LECTURE SLIDES

ON

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (PLM)

ISAH NDAKARA ABUBAKAR

FEB 2024
 TOPICS

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

For embedded systems, the course will enable the students to:

1. Understand the basics of an embedded system.

2. Understand the typical components of an embedded system.

3. To understand different communication interfaces.

4. To learn the design process of embedded system applications.

5. To understands the RTOS and inter-process communication.

UNIT-I INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

History of embedded systems, Classification of embedded systems based on generation and complexity, Purpose
of embedded systems, The embedded system design process-requirements, specification, architecture design,
designing hardware and software, components, system integration, Applications of embedded systems, and
characteristics of embedded systems.

UNIT-II TYPICAL EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Core of the embedded system- general purpose and domain specific processors, ASICs, PLDs, COTs; Memory-
ROM, RAM, memory according to the type of interface, memory shadowing, memory selection for embedded
systems, Sensors, actuators, I/O components: seven segment LED, relay, piezo buzzer, push button switch,
other sub-systems: reset circuit, brownout protection circuit, oscillator circuit real time clock, watch dog timer.
MATLAB projects basics and Realtime implementation.

UNIT-III COMMUNICATION INTERFACE

Onboard communication interfaces-I2C, SPI, CAN, parallel interface;

External communication interfaces-RS232 and RS485, USB, infrared, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, ZigBee, GPRS,
GSM.
UNIT-IV EMBEDDED FIRMWARE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Embedded firmware design approaches-super loop based approach, operating system based approach; embedded
firmware development languages-assembly language based development, high level language based development.

UNIT-V RTOS BASED EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN/MATLAB IMPLEMENTATION

Operating system basics, types of operating systems, tasks, process and threads, multiprocessing and multitasking, task
scheduling: non-pre-emptive and pre-emptive scheduling; task communication-shared memory, message passing,
Remote Procedure Call and Sockets, Task Synchronization: Task Communication/ Synchronization Issues, Task
Synchronization Techniques………………. MATLAB Implementation

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Introduction to Embedded Systems - shibu k v, Mc Graw Hill Education.

2. Computers as Components –Wayne Wolf, Morgan Kaufmann (second edition).

3. Hands-On RTOS with Microcontrollers: Building real-time embedded systems using FreeRTOS, STM32 MCUs, and
SEGGER debug tools by Brian Amos

4. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems (2nd Edition) 2nd Edition by Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice G.
Mazidi, Rolin D. McKinlay

5. Programming Embedded Systems in C and C++ 1st Edition by Michael Barr

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Embedded System Design -frank vahid, tony grivargis, john Wiley.

2. Embedded Systems- An integrated approach - Lyla b das, Pearson education 2012.

3. Embedded Systems – Raj Kamal, TMH

4. Wikipedia

COURSE OUTCOMES:

Upon completion of this course, the students will be able to:

1. Understand the design process of an embedded system
2. Understand typical embedded System & its components
3. Understand embedded firmware design approaches
4. Learn the basics of OS and RTOS
EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN

UNIT-II
TYPICAL EMBEDDEDSYSTEM

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 ELEMENTS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware Software Mechanica l
Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only. A typical embedded system contains a single
chip controller which acts as the master brain of the system. Diagrammatically an embedded system
can be represented as follows:

Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable (such Microwave Oven) or to
manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals to the actuators or devices connected to the output
port system (such as temperature in Air Conditioner), in response to the input signal provided by the end users or
sensors which are connected to the input ports. Hence the embedded systems can be viewed as a reactive system.

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The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and user interfaces and controlling
some actuators that regulate the physical variable.
Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input devices and LEDs, LCDs,
Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user interface output devices for a typical embedded [Link]
requirement of type of user interface changes from application to application based on domain.
Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation. They automatically sense
the input parameters from real world through sensors which are connected at input port. The sensor information is
passed to the processor after signal conditioning and digitization. The core of the system performs some predefined
operations on input data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends some actuating signals to the
actuator connect connected to the output port of the system.
The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and other important
configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in any embedded system. Fixed memory (ROM)
is used for storing code or program. The user cannot change the firmware in this type of memory. The most common
types of memories used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are
OTP,PROM,UVEPROM,EEPROM and FLASH
An embedded control algorithm implemented memory has all the peripherals but is not capable of making decisions
depending on the situational as well as real world changes.
Memory for implementing the code may be present on the processor or may be implemented as a separate
chip interfacing the processor
In a controller based embedded system, the controller may contain internal memory for storing code such
controllers are called Micro-controllers with on-chip ROM, eg. Atmel AT89C51.

