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Chapter 7: Memory
"People are usually confident about their memory although they
might be inaccurate"
Memory involves:
Taking in inf
Storing
Pulling it out when necessary
1. Encoding
Def: Taking in information and processing them to prepare for storage
Encoding depends on:
Attention
Information processing
3 levels of encoding:
Shallow level: remember physical structure of the word
Intermediate level: remember word sound
Deep level: remember meaning of the word
Chapter 7: Memory 1
When attention is divided (multitasking), how is memory affected?
→ It depends. Sometimes different inf is processed by different parts of brain (that 's
why listening to music doesn't always distract us)
2. Storage
Def: Maintaining inf in memory, the longer the better
We store inf by types:
We tend to remember episodic memory better
Semantic: concerning with meaning of word
We also store inf by frequency of access and meaning
Each concept is a node in the semantic network
Nodes are linked by meaning & relatedness
Storage is enhanced by schema
Schema is a cluster of knowledge occur together
Different from prototype
We remember better when inf fits/ violates schema
Sometimes, we remember in details (photographic mem) → Inefficient
Chapter 7: Memory 2
We forget because:
Time (decay)
Failure in encoding (only encode inf at shallow level)
Failure in retrieval: lack of cues
Competent inf (interference)
3. Retrieval
Def: Pulling out inf to say or to do task
2 types:
Recognition: using cues
Recall: without cues
3 types of memory
Sensory, short-term and long-term mem
Chapter 7: Memory 3
Short-term mem is enhanced by
Chunking: not so useful with long or irregular lists.
Mnemonics /ni'monik/ : aid that enhances recalls
Ex: using mascot, jingle, punchline, ...
Forgetting
Forgetting can reduce competition among memories that can cause confusion
→ Forgetting helped subjects remember the information they needed to
remember
We show dismal memory for meaningless materials
How to improve everyday's memory
Engage in Adequate Rehearsal
Testing forces students to engage in deep processing of the material, as well
as more appropriate encoding
Schedule Distributed Practice and Minimize Interference
The evidence indicates that retention tends to be greater after distributed
practice than after massed practice
Engage in Deep Processing and Organize Information
It is also important to understand that retention tends to be greater when
information is well organized (Einstein & McDaniel, 2004)
Enrich Encoding with Mnemonic Devices
Acrostics and Acronyms
Narrative Methods (entitle with a story)
Critical thinking: Fallibility of Eyewitness Account
Chapter 7: Memory 4
Hindsight bias
Def: tendency to mold interpretation of the past to fit how events actually
turned out
Outcome of the events can bias our interpretation in the past.
Ex: 1 observer was asked to point out the culprit in photos. At first, she was
quite modest to say that the perpetrator wasn't there. After she received 1
compliment, she was more confident.
Contribution of overconfidence
Reason: failure to seek disconfirming evidence (can't think of why their
memories are wrong)
Relation between confidence and accuracy of memories is modest
False memory's reasons
Inaccurate perception (similar to hindsight bias)
Interference
Conflicts between old and new memories
Decays → brain tries to refill with current experiences, knowledge, ...
Emotions: strong emotions can make an experience more memorable, but
can also lead to mistaken or untrustworthy mem.
Mis - inf: correct in get mixed with incorrect inf
Mis - attribution: combine elements of different events into a singular one.
Ex: mix up the details of one story with the details of another
Time 's influence: occur when original mem has passed
Memory and customer experience
Customer's memory enhances positive customer experiences
Memory can fade away quickly
Chapter 7: Memory 5
Memory is multidimensional + rational
Working memory and language: an overview (Alan,
2003)
Language:
If subjects are shown a list of words for immediate recall, they will
subvocalize them and their retention will depend crucially on phonological
characteristics.
If subjects are required to learn the sequence across many trials, they will
remember based on similarity of meaning (Baddeley, 1966b)
Word length also has effect on memory (the longer the word, the less they
can remember)
Children with good immediate verbal memory (phonological memory) are
proved to be better at language learning (Service, 1992)
Other findings:
Subvocalization is helpful in ctrl action
Ex: When driving in unfamiliar route under harsh weather conditions, should
subvocalize number and direction of the next turn
Chapter 7: Memory 6
