates’ names] for their help and encouragement.

Thank you all again for making this internship a success!

 ❖ CONCLUSION:-

An internship during college provides a valuable opportunity for students to gain

practical work experience, apply theoretical knowledge, and develop essential skillsin
a professional setting. By completing an internship, students can:
- Clarify career goals and aspirations
- Build a network of professionals in their industry
- Enhance their resume and increase employability
- Develop important skills such as communication, teamwork, and problem-solving
- Gain a competitive edge in the job market
- Overall, an internship is a valuable investment in a student’s future, providing a
platform for growth, learning, and career advancement.

Based on our internship I have likely gained experience in wetland ecosystems.

knowledge about:

- Three type of ecosystems :

[Link] College Pond,

[Link] lake,

[Link] Sarobar lake.

- Diversity of birds :

[Link] land -dependent species,

[Link] birds.

[Link] birds.

Diversity of insects:

1. Aquatic insects (e.g.. dragonflies, damselflies, water striders)

2. Terrestrial insects (e.g.. butterflies, moths, beetles, ants)

3. Wetland-specific insects (e.g.. marsh beetles, caddisflies. midges)

• Insects that are important pollinators or prey for

birdsand other animals.

This knowledge has likely helped you understand the complex relationships

between species and their environments, as well as the importance of conservationand

management efforts to protect these ecosystems and the species that depend on them.