MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II)

Gaurav Dwivedi
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus.
 Module 2
Real Vector Spaces and Subspaces
Module 2

1 Vector Spaces
2 Subspaces
3 Linear Span
4 Linear Independence

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 3 / 80

 Introduction to Vector
Spaces

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 4 / 80

What is a Vector space?

A set of pointed arrows?

An ordered list of numbers?

A set of functions?

Or something more abstract?

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 5 / 80

R2
Consider the set of all ordered pair of real numbers is
denoted by R2 i.e. R2 = {(u, v) | u, v 2 R}.
Let us call elements of R2 ‘vectors’ and elements of R
‘scalars’.
Define the operations called vector addition ( ) and
scalar multiplication ( ) as follows:
For every a 2 R and u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2
Vector Addition u v = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
Scalar Multiplication a u=a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 )

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 6 / 80

Properties of and

Let u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 ) and w = (z1 , z2 ) 2 R2 and

a, b 2 R.
P1 u v 2 R2 (Closure Property of addition)
P2 u v = v u (Commutative Property)
P3 (u v) w = u (v w) (Associative Property)
P4 there exists a vector x 2 R2 such that u x = u
(Existence of additive identity (zero vector))
P5 there exists a vector x 2 R2 such that u x = 0
(Existence of additive inverse ( u))

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 7 / 80

Properties of and

P6 a u 2 R2 (Closure Property of scalar

multiplication)
P7 a (u v) = (a u) (a v) (Distributivity over
vector addition)
P8 (a + b) u = (a u) (b u) (Distributivity
over scalar addition)
P9 (ab) u = a (b u)
P10 1 u = u

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 8 / 80

Vector Space: Definition

Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set of objects, together

with two operations
(vector) addition (denoted as ) and
scalar multiplication (denoted as ),
is said to be a (real) vector space (denoted as V (R)) if
for every u, v, w in V (known as vectors) and for every
a, b 2 R (known as scalars), the following properties
hold:

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 9 / 80

 P1: u v 2 V (Closure property of addition)
P2: u v = v u (Commutativity)
P3: (u v) w = u (v w) (Associativity)
P4: There exists an element 0 2 V , called a zero
vector, such that u 0 = u (Existence of additive
identity)
P5: For each u 2 V , there is an element u 2 V such
that u ( u) = 0 (Existence of additive inverse)
P6: a u 2 V (Closed under scalar multiplication)
P7: a (u v) = (a u) (a v) (Distributivity)
P8: (a + b) u = (a u) (b u) (Distributivity)
P9: (ab) u = a (b u)
P10: 1 u = u.
Trivial vector space

Q:⇧ The set V = {0} is a vector space with respect to

1 vector addition 0 0 = 0
2 scalar multiplication a 0 = 0 for all a 2 R

The vector space V = {0} is called the zero (trivial)

vector space.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 11 / 80

Some Results
Let V be a vector space with vector addition and
scalar multiplication .
Theorem
Prove that the identity element for vector addition in V
is unique.

Theorem
For every u 2 V and k 2 R,
1 k 0V = 0V
2 0 u = 0V
3 ( 1) u = u
4 If k u = 0V , then k = 0 or u = 0V .
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 12 / 80
Example
The set R+ of a positive real numbers form a vector
space with respect to the following operations:
u v = u · v (vector addition)
a u = ua (scalar multiplication)
for all a 2 R and u, v 2 R+ .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 13 / 80