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 The Core of the Embedded Systems: The core of the embedded system falls into any one
of the following categories.

❑
General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
o Microprocessors

o Microcontrollers

o Digital Signal Processors

❑
Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
❑
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

❑
Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)

GENERAL PURPOSE AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC PROCESSOR:

Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.

The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor,
depending on the domain and application.
Microprocessor:
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of
performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of
Instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer

In general the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and
Working registers

Microprocessor is a dependant unit and it requires the combination of other hardware like
Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc for proper functioning.

Intel claims the credit for developing the first Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4 bit
processor which was released in Nov 1971

· Developers of microprocessors.
Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4-bit)
Intel – Intel 4040.
Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
Intel – Intel 8080 – April 1974(8-bit).
Motorola – Motorola 6800.
Intel – Intel 8085 – 1976.
Zilog - Z80 – July 1976

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 Microcontroller:
❖
A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage,
Timer and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
❖ Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors

❖ Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel 8051, designed for generic applications
and domains) or application specific (Like Automotive AVR from Atmel Corporation.
Designed specifically for automotive applications)

❖ Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent working,
they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors
❖ Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market
❖
Texas Instruments TMS 1000 is considered as the world‟s first microcontroller

Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller:

Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that
(CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip
of Instructions ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, Timer
and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of It is a self contained unit and it doesn’t require
other chips like Timers, Program and data memory external Interrupt Controller, Timer, UART etc for
chips, Interrupt controllers etc for functioning its functioning

Most of the time general purpose in design and Mostly application oriented or domain specific
operation
Doesn‟t contain a built in I/O port. The I/O Port Most of the processors contain multiple built- in I/O
functionality needs to be implemented with the help of ports which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32
external Programmable Peripheral Interface Chips like bit Port or as individual port pins
8255
Targeted for high end market where performance is Targeted for embedded market where performance is
important not so critical (At present this demarcation is invalid)

Limited power saving options compared to Includes lot of power saving features
microcontrollers

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General Purpose Processor (GPP) Vs Application Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP)

❖ General Purpose Processor or GPP is a processor designed for general computational tasks

❖ GPPs are produced in large volumes and targeting the general market. Due to the high volume
production, the per unit cost for a chip is low compared to ASIC or other specific ICs

❖ A typical general purpose processor contains an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
Unit (CU)

❖ Application Specific Instruction Set processors (ASIPs) are processors with architecture and
instruction set optimized to specific domain/application requirements like Network processing,
Automotive, Telecom, media applications, digital signal processing, control applications etc.

❖ ASIPs fill the architectural spectrum between General Purpose Processors and Application
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

❖ The need for an ASIP arises when the traditional general purpose processor are unable to meet the
increasing application needs

❖ Some Microcontrollers (like Automotive AVR, USB AVR from Atmel), System on Chips,
Digital Signal Processors etc are examples of Application Specific Instruction Set Processors
(ASIPs)

❖ ASIPs incorporate a processor and on-chip peripherals, demanded by the application requirement,
program and data memory

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

Powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessors designed specifically to meet the
computational demands and power constraints of today's embedded audio, video, and
communications applications

Digital Signal Processors are 2 to 3 times faster than the general purpose microprocessors in signal
processing applications

DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas general purpose
processors implement the algorithm in firmware and the speed of execution depends primarily
on the clock for the processors

DSP can be viewed as a microchip designed for performing high speed computational
operations for „addition‟, „subtraction‟, „multiplication‟ and „division‟

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 A typical Digital Signal Processor incorporates the following key units
❖
Program Memory
❖
Data Memory
❖
Computational Engine
❖
I/O Unit

. Audio video signal processing, telecommunication and multimedia applications are typical
examples where DSP is employed
RISC V/s CISC Processors/Controllers:

RISC CISC
Lesser no. of instructions Greater no. of Instructions
Instruction Pipelining and increased execution Generally no instruction pipelining feature
speed
Orthogonal Instruction Set (Allows each instruction Non Orthogonal Instruction Set (All instructions
to operate on any register and use any addressing are not allowed to operate on any register and
mode) use any addressing mode. It is instruction
specific)
Operations are performed on registers only, the Operations are performed on registers or
only memory operations are load and store memory depending on the instruction

