OSI Reference model:

 OSI(Open System Interconnect) reference model was developed by ISO(International

Standard Organisation) in 1984.
 Sending of data from one system to other system is a complex task. This task is divided into
seven sub [Link] each sub task,here is called as Layer.
 OSI model contains 7 Layers.
 Each Layer performs a specific task. The output of the one layer is given as input to other
layer.
 The main strength of OSI model is it’s layered structure.
 This model is not the implemented [Link] is only a theoretical [Link] of this it is
called as reference model

Application Layer:
 It is Layer 7 in OSI model.

 An application layer is a entry point for users and application processes to access network
services.

o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the
files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.

Presentation Layer:

o It is Layer 6 in OSI model

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format to
another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character
strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation
layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain to provided privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message
over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number
of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio,
video.

Session layer:

o It is a layer 5 in the OSI model.

 o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

 Session Management: Session Layer is responsible to create,maintain and

terminate the sessions.

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.
If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place
again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

Transport Layer:

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 in OSI model.

o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely to the correct
process .
o It ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no
duplication of data.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Port addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another
computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that
contains the address known as a port address. The Responsibility of the transport layer is to
transmit the message to the correct process.

To Identify a process in the system transport layer uses port [Link] is a 16 bit address.

Port addresses are divided into three groups

I) Well known port addresses(0-1023) II) Reserved port addresses(1024-49151)

III)Dynamic/private Port addresses(49152-65535)

o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a
sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
 o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: Flow control is used to prevent the sender from overwhelming the receiver. If the
receiver is overloaded with too much data, then the receiver discards the packets and asking for
the retransmission of packets. This increases network congestion and thus, reducing the system
[Link] transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed
end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message
reach at the destination without any error.

TCP protocol has methods for finding out corrupted segments, missing segments, out-of-order
segments and duplicated segments.
Error control in TCP is mainly done through the use of three simple techniques :
o Checksum – Every segment contains a checksum field which is used to find corrupted
segments. If the segment is corrupted, then that segment is discarded by the destination
TCP and is considered lost.
o Acknowledgement – TCP has another mechanism called acknowledgement to affirm that
the data segments have been delivered. Control segments that contain no data but have
sequence numbers will be acknowledged as well but ACK segments are not acknowledged.
o Retransmission – When a segment is missing, delayed to deliver to a receiver, corrupted
when it is checked by the receiver then that segment is retransmitted again. Segments are
retransmitted only during two events: when the sender receives three duplicate
acknowledgements (ACK) or when a retransmission timer expires.
o

Network Layer :

o It is a layer 3 in OSI model.

o It manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Network layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the segments from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is known as Packetizing.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination IP address to the header .

IP Addressing is used to identify the device in the network. As per IPV4 protocol it uses 32bit IP
address and IPV6 protocol it uses 128bit IP address.
 o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal
path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.

Data Link Layer:

o It is a Layer2 in OSI model

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and
the physical layer.
o It is the only layer which adds header and trailer to the data.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames.
The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the
frame contains the hardware destination and source address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.

Data Link layer uses 48-bit MAC address which is a unique address. It is used to identify the
device uniquely in the network.

o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed
does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it is
sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment
for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel,
then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at a
given time.

Physical Layer:
 o It is a Layer1in OSI model

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-
duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.