Solution
(1) Since u, v 2 R+ , then u v = u · v 2 R+ . Thus,
R+ is closed with respect to .
(2) Let u, v 2 R+ . Then
u v =u·v
= v · u multilication is commutative in R+
=v u
(3) For u, v, w 2 R+ , we have
u (v w) = u (v · w)
= u · (v · w)
= (u · v) · w multiplication is associative
= (u v) · w = (u v) w
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 14 / 80
Continued
(4) Since 1 2 R+ and u 1 = u · 1 = u. Thus,
0R+ = 1 2 R+ is the additive identity in R+ .
(5) The additive inverse of v 2 R+ is v1 2 R+ because
v v1 = v · v1 = 1 (identity).
(6) For u 2 R+ , a u = ua is a positive real number.
Thus, a u 2 R+ .
(7) Here, we have
a (u v) = a (u · v)
= (u · v)a
= ua · v a
= (a u) · (a v)
= (a u) (a v).
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 15 / 80
Continued
(8) Here, we have
(a + b) u = ua+b
= ua · ub
= (a u) · (b u)
= (a u) (b u).
(9). Here, we have
(ab) u = uab
a
= ub
= (b u)a
= a (b u).
(10) 1 u = u1 = u.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 16 / 80
Example

We have already verified that

R2 = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 , x2 2 R} is a vector space with
respect to the following vector addition and scalar
multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 )
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 17 / 80

Example

The set R of real numbers is a vector space with respect

to the following operations:
u v = u + v (vector addition)
a u = au (scalar multiplication)
for all a, u, v 2 R.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 18 / 80

Example
Consider the set

Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : xi 2 R}.

For any u, v 2 Rn and a 2 R, define

u v = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn )
= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn )
a u = (ax1 , ax2 , . . . , axn ).

Then Rn is a vector space with respect to and .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 19 / 80
Exercises
1 Does R2 form a vector space under the above
defined vector addition and the following scalar
multiplication

a (x1 , x2 ) = (0, ax2 )

for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ) 2 R2 . If not, then which

properties are not satisfied?
2 Does the set R+ of positive real numbers form a
vector space under the usual addition and scalar
multiplication? If not, then which properties are not
satisfied?
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 20 / 80
Exercise
Consider the set R2 = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 , x2 2 R} with
respect to the following vector addition and scalar
multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 1, x2 + y2 1)
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 , ax2 )
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .
i. Compute zero vector and additive inverse.
ii. Prove or disprove: R2 is a vector space for defined
vector addition and scalar multiplication.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 21 / 80

Exercise
Consider the set R2 = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 , x2 2 R} with
respect to the following vector addition and scalar
multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 2, x2 + y2 + 3)
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 2a + 2, ax2 + 3a 3)
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .
i. Compute zero vector and additive inverse.
ii. Prove or disprove: R2 is a vector space for defined
vector addition and scalar multiplication.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 22 / 80

Exercise

Prove or disprove: The set R2 = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 , x2 2 R}

is a vector space with respect to the following vector
addition and scalar multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 2, x2 + y2 + 3)
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 2a + 2, ax2 + 3a 3)
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .
What is additive identity, (zero vector), and the additive
inverse of each vector (x1 , x2 ) in V ?

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 23 / 80

Exercise

Show that V = R2 be a vector space with respect to the

following vector addition and scalar multiplication :

(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 + 4, x2 + y2 5)

a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 + 4a 4, ax2 5a + 5)

for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 .
What is the additive identity (zero vector), and the
additive inverse of each vector (x1 , x2 ) in V ?

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 24 / 80

Exercise

Let V = {(x1 , x2 ) : x1 , x2 2 R}. Define vector addition

and scalar multiplication as follows:

(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )

(
(0, 0) if a = 0
a (x1 , x2 ) =
ax1 , xa2 if a 6= 0
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 V . Prove or
disprove that X is a vector space.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 25 / 80

Vector space of Matrices

The set
Mmn = {[aij ]m⇥n | aij 2 R}
of all m ⇥ n matrices with real entries is a vector space
with respect to the following operations:
[aij ]m⇥n [bij ]m⇥n = [aij + bij ]m⇥n (vector addition)

a [aij ]m⇥n = [aaij ]m⇥n (scalar multiplication)

for all a 2 R and [aij ]m⇥n , [bij ]m⇥n 2 Mmn .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 26 / 80

Vector space of functions
Let F ( 1, 1) = {f | f : ( 1, 1) ! R} be the set of
real-valued functions defined on ( 1, 1). For any
f, g 2 F ( 1, 1) and a 2 R, define

f g = f + g (vector addition),

where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) for all x 2 ( 1, 1)

and a f = af (scalar multiplication),

where (af )(x) = af (x) for all x 2 ( 1, 1).