Large number of registers are available Limited no. of general purpose registers
Programmer needs to write more code to execute a . A programmer can achieve the desired
task since the instructions are simpler ones functionality with a single instruction which in
turn provides the effect of using more simpler
single instructions in RISC
Single, Fixed length Instructions Variable length Instructions

Less Silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more additional
decoder logic is required to implement the
complex instruction decoding.
With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture

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Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture

The terms Harvard and Von-Neumann refers to the processor architecture design.

Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture shares a single

common bus for fetching both instructions and data. Program instructions and data are
stored in a common main memory

. Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will have separate data bus and
instruction bus. This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur simultaneously on
both buses

. With Harvard architecture, the data memory can be read and written while the program memory
is being accessed. These separated data memory and code memory buses allow one instruction to
execute while the next instruction is fetched (“Pre-fetching”)

Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture:

Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture

Separate buses for Instruction and Data fetching Single shared bus for Instruction and Data
fetching

Easier to Pipeline, so high performance can be Low performance Compared to Harvard

achieved Architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memory alignment problems Allows self modifying codes†
Since data memory and program memory are Since data memory and program memory
stored physically in different locations, no are stored physically in same chip, chances
chances for accidental corruption of program for accidental corruption of program
memory memory

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Big-endian V/s Little-endian processors:

✓ Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by processor
operations in a multi byte system (Processors whose word size is greater than one byte).
Suppose the word length is two byte then data can be stored in memory in two different
ways

▪ Higher order of data byte at the higher memory and lower order of data byte
at location just below the higher memory

▪ Lower order of data byte at the higher memory and higher order of data byte
at location just below the higher memory

✓ Little-endian means the lower-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the
lowest address, and the higher-order byte at the highest address. (The little end
comes first)
✓ Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the lower-order byte at the highest address. (The big end comes first.)

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Load Store Operation & Instruction Pipelining:

The RISC processor instruction set is orthogonal and it operates on registers. The memory access
related operations are performed by the special instructions load and store. If the operand is
specified as memory location, the content of it is loaded to a register using the load instruction.
The instruction store stores data from a specified register to a specified memory location

Instruction Pipelining

The conventional instruction execution by the processor follows the fetch-decode-

execute sequence

The „fetch‟ part fetches the instruction from program memory or code memory and
the decode part decodes the instruction to generate the necessary control signals

▪ The execute stage reads the operands, perform ALU operations and stores the
result. In conventional program execution, the fetch and decode operations are
performed in sequence

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 During the decode operation the memory address bus is available and if it possible to
effectively utilize it for an instruction fetch, the processing speed can be increased

In its simplest form instruction pipelining refers to the overlapped execution of

instructions

Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):

A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application. It is used as
replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.

ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the syste m
development cost

Most of the ASICs are proprietary products. As a single chip, ASIC consumes very small
area in the total system and thereby helps in the design of smaller systems with high
capabilities/functionalities.

ASICs can be pre- fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated by
using the components from a re- usable „building block‟ library of components for a
particular customer application

Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment (Non Recurring

Engineering (NRE) charges) for the process technology and configuration expenses

If the Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is born by a third party and the
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is made openly available in the market,
the ASIC is referred as Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP)

The ASSP is marketed to multiple customers just as a general-purpose product , but to a

smaller number of customers since it is for a specific application.

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 Some ASICs are proprietary products , the developers are not interested in revealing the
internal details.

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):

❖ Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data

communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and
almost every other function a system must perform.

❖ Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories - Fixed and Programmable. The
circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform one function or set of
functions - once manufactured, they cannot be changed

❖
Programmable logic devices (PLDs) offer customers a wide range of logic capacity,
features, speed, and voltage characteristics - and these devices can be re-configured to
perform any number of functions at any time

❖ Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test their
logic designs in PLD based design. The design can be quickly programmed into a device,
and immediately tested in a live circuit

❖ PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to
change the design

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) – CPLDs and FPGA

Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and Complex Programmable Logic Devices
(CPLDs) are the two major types of programmable logic devices

FPGA:
FPGA is an IC designed to be configured by a designer after manufacturing.