Then F ( 1, 1) is a vector space with respect to above
defined operations.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 27 / 80
Questions

Q:⇧ Check if the following sets form a vector space?

i. The set of all 2 ⇥ 2 invertible matrices with the
standard matrix addition and scalar multiplication.
ii. The set of real numbers with usual scalar
multiplication but with addition given as
x y = 2(x + y).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 28 / 80

Definition: Subspaces
Let V be a vector space with vector addition and
scalar multiplication .
A nonempty subset W of V is said to be a subspace of
V if W is itself a vector space with respect to the same
operations and .

Note that every vector space V has at least two

subspaces: {0} and V itself. The subspace {0} is known
as zero (trivial) subspace.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 29 / 80

Some Results

Theorem. A nonempty subset W of a vector space V

is a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions
hold:
1 If u and v are vectors in W, then u + v is in W .
2 If k is a scalar and u is a vector in W , then ku is in
W.
Remark. If W is a subspace of a vector space V , then
0 2 W.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 30 / 80

Questions

1. Is
W = (x, y) 2 R2 | y = 0
a subspace of R2 ?
2. Is
W = (x, y) 2 R2 | x 6= y
a subspace of R2 ?

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 31 / 80

Examples
Examine whether the following sets are subspaces of the
vector space R3 .
1 W1 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x + y + z = 0 ? Yes
2 W2 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x > 0 ? No
3 W3 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x = y 2 ? No
4 W4 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x + y + z = 2 ? No
5 W5 = (x, y, z) 2 R3 | x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 ? No

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 32 / 80

Examples
Examine whether the following sets are subspaces of the
vector space M22 .
1 W1 = {A 2 M22 | A is singular}? No
2 W2 = {A 2 M22 | A is nonsingular}? No
3 W3 = {A 2 M22 | A is in RREF}? No
4 W4 = {A 2 M22 | A is symmetric}? Yes
5 W5 = A 2 M22 | A2 = A ? No

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 33 / 80

Examples
Examine whether the following sets are subspaces of the
vector space F ( 1, 1).
1 W1 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f is continuous}. This
subspace is denoted by C( 1, 1)? Yes
2 W2 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f is discontinuous}? No
3 W3 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f (1) = 0}? Yes
4 W4 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f (1) 6= 0}? No
1
5 W5 = f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f 2 = f (1) ? Yes

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 34 / 80

Example
Consider the vector space V = R2 with operations
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 + 1, y1 + y2 2)
↵ (x, y) = (↵x + ↵ 1, ↵y 2↵ + 2).
Examine whether the following sets are subspaces of the
vector space V .
1 The set of (x, y) 2 R2 , lying on the straight line
y = 0. No
2 The set of (x, y) 2 R2 , lying on the straight line
x = 1. Yes
3 The set of (x, y) 2 R2 , lying on the straight line
x + y = 1. Yes
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 35 / 80
Results
Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector space V .
Then
1 W1 \ W2 is a subspace of V .
2 W1 [ W2 is not necessarily a subspace of V .
3 W1 [ W2 is subspace of V if and only if either
W1 ✓ W2 or W2 ✓ W1 .
4 The sum, defined as

W1 + W2 = {w1 + w2 | w1 2 W1 , w2 2 W2 },

is a subspace of V .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 36 / 80

Subspace of polynomials

Recall that a polynomial is a function that can be

expressed in the form
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ,
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are real constants. If an 6= 0, then
we say p(x) is a polynomial of degree n.
We denote by Pn the set of all polynomials of degree less
than or equal to n, i.e.,

Pn = {p 2 F ( 1, 1) : p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn }

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 37 / 80

Subspace of polynomials

Note that for any fixed natural number n, the set Pn of

all polynomials of degree less than or equal to n is a
subspace of F ( 1, 1).