FPGAs offer the highest amount of logic density, the most features, and the highest
performance.

Logic gate is Medium to high density ranging from 1K to 500K system gates

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 These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built- in hardwired processors
(such as the IBM Power PC), substantial amounts of memory, clock management
systems, and support for many of the latest, very fast device-to-device signaling
technologies

Figure: FPGA Architecture

These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built- in hardwired processors,
substantial amounts of memory, clock management systems, and support for many of the
latest, very fast device-to-device signaling technologies.

FPGAs are used in a wide variety of applications ranging from data processing and
storage, to instrumentation, telecommunications, and digital signal processing

CPLD:
▪
A complex programmable logic device (CPLD) is a programmable logic device with
complexity between that of PALs and FPGAs, and architectural features of both.

CPLDs, by contrast, offer much smaller amounts of logic - up to about 10,000 gates.

CPLDs offer very predictable timing characteristics and are therefore ideal for critical
control applications.

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 CPLDs such as the Xilinx CoolRunne r series also require extremely low amounts of
power and are very inexpensive, making them ideal for cost-sensitive, battery-operated,
portable applications such as mobile phones and digital handheld assistants.

ADVANTAGES OF PLDs:

• PLDs offer customer much more flexibility during design cycle

• PLDSs do not require long lead times for prototype or production-the PLDs are already
on a distributor‟s self and ready for shipment

• PLDs do not require customers to pay for large NRE costs and purchase expensive mask
sets

• PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts required when they need them.
allowing them to control inventory.

• PLDs are reprogrammable even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a customer.

• The manufacturers able to add new features or upgrade the PLD based products that are
in the field by uploading new programming file

Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS):

A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) product is one which is used „as-is‟

COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and
interoperability with existing system components

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Typical examples for the COTS hardware unit are Remote Controlled Toy Car control
unit including the RF Circuitry part, High performance, high frequency microwave
electronics (2 to 200 GHz), High bandwidth analog-to-digital converters, Devices and
components for operation at very high temperatures, Electro-optic IR imaging arrays,
UV/IR Detectors etc

A COTS component in turn contains a General Purpose Processor (GPP) or Application

Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP) or Application Specific Integrated Chip
(ASIC)/Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) or Programmable Logic Device
(PLD)

The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market,
cheap and a developer can cut down his/her development time to a great extend.
There is no need to design the module yourself and write the firmware .

Everything will be readily supplied by the COTs manufacturer.

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 The major problem faced by the end-user is that there are no operational and
manufacturing standards.

The major drawback of using COTs component in embedded design is that the
manufacturer may withdraw the product or discontinue the production of the COTs at any
time if rapid change in technology

This problem adversely affect a commercial manufacturer of the embedded system which
makes use of the specific COTs

Memory:
Memory is an important part of an embedded system. The memory used in embedded
system can be either Program Storage Memory (ROM) or Data memory (RAM)

Certain Embedded processors/controllers contain built in program memory and data

memory and this memory is known as on-chip memory

Certain Embedded processors/controllers do not contain sufficient memory inside the

chip and requires external memory called off-chip memory or external memory.

Memory – Program Storage Memory:

❖ Stores the program instructions

❖ Retains its contents even after the power to it is turned off. It is generally known as Non
volatile storage memory

❖ Depending on the fabrication, erasing and programming techniques they are classified into

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 FLAS H Code Memory NVRAM
(ROM)

PROM Masked ROM

EPROM EEPROM
(OTP) (MROM)

1. Masked ROM (MROM):

One-time programmable memory.

Uses hardwired technology for storing data.

The device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process according to

the data provided by the end user.
The primary advantage of MROM is low cost for high volume production.

MROM is the least expensive type of solid state memory.

Different mechanisms are used for the masking process of the ROM, like
❖ Creation of an enhancement or depletion mode transistor through channel implant

❖ By creating the memory cell either using a standard transistor or a high threshold
transistor.

❖ In the high threshold mode, the supply voltage required to turn ON the transistor is
above the normal ROM IC operating voltage.

❖ This ensures that the transistor is always off and the memory cell stores always logic
0.

The limitation with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to modify the
device firmware against firmware upgrades.

The MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit information

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2. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) / (OTP) :

It is not pre-programmed by the manufacturer

The end user is responsible for Programming these devices.