We consider all constants (including 0) to be polynomials

of degree zero.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 38 / 80

Exercise

Prove that the set S = {p(x) 2 P2 |p(0) = p(2)}

forms a subspace of P2 with respect to usual
addition and scalar multiplication of polynomials.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 39 / 80

Exercise
V = R2 be a vector space with respect to the following
vector addition and scalar multiplication :
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 2, x2 + y2 + 3)
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 2a + 2, ax2 + 3a 3)
for all a 2 R and (x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 ) 2 R2 . Which of the
following are subspaces of V :
1 W = {(x, y) 2 R2 : x + y = 0}.
2 W = {(x, y) 2 R2 : x y = 5}.
3 W = {(x, y) 2 R2 : 3x + y = 3}.
4 W = {(x, y) 2 R2 : x = 2}.
Can you identify all possible subspaces of V ?
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 40 / 80
Exercise

Suppose W1 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f is even} and

W2 = {f 2 F ( 1, 1) | f is odd} are subspaces of the
vector space V = F ( 1, 1). Prove that V = W1 + W2
and W1 \ W2 = {0}.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 41 / 80

Exercises

Show that the following sets form vector spaces with

standard operations:

1 W = {(x, y, z) 2 R3 : z = 0}

2 W = {A 2 Mnn : AB = BA for a fixed matrix B}

3 W = {p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 2 P3 :
a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 = 0}

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 42 / 80

 Linear Span

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 43 / 80

Linear Combination
Let V be a vector space and v1 , v2 , . . . , vr 2 V . Then a
vector w 2 V is said to be a linear combination of
v1 , v2 , . . . , vr if

w = k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr ; ki 2 R, 1 6 i 6 r.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 44 / 80

Example

The vector (3, 4) is a linear combination of (1, 0) and

(0, 1) in R2 because

(3, 4) = 3(1, 0) + 4(0, 1)

Question: Can we write (3, 4) as linear combination of

(1, 1) and (1, 2)? Yes, as

(3, 4) = 2(1, 1) + (1, 2).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 45 / 80

Example
Recall that, R2 = {(x1 , x2 ) | x1 , x2 2 R} is a vector
space with operations
(x1 , x2 ) (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 2, x2 + y2 + 3)
a (x1 , x2 ) = (ax1 2a + 2, ax2 + 3a 3)
Q:⇧ Is (1, 10) a linear combination of (2, 3) and (1, 4)?

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 46 / 80

Span of a set
Let S be a nonempty subset of a vector space V . Then
the span of S is the set of all possible (finite) linear
combinations of the vectors in S and it is denoted by
span(S) i.e. if S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk }, then

span(S) = {a1 v1 + · · · + ak vk | ai 2 R, 1 6 i 6 k}

1 For a subset S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} of R2 , we have

span(S) = R2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 47 / 80

Questions

1 Let V = R3 and S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0)}.

1 Find span(S).
2 Do (3, 2, 0) and (2, 5, 1) belong to span(S)?
3 Is span(S) a subspace of R3 ?

2 Let V be a vector space and v1 , v2 2 V. Then show

that W = span{v1 , v2 } is a subspace of V .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 48 / 80

Theorem

Let S be a nonempty subset of a vector space V . Then

1 span(S) is a subspace of V .
2 span(S) is the smallest subspace of V containing S.
3 If S is a subspace, then span(S) = S.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 49 / 80

Question
Determine whether the vectors
v1 = (1, 2, 3), v2 = (2, 0, 0) and v3 = ( 2, 1, 0) span the
vector space R3 .
Solution. Let S = {v1 , v2 , v3 }. Clearly, by definition of
span(S), we have span(S) ✓ R3 . In order to check
span(S) = R3 , we have to check whether R3 is a subset
of span(S) or not.
Let (a, b, c) be an arbitrary element of R3 . We must
check whether (a, b, c) belongs to span(S) or not, i.e.,
whether there exists k1 , k2 , k3 2 R such that

(a, b, c) = k1 (1, 2, 3) + k2 (2, 0, 0) + k3 ( 2, 1, 0)

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 50 / 80

This is equivalent to checking whether the system of
equations 8
>
<k1 + 2k2 2k3 = a
2k1 + k3 =b
>
:3k
1 =c
is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.
Note that the reduced row echelon form of the
augmented matrix
2 3 2 c
3
1 2 2 a 1 0 0 3
42 0 1 b 5 is 40 1 0 a + b 5c 5 .
2 6
3 0 0 c 0 0 1 b 2c3
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 51 / 80
This implies that the coefficient matrix is invertible and
hence the given system is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.
Hence, span(S) = R3 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 52 / 80

Example
Determine whether the vectors v1 = (3, 2, 4),
v2 = ( 3, 1, 0), v3 = (0, 1, 4), and v4 = (0, 2, 8) span
the vector space R3 .
Hint: By a similar argument used in the previous
exercise, one should check whether the system of
equations The system of equations
8
>
<3k1 3k2 =a
2k1 k2 + k3 + 2k4 = b
>
:4k + 4k + 8k
1 3 4 =c

is consistent for any a, b, c 2 R.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 53 / 80
Now, the reduced row echelon form of the augmented
matrix
2 3 2 3
3 3 0 0 a 1 0 1 2 b a3
42 1 1 2 b 5 is 40 1 1 2 b 2a 5.
3
4 0 4 8 c 0 0 0 0 4a 12b + 3c

Since the system is not consistent for all choices of

(a, b, c) 2 R3 , hence, span(S) 6= R3 .
Note that the vector (0, 0, 1) 2 R3 , but it is not in
span(S).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 9, 2024 54 / 78

Theorem
The solution set of a homogeneous linear system Ax = 0
in n unknowns is a subspace of Rn .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 55 / 80

 Introduction to Linear
Independence

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 56 / 80

Linear Independence
If S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } is a nonempty set of vectors in a
vector space V , then the vector equation

k1 v1 + k2 v2 + · · · + kr vr = 0

has atleast one solution, namely

k1 = 0, k2 = 0, . . . , kr = 0.

If this is the only solution, then S is said to be a

linearly independent (LI) set. If there are solutions in
addition to the trivial solution, then S is said to be
linearly dependent (LD) set.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 57 / 80
Example

1 The subset S = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} of R2 is linearly

independent.

2 The subset S = {(1, 2), (5, 10)} of R2 is linearly

dependent.

3 The subset S = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} of R3 is

linearly independent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 58 / 80

 Any subset of V containing 0 2 V is linearly
dependent.
For v 6= 0 in V , the set {v} is linearly independent.
Let S = {v1 , v2 } be a set of nonzero vectors of V .
Then S is linearly dependent if and only if one
vector is a scalar multiple of the other.
Let S be a finite set of nonzero vectors having at
least two elements. Then S is linearly dependent if
and only if some vector in S can be expressed as a
linear combination of the other vectors in S.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 59 / 80

Example

Show that

S = {(3, 1, 1), ( 5, 2, 2), (2, 2, 1)}

is linearly independent subset of R3 .

Solution: Let a, b, c 2 R such that
a(3, 1, 1) + b( 5, 2, 2) + c(2, 2, 1) = 0
(3a, a, a) + ( 5b, 2b, 2b) + (2c, 2c, c) = (0, 0, 0)
(3a 5b + 2c, a 2b + 2c, a + 2b c) = (0, 0, 0)

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 60 / 80

To find a, b, c 2 R, we need to solve the following
homogenous system:

3a 5b + 2c = 0
a 2b + 2c = 0
a + 2b c = 0

To solve above homogenous system, write augmented

matrix 2 3
3 5 2 0
[A 0] = 4 1 2 2 0 5
1 2 1 0

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 61 / 80

reduced row echelon form of [A 0] is
2 3
1 0 0 0
40 1 0 05
0 0 1 0

Thus, we have a = 0, b = 0, c = 0. Hence, S is linearly

independent subset of R3 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 62 / 80

Exercises
For a given vector space V and a given subset S of V ,
check the linear independence of S in the following:
1 V = P2 , S = {(x 2)2 , x2 4x, 12}.
2 V = P2 , S = {1 + x, x + x2 , 1 + x2 }.
3 V = Pn , S = {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn }.
4 V = F ( 1, 1), S = {sin2 x, cos2 x, cos 2x}.
5 V = F ( 1, 1), S = {0, cos4 x, sin2 5x}.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 63 / 80

Exercises
For a given vector space V and a given subset S of V ,
check the linear independence of S in the following:
⇢   
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 V = M22 , S = , , , .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
⇢  
1 1 1 1 2 0
2 V = M22 , S = , , .
0 1 1 0 1 1

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 64 / 80

Example
Consider a vector space R2 with vector addition and
scalar multiplication are defined as

(x, y) (w, z) = (x + w, y + z 1)
and
a (x, y) = (ax, ay a + 1).
Let

S1 = {(0, 0), (1, 0)}, S2 = {(0, 1), (1, 0)}.

Are S1 and S2 linearly independent subsets of R2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 65 / 80

Exercise
Consider a vector space R2 with vector addition and
scalar multiplication are defined as

(x, y) (w, z) = (x + w + 1, y + z 2)
and
a (x, y) = (ax + a 1, ay 2a + 2).
Let
S = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}.
Is S a linearly independent subset of R2 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 66 / 80

Example
Let u, v and w be three linearly independent vectors.
Prove or disprove: u + v, v + w and w + u are linearly
independent.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 67 / 80

 Results related to Linear
Independence

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 68 / 80

Theorem. If S is any subset of Rn containing r distinct
vectors, where r > n, then S is linearly dependent.

Example. Examine the linear independence of a subset

S = {[2, 5, 1], [1, 1, 1], [0, 2, 3], [2, 2, 6]} of R3 .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 69 / 80

 Linear independence of functions

Exercise. Examine the linear independence of the subset

S = {x, sin x} of F ( 1, 1).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 70 / 80

Wronskian
Definition. If f1 = f1 (x), f2 = f2 (x), . . . fn = fn (x) are
functions that are n 1 times di↵erentiable on the
interval ( 1, 1), then the determinant

f1 (x) f2 (x) . . . fn (x)

0
f1 (x) f20 (x) . . . fn0 (x)
W (x) = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
(n 1) (n 1) (n 1)
f1 (x) f2 (x) . . . fn (x)

is called the Wronskian of f1 , f2 , . . . , fn .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 71 / 80

Theorem. If the functions f1 , f2 , . . . , fn have n 1
continuous derivatives on the interval ( 1, 1), and if
the Wronskian of these function is not identically zero on
( 1, 1), then f1 , f2 , . . . , fn are linearly independent.
1 Use the Wronskian to show that the functions x, ex
and e x are linearly independent vectors in
F ( 1, 1).
2 Examine the linear independence of the subset
S = {x, sin x} of F ( 1, 1).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 72 / 80

Exercises
1 If {u, v, w} is a linearly independent set of a vector
space V , then prove or disprove that the set
{u + v, u v, u 2v + w} is a linearly independent
subset of V .

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) MATH F112 (MATHEMATICS-II) February 6, 2024 73 / 80