PROM/OTP has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix, these wires can be
functionally viewed as fuses.

It is programmed by a PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses according to

the bit pattern to be stored.

Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1” where as fuses which are
blown/burned represents a logic “0”.The default state is logic “1”.

OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded systems whose proto-typed
versions are proven and the code is finalized.
It is a low cost solution for commercial production.

OTPs cannot be reprogrammed.

3. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):

Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-program
the same chip.

During development phase , code is subject to continuous changes and using an OTP is
not economical.

EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET

Bit information is stored by using an EPROM Programmer, which applies high voltage to
charge the floating gate

EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information. If the
window is exposed to Ultra violet rays for a fixed duration, the entire memory will be
erased

Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it needs to be

taken out of the circuit board and needs to be put in a UV eraser device for 20 to 30
minutes

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4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):

Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-program
the same chip using electrical signals

The information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using electrical
signals at the register/Byte level

They can be erased and reprogrammed within the circuit

These chips include a chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a few
milliseconds

It provides greater flexibility for system design

The only limitation is their capacity is limited when compared with the standard ROM (A
few kilobytes).

5. Program Storage Memory – FLASH

FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology.

FALSH is the latest ROM technology and is the most popular ROM technology used in
today‟s embedded designs

It combines the re-programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of standard

ROMs

FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages

FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors

The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting the
other sectors or pages

Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming

The typical erasable capacity of FLASH is of the order of a few 1000 cycles.

Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory (RAM)

❖ RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/processor
❖
RAM is volatile, meaning when the power is turned off, all the contents are destroyed

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 ❖ RAM is a direct access memory, meaning we can access the desired memory locatio n
directly without the need for traversing through the entire memory locations to reach the
desired memory position (i.e. Random Access of memory location)

Read/Write
Memory (RAM)

SRAM DRAM NVRAM

1. Static RAM (SRAM):

❖ Static RAM stores data in the form of Voltage.

❖
They are made up of flip-flops

❖ In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using

6 transistors (or 6 MOSFETs).

❖
Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip-flop)
part of the memory cell and 2 for controlling the access.

❖ Static RAM is the fastest form of RAM available.

❖
SRAM is fast in operation due to its resistive networking and switching capabilities

2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

❖ Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge. They are made up of MOS transistor gates

❖ The advantages of DRAM are its high density and low cost compared to
SRAM

❖ The disadvantage is that since the information is stored as charge it

gets leaked off with time and to prevent this they need to be
refreshed periodically

❖ Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the refreshing operation. The refresh
operation is done periodically in milliseconds interval

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SRAM Vs DRAM:

SRAM Cell DRAM Cell

Made up of 6 CMOS transistors (MOSFET) Made up of a MOSFET and a capacitor

Doesn‟t Require refreshing Requires refreshing
Low capacity (Less dense) High Capacity (Highly dense)
More expensive Less Expensive
Fast in operation. Typical access time is 10ns Slow in operation due to refresh
requirements. Typical access time is 60ns.
Write operation is faster than read operation.

3. Non Volatile RAM (NVRAM):

❖ Random access memory with battery backup

❖ It contains Static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply to the
memory in the absence of external power supply

❖ The memory and battery are packed together in a single package

❖ NVRAM is used for the non volatile storage of results of operations or for setting up of flags
etc
❖
The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years
❖
DS1744 from Maxim/Dallas is an example for 32KB NVRAM

Memory selection for Embedded Systems:

• Selection of suitable memory is very much essential step in high performance
applications, because the challenges and limitations of the system performance are often
decided upon the type of memory architecture.

• Systems memory requirement depend primarily on the nature of the application that is
planned to run on the system.

• Memory performance and capacity requirement for low cost systems are small, whereas
memory throughput can be the most critical requirement in a complex, high performance
system.

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• Following are the factors that are to be considered while selecting the memory devices,
➢
Speed
➢
Data storage size and capacity

➢
Bus width

➢
Power consumption

➢
Cost

Embedded system requirements:

❖ Program memory for holding control algorithm or embedded OS and the applications
designed to run on top of OS.
❖ Data memory for holding variables and temporary data during task execution.
❖
Memory for holding non-volatile data which are modifiable by the application.

The memory requirement for an embedded system in terms of RAM (SRAM/DRAM)

and ROM (EEPROM/FLASH/NVRAM) is solely dependent on the type of the embedded
system and applications for which it is designed.

There is no hard and fast rule for calculating the memory requirements.

Lot of factors need to be considered for selecting the type and size of memory for
embedded system.

Example: Design of Embedded based electronic Toy.

SOC or microcontroller can be selected based type(RAM &ROM) and size of on-chip
memory for the design of embedded system.

If on-chip memory is not sufficient then how much external memory need to be
interfaced.

If the ES design is RTOS based ,the RTOS requires certain amount of RAM for its
execution and ROM for storing RTOS Image.

The RTOS suppliers gives amount of run time RAM requirements and program memory
requirements for the RTOS.

Additional memory is required for executing user tasks and user applications.

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On a safer side, always add a buffer value to the total estimated RAM and ROM
requirements.

A smart phone device with windows OS is typical example for embedded device requires
say 512MB RAM and 1GB ROM are minimum requirements for running the mobile
device.

And additional RAM &ROM memory is required for running user applications.

So estimate the memory requirements for install and run the user applications without
facing memory space.

Memory can be selected based on size of the memory ,data bus and address bus size of
the processor/controller.

Memory chips are available in standard sizes like 512 bytes,1KB,2KB ,4KB,8KB,16 KB
….1MB etc.

FLASH memory is the popular choice for ROM in embedded applications .

It is powerful and cost-effective solid state storage technology for mobile electronic
devices and other consumer applications.

Flash memory available in two major variants

1. NAND FLASH 2. NOR FLASH

NAND FLASH is a high density low cost non-volatile storage memory.

NOR FLASH is less dense and slightly expensive but supports Execute in place(XIP).

The XIP technology allows the execution of code memory from ROM itself without the
need for copying it to the RAM.

The EEPROM is available as either serial interface or parallel interface chip.

If the processor/controller of the device supports serial interface and the amount of data
to write and read to and from the device (Serial EEPROM) is less.

The serial EEPROM saves the address space of the total system.

The memory capacity of the serial EEPROM is expressed in bits or Kilobits.

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 Industrial grade memory chips are used in certain embedded devices may be operated at
extreme environmental conditions like high temperature.

Sensors & Actuators:

• Embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world

• Controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded system is achieved in

accordance with the changes happening to the Real World.

• The changes in the system environment or variables are detected by the sensors
connected to the input port of the embedded system.

• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will produce
some changes in controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the desired value.

• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the out port of the embedded system.

Sensor:
A transducer device which converts energy from one form to another for any
measurement or control purpose. Sensors acts as input device

Eg. Hall Effect Sensor which measures the distance between the cushion and magnet in
the Smart Running shoes from adidas

Example: IR, humidity , PIR(passive infra red) , ultrasonic , piezoelectric , smoke

sensors

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Actuator:

A form of transducer device (mechanical or

electrical) which converts signals to
corresponding physical action (motion).
Actuator acts as an output device

Eg. Micro motor actuator which adjusts the

position of the cushioning element in the
Smart Running shoes from adidas

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The I/O Subsystem:

❑
The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the
embedded system with external world

❑ The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the
Input and output ports respectively of the embedded system

❑
The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the Input ports, instead
they may be interfaced through signal conditioning and translating
systems like ADC, Optocouplers etc

1. I/O Devices - Light Emitting Diode (LED):

Vcc
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an output device for visual

R
indication in any embedded system

LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals

or situations.

Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions

GND
like „Device ON‟, „Battery low‟ or „Charging of battery‟ for a
battery operated handheld embedded devices

LED is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode and a cathode.

For proper functioning of the LED, the anode of it should be connected to +ve terminal
of the supply voltage and cathode to the –ve terminal of supply voltage

The current flowing through the LED must limited to a value below the maximum current
that it can conduct.

A resister is used in series between the power supply and the resistor to limit the current
through the LED

2. I/O Devices – 7-Segment LED Display

The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric characters

It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form. Out of the 8
LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric characters

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 The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named as
DP

The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters

The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
Common anode and Common cathode

In the Common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected
commonly whereas in the Common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a
common cathode line

Based on the configuration of the 7 – segment LED unit, the LED segment anode or
cathode is connected to the Port of the processor/controller in the order „A‟ segment to
the Least significant port Pin and DP segment to the most significant Port Pin.

The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to the maximum
value supported by the LED display unit

Anode Com mon Cathode LED Display

DP GFEDCB A

DPGF ED C B A
Com mon Anode LED Display Cathode

The typical value for the current falls within the range of 20mA

The current through each segment can be limited by connecting a current limiting resistor
to the anode or cathode of each segment

3. I/O Devices – Optocoupler

Optocoupler is a solid state device to isolate two parts of a circuit.

Optocoupler combines an LED and a photo-transistor in a single housing (package)

27
 In electronic circuits, optocoupler is used for suppressing interference in data
communication, circuit isolation, High voltage separation, simultaneous separation and
intensification signal etc Vcc

LED AT89C51 LED

I/p interface Port Pin
O/p interface
Port Pin
Photo-transistor Photo-transistor

Opto-Coupler Microcontroller Opto-Coupler

IC MCT2M IC MCT2M

Optocouplers can be used in either input circuits or in output circuits

4. I/O Devices – Stepper Motor:

Stepper motor is an electro mechanical device which generates discrete

displacement (motion) in response to dc electrical signals

It differs from the normal dc motor in its operation. The dc motor produces
continuous rotation on applying dc voltage whereas a stepper motor produces discrete
rotation in response to the dc voltage applied to it

Stepper motors are widely used in industrial embedded

applications, consumer electronic products and robotics
control systems A
GND

M
The paper feed mechanism of a printer/fax makes use C
of stepper motors for its functioning.

Based on the coil winding arrangements, a two phase

B D
stepper motor is classified into
GND

✓
Unipolar
✓
Bipolar

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 ❖ Unipolar: A unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per phase. The direction of
rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise) of a stepper motor is controlled by changing the
direction of current flow. Current in one direction flows through one coil and in the
opposite direction flows through the other coil. It is easy to shift the direction of rotation
by just switching the terminals to which the coils are connected

❖ Bipolar: A bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per phase. For reversing the
motor rotation the current flow through the windings is reversed dynamically. It requires
complex circuitry for current flow reversal

5. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices – Relay:

▪
An electro mechanical device which acts as dynamic path selectors for signals and power.

▪
The „Relay‟ unit contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a metal
armature with one or more contacts.
▪
„Relay‟ works on electromagnetic principle.

▪
When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which in turn
generates a magnetic field.
CoilR

Relay
Coil
elay

o
el
R
l
i

C
y
a

Single Pole Single Single Pole Single Single Pole Double

Throw Normally Throw Normally Throw
Open Closed
▪
The magnetic field attracts the armature core and moves the contact point.
▪
The movement of the contact point changes the power/signal flow path.

▪
The Relay is normally controlled using a relay driver circuit connected to the port pin of the
processor/controller

▪
A transistor can be used as the relay driver. The transistor can be selected depending on the
relay driving current requirements.
6. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices -Piezo Buzzer:

• It is a piezoelectric device for generating audio indications in embedded applications.

• A Piezo buzzer contains a piezoelectric diaphragm which produces audible sound in

response to the voltage applied to it.

• Piezoelectric buzzers are available in two types

[Link]-driving [Link] driving

• Self-driving contains are the necessary components to

generate sound at a predefined tone.

• External driving piezo Buzzers supports the generation of different tones.

• The tone can be varied by applying a variable pulse train to the piezoelectric buzzer.

• A Piezo Buzzer can be directly interfaced to the port pin of the processor/Controller.

6. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices – Push button switch:

▪
Push Button switch is an input device.

▪
Push button switch comes in two configurations, namely „Push to Make‟
and „Push to Break‟

▪
The switch is normally in the open state and it makes a circuit contact when
it is pushed or pressed in the „Push to Make‟ configuration.

▪ In the „P ush to Break‟ configuration, the switch is

normally in the closed state and it breaks the
circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed

▪
The push button stays in the „closed‟ (For Push
to Make type) or „open‟ (For Push to Break
type) state as long as it is kept in the pushed
state and it breaks/makes the circuit connection
when it is released.
▪
Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse

30
31
32
Text Book:-
1. Introduction to Embedded Systems – Shibu K.V Mc Graw Hill